Logic | Definition, Types & Examples

What is logic? See the logic definition and examples. Learn about the different types of logic: informal,
formal, symbolic and mathematical. Updated: 11/21/2023

Table of Contents

Logic Definition

Logic Examples and Concepts

Types of Logic

Informal Logic

Formal Logic

Symbolic Logic

Mathematical Logic

Lesson Summary

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Frequently Asked Questions

What is logic in simple words?

Logic is a system of principles that uses reason to determine if a conclusion is true or untrue. A person
using logic will come to a generalized conclusion by looking at the given information and making an
inference based on that data.

What is an example of logic?

Logic uses given information to create an inference. For example, if you came home and found your
leftovers were gone from the fridge and you lived with a roommate, logic would dictate your roommate
ate your food based on the fact no one else should be in the house.

Table of Contents

Logic Definition
Logic Examples and Concepts

Types of Logic

Informal Logic

Formal Logic

Symbolic Logic

Mathematical Logic

Lesson Summary

Show

Logic Definition

There are many types of logic that exist. From formal to symbolic, logic takes on many forms. What is
logic, and is there a logic definition that encompasses them all?

Logic is defined as a system that aims to draw reasonable conclusions based on given information. This
means the goal of logic is to use data to make inferences. For example, if a person walked into a room
and saw children holding markers and then saw marker scribbles all over the walls, logic would dictate
that from the given the information presented, the children drew all over the walls with markers. There
is no direct evidence or confession, but logical principles reveal what is true based on the given
information.

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Logic Examples and Concepts

Since logic is dependent upon reason, emotions are removed from this practice, which means the
concept of logic relies solely on given data and valid correlations based on the governing principles
presented. The goal of logic is to find reasonable conclusions based on the given information, but to
make those conclusions, the person in question must ensure they are making valid arguments.

Valid Argument vs. Invalid Argument

Argumentation is the basis of logic in that it presents a series of statements or premises that help
support an overall claim. These statements create a foundation for a conclusion to be true or false.
There are two types of arguments: valid and invalid.

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Types of Logic

Informal Logic

Formal Logic

Symbolic Logic

Mathematical Logic

Lesson Summary

Video Transcript

What is Logic?
We all know in varying degrees about Mr. Spock from Star Trek. His Vulcan ancestry requires him to
think logically. Logic is a tool to develop reasonable conclusions based on a given set of data. Logic is
free of emotion and deals very specifically with information in its purest form.

There are many subsets in the study of logic including informal logic, formal logic, symbolic logic, and
mathematical logic. We will discuss each type of logic and when it is appropriately used.

Informal Logic

Informal logic is the mode used in everyday reasoning and argument analysis. Informal logic consists of
two types of reasoning: deductive and inductive.

Deductive Reasoning

One type of logical reasoning is deductive. Deductive reasoning uses information from a large set and
applies that information to any member of that set.

For example:

All English professors are boring (major evidence or premise)

Lauren is an English professor (minor evidence or premise)

Therefore, Lauren is boring (conclusion)

The major premise makes a statement concerning members of a profession. The minor premise
identifies a member of that profession. The conclusion declares that since Lauren is a member of a
profession, then she must have the characteristics attributed to the profession as a whole.

Inductive Reasoning

Another type of logical reasoning is inductive. Inductive reasoning uses specific data to form a larger,
generalized conclusion. It is considered the opposite of deductive reasoning.

For example:
Yesterday, you left for work at 7:15 a.m. and arrived at work on time.

Today, you left for work at 7:15 a.m. and arrived at work on time.

Therefore, if you leave at 7:15 a.m., you will always arrive at work on time.

In this example, we have a small set of data (two days of arriving on time), and we have concluded that
this will always be the case.

Problems

You may have noticed some problems with these examples. All English professors are certainly not
boring and traffic patterns are not always the same (especially if you have to drive past a major shopping
area at Christmas time to get to work).

Deductive reasoning only works when both major and minor premises are true. Using words like 'all' will
generally falsify your statement (only one example of the contrary is needed). However, if you use
words like 'many' or 'some,' it is less likely that your premises will be rejected. So, when using this type
of reasoning, make sure your premises are verifiable.

Inductive reasoning requires lots of data. The more data you present, the easier it is for your reader to
make the necessary leap to your conclusion. The more data, the shorter the leap. Two data points
regarding driving time are not enough. Those days happened to be sunny and clear. There were no
school buses. There were no accidents.

Logical Fallacies

Logical fallacies are incorrectly reasoned facts. There are many logical fallacies, but the more popular
ones are as follows:

Ad Hominem: The literal translation of this term is 'to the person.' This is when we attack people instead
of attacking the argument. Instead of saying that you are stupid for believing that if you leave for work
every day at the same time you will arrive on time, your lack of data should be attacked.
Stereotyping: We use stereotypes all of the time, sometimes without even knowing it. Stating that all
English Professors are boring is a stereotype.

Faulty Sampling: Our argument concerning arriving on time for work uses a faulty sample. We have only
two data points that are not representative of the whole. (Both days were sunny, you didn't have to
shovel your car out of the snow.)

False Dilemma: Oftentimes we oversimplify. A false dilemma implies that there are only two options. For
example, the statement 'You are either with us or against us' is a false dilemma. The third option is
indifference.

Post Hoc/Ergo Propter Hoc: The Latin translation is 'It happened before this, therefore it happened
because of this.' Statements like, 'Every time I wash my car, it rains,' is committing the post hoc fallacy.

Formal Logic

Formal logic deals with deductive reasoning and the validity of the inferences produced. For an
argument to work, the conclusion must logically follow the premises and the premises must be true. For
example:

Every cat is a mammal.

Some carnivores are cats.

Therefore, some carnivores are mammals.

or

Every college professor must have at least a master's degree.

Some of my friends are college professors.

Therefore, some of my friends have at least a master's degree.

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Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the
study of deductively valid inferences or logical truths. It examines how conclusions follow from premises
due to the structure of arguments alone, independent of their topic and content. Informal logic is
associated with informal fallacies, critical thinking, and argumentation theory. It examines arguments
expressed in natural language while formal logic uses formal language. When used as a countable noun,
the term "a logic" refers to a logical formal system that articulates a proof system. Logic plays a central
role in many fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, and linguistics.

Depiction of inference using modus ponens

Logic studies valid forms of inference like modus ponens.

Logic studies arguments, which consist of a set of premises together with a conclusion. An example is
the argument from the premises "it's Sunday" and "if it's Sunday then I don't have to work" to the
conclusion "I don't have to work".[1] Premises and conclusions express propositions or claims that can
be true or false. An important feature of propositions is their internal structure. For example, complex
propositions are made up of simpler propositions linked by logical vocabulary like

∧{\displaystyle \land } (and) or

→{\displaystyle \to } (if...then). Simple propositions also have parts, like "Sunday" or "work" in the
example. The truth of a proposition usually depends on the meanings of all of its parts. However, this is
not the case for logically true propositions. They are true only because of their logical structure
independent of the specific meanings of the individual parts.

Arguments can be either correct or incorrect. An argument is correct if its premises support its
conclusion. Deductive arguments have the strongest form of support: if their premises are true then
their conclusion must also be true. This is not the case for ampliative arguments, which arrive at
genuinely new information not found in the premises. Many arguments in everyday discourse and the
sciences are ampliative arguments. They are divided into inductive and abductive arguments. Inductive
arguments are statistical generalizations, such as inferring that all ravens are black based on many
individual observations of black ravens.[2] Abductive arguments are inferences to the best explanation,
for example, when a doctor concludes that a patient has a certain disease which explains the symptoms
they suffer.[3] Arguments that fall short of the standards of correct reasoning often embody fallacies.
Systems of logic are theoretical frameworks for assessing the correctness of arguments.

Logic has been studied since antiquity. Early approaches include Aristotelian logic, Stoic logic, Nyaya,
and Mohism. Aristotelian logic focuses on reasoning in the form of syllogisms. It was considered the
main system of logic in the Western world until it was replaced by modern formal logic, which has its
roots in the work of late 19th-century mathematicians such as Gottlob Frege. Today, the most used
system is classical logic. It consists of propositional logic and first-order logic. Propositional logic only
considers logical relations between full propositions. First-order logic also takes the internal parts of
propositions into account, like predicates and quantifiers. Extended logics accept the basic intuitions
behind classical logic and extend it to other fields, such as metaphysics, ethics, and epistemology.
Deviant logics, on the other hand, reject certain classical intuitions and provide alternative explanations
of the basic laws of logic.
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Examples of Logic: 4 Main Types of Reasoning

By Michele Meleen, M.S.Ed. , Staff Editor

UPDATED NOVEMBER 4, 2020

Example of Formal Logic

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In simple words, logic is “the study of correct reasoning, especially regarding making inferences.” Logic
began as a philosophical term and is now used in other disciplines like math and computer science.
While the definition sounds simple enough, understanding logic is a little more complex. Use logic
examples to help you learn to use logic properly.

Definitions of Logic

Logic can include the act of reasoning by humans in order to form thoughts and opinions, as well as
classifications and judgments. Some forms of logic can also be performed by computers and even
animals.

Logic can be defined as:

“The study of truths based completely on the meanings of the terms they contain.”

Logic is a process for making a conclusion and a tool you can use.

The foundation of a logical argument is its proposition, or statement.

The proposition is either accurate (true) or not accurate (false).

Premises are the propositions used to build the argument.

The argument is then built on premises.

Then an inference is made from the premises.

Finally, a conclusion is drawn.

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Definition of Logic in Philosophy

Logic is a branch of philosophy. There are different schools of thought on logic in philosophy, but the
typical version is called classical elementary logic or classical first-order logic. In this discipline,
philosophers try to distinguish good reasoning from bad reasoning.

Definition of Logic in Mathematics

Logic is also an area of mathematics. Mathematical logic uses propositional variables, which are often
letters, to represent propositions.

Types of Logic With Examples

Generally speaking, there are four types of logic.

Informal Logic

Informal logic is what’s typically used in daily reasoning. This is the reasoning and arguments you make
in your personal exchanges with others.

Premises: Nikki saw a black cat on her way to work. At work, Nikki got fired.

Conclusion: Black cats are bad luck.

Explanation: This is a big generalization and can’t be verified.

Premises: There is no evidence that penicillin is bad for you. I use penicillin without any problems.
Conclusion: Penicillin is safe for everyone.

Explanation: The personal experience here or lack of knowledge isn’t verifiable.

Premises: My mom is a celebrity. I live with my mom.

Conclusion: I am a celebrity.

Explanation: There is more to proving fame that assuming it will rub off.

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Formal Logic

In formal logic, you use deductive reasoning and the premises must be true. You follow the premises to
reach a formal conclusion.

Premises: Every person who lives in Quebec lives in Canada. Everyone in Canada lives in North America.

Conclusion: Every person who lives in Quebec lives in North America.

Explanation: Only true facts are presented here.

Premises: All spiders have eight legs. Black Widows are a type of spider.

Conclusion: Black Widows have eight legs.

Explanation: This argument isn’t controversial.

Premises: Bicycles have two wheels. Jan is riding a bicycle.

Conclusion: Jan is riding on two wheels.

Explanation: The premises are true and so is the conclusion.

Symbolic Logic

Symbolic logic deals with how symbols relate to each other. It assigns symbols to verbal reasoning in
order to be able to check the veracity of the statements through a mathematical process. You typically
see this type of logic used in calculus.

Symbolic logic example:

Propositions: If all mammals feed their babies milk from the mother (A). If all cats feed their babies
mother’s milk (B). All cats are mammals(C). The Ʌ means “and,” and the ⇒ symbol means “implies.”

Conclusion: A Ʌ B ⇒ C

Explanation: Proposition A and proposition B lead to the conclusion, C. If all mammals feed their babies
milk from the mother and all cats feed their babies mother’s milk, it implies all cats are mammals.

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Mathematical Logic

In mathematical logic, you apply formal logic to math. This type of logic is part of the basis for the logic
used in computer sciences. Mathematical logic and symbolic logic are often used interchangeably.

Types of Reasoning With Examples

Each type of logic could include deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, or both.
Deductive Reasoning Examples

Deductive reasoning provides complete evidence of the truth of its conclusion. It uses a specific and
accurate premise that leads to a specific and accurate conclusion. With correct premises, the conclusion
to this type of argument is verifiable and correct.

Premises: All squares are rectangles. All rectangles have four sides.

Conclusion: All squares have four sides.

Premises: All people are mortal. You are a person.

Conclusion: You are mortal.

Premises: All trees have trunks. An oak tree is a tree.

Conclusion: The oak tree has a trunk.

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Inductive Logic Examples

Inductive reasoning is "bottom up," meaning that it takes specific information and makes a broad
generalization that is considered probable, allowing for the fact that the conclusion may not be
accurate. This type of reasoning usually involves a rule being established based on a series of repeated
experiences.

Premises: An umbrella prevents you from getting wet in the rain. Ashley took her umbrella, and she did
not get wet.
Conclusion: In this case, you could use inductive reasoning to offer an opinion that it was probably
raining.

Explanation: Your conclusion, however, would not necessarily be accurate because Ashley would have
remained dry whether it rained and she had an umbrella, or it didn't rain at all.

Premises: Every three-year-old you see at the park each afternoon spends most of their time crying and
screaming.

Conclusion: All three-year-olds must spend their afternoon screaming.

Explanation: This would not necessarily be correct, because you haven’t seen every three-year-old in the
world during the afternoon to verify it.

Premises: Twelve out of the 20 houses on the block burned down. Each fire was caused by faulty wiring.

Conclusion: If more than half the homes have faulty wiring, all homes on the block have faulty wiring.

Explanation: You do not know this conclusion to be verifiably true, but it is probable.

Premises: Red lights prevent accidents. Mike did not have an accident while driving today.

Conclusion: Mike must have stopped at a red light.

Explanation: Mike might not have encountered any traffic signals at all. Therefore, he might have been
able to avoid accidents even without stopping at a red light.
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Follow the Logic

As these examples show, you can use logic to solve problems and to draw conclusions. Sometimes those
conclusions are correct conclusions, and sometimes they are inaccurate. When you use deductive
reasoning, you arrive at correct logical arguments while inductive reasoning may or may not provide you
with a correct outcome. Check out examples of logical fallacies to see what incorrect logical reasoning
looks like.