DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

Sub-Topics:
 Principles of data communication and computer networks
 Data communication devices
 Data transmission characteristics
 Types of networks
 Network topologies
 Network and internet protocols
 Benefits and challenges of networks in organizations
 Network security
 Cloud computing concepts, features and models
 Internet of things
 Green computing

Introduction
Data is useful once it has been transferred from the source to the recipient. The transfer of
such data involves various techniques and technology of essence to facilitate fast, efficient
and effective data transfer so that delays and eavesdropping by unintended recipients is
avoided.

Principles of data communication

Data communications
This refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more computers.
Computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows
computers to exchange data. The physical connection between networked computing
devices is established using either cable media or wireless media. The best-known
computer network is the Internet

Data communication systems

These are the electronic systems that transmit data over communication lines from one
location to another. End users need to know the essential parts of communication
technology, including connections, channels, transmission, network architectures and
network types. Communication allows microcomputer users to transmit and receive data
and gain access to electronic resources

Components:
A data communications system has five components
 The physical data communication system consist of the following five main
components
1. Source– creates the data, could be a computer or a telephone
2. Transmitter – encodes the information e.g. modem, network card
3. Transmission system – is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio wave
4. Receiver– decodes the information for the destination e.g. modem, network
card
5. Destination – accepts and uses the incoming information, could be a computer or
telephone
 The following determine successful communication
1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms
of In formation include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents
an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices
may be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot
be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

Data Representation:
Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.

Text:
In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or Is).
Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is
called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding. Today, the
prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or
character used in any language in the world. The American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII), developed some decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the
first 127 characters in Unicode and is also referred to as Basic Latin.

Numbers:
Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to
represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations. Appendix B discusses several different numbering systems.

Images:
Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a
matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel
depends on the resolution. For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000
pixels. In the second case, there is a better representation of the image (better resolution),
but more memory is needed to store the image. After an image is divided into pixels, each
pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and the value of the pattern depend on the image.

Audio
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature
different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a
microphone to change voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal.

Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be
produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images,
each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion. Again we can change video to
a digital or an analog signal.
Communication channels
The transmission media used in communication are called communication channels. Two
ways of connecting microcomputers for communication with each other and with other
equipment is through cable and air.
There are five kinds of communication channels used for cable or air connections:
 Telephone lines
 Coaxial cable
 Fibre-optic cable
 Microwave
 Satellite

Data transmission
Technical matters that affect data transmission include:
 Bandwidth
 Type of transmission
 Direction of data flow
 Mode of transmitting data
 Protocols

Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the bits-per-second (bps) transmission capability of a communication
channel.

There are three types of bandwidth:

 Voice band – bandwidth of standard telephone lines (9.6 to 56 kbps)
 Medium band – bandwidth of special leased lines used (56 to 264,000 kbps)
 Broadband – bandwidth of microwave, satellite, coaxial cable and fiber optic (56 to
30,000,000 kbps).

Types of transmission – serial or parallel

Serial data transmission
In serial transmission, bits flow in a continuous stream. It is the way most data is sent over
telephone lines. It is used by external modems typically connected to a microcomputer
through a serial port. The technical names for such serial ports are RS-232C connector or
asynchronous communications port.
Parallel data transmission
In parallel transmission, bits flow through separate lines simultaneously (at the same
time).
Parallel transmission is typically limited to communications over short distances (not
telephone lines). It is the standard method of sending data from a computer’s CPU to a
printer.

Direction of data transmission

There are three directions or modes of data flow in a data communication system.
 Simplex
  Half-duplex
 Full-duplex

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown

in Figure below

Simplex:
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of
the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see Figure a). Keyboards
and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce
input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of
the channel to send data in one direction.

Half-Duplex:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa The half-duplex
mode is like a one -lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.
When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait. In a half-
duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two
devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both
half-duplex systems.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both
directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each
direction.

Full-Duplex:
In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (see Figure c). The
full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same
time.
In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with
signals going in the other direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link
must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for
receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling in both
directions. One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.
When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the
same time. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is
required all the time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the
two directions.
COMPUTER NETWORKS
A computer network, is a collection of computers and other hardware components
interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and
information
A computer network is an interconnection of computers, printers, scanners and other
hardware devices and software applications.
Networks connect users within a defined physical space (such as within an office building).
The Internet is a network that connects users from all parts of the world. Educational
institutions, government agencies, health care facilities, banking and other financial
institutions, and residential applications use computer networking to send and receive data
and share resources.

Network architecture is a description of how a computer is set-up (configured) and what

strategies are used in the design. The interconnection of PCs over a network is becoming
more important, especially as more hardware is accessed remotely and PCs
intercommunicate with one another

Terms used to describe computer networks

 Node–any device connected to a network such as a computer, printer or data
storage device.
 Client–a node that requests and uses resources available from other nodes.
Typically a microcomputer.
 Server – a node that shares resources with other nodes. May be called a file server,
printer server, communication server, web server or database server.
 Network Operating System (NOS) – the operating system of the network that
controls and coordinates the activities between computers on a network, such as
electronic communication and sharing of information and resources.
 Distributed processing– computing power is located and shared at different
locations. Common in decentralized organizations (each office has its own computer
system but is networked to the main computer).
 Host computer– a large centralized computer, usually a minicomputer or
mainframe.

Uses of computer networks

Communication and Access to Information

A network allows a user to instantly connect with another user, or network, and send and
receive data. It allows remote users to connect with one other via videoconferencing,
virtual meetings and digital emails.
Computer networks provide access to online libraries, journals, electronic newspapers,
chat rooms, social networking websites, email clients and the World Wide Web. Users can
benefit from making online bookings for theaters, restaurants, hotels, trains and airplanes.
They can shop and carry out banking transactions from the comfort of their homes.
Computer networks allow users to access interactive entertainment channels, such as
video on demand, interactive films, interactive and live television, multiperson real-time
games and virtual-reality models.

Resource Sharing
Computer networks allow users to share files and resources. They are popularly used in
organizations to cut costs and streamline resource sharing. A single printer attached to a
small local area network (LAN) can effectively service the printing requests of all computer
users on the same network. Users can similarly share other network hardware devices,
such as modems, fax machines, hard drives and removable storage drives.
Networks allow users to share software applications, programs and files. They can share
documents (such as invoices, spreadsheets and memos), word processing software, videos,
photographs, audio files, project tracking software and other similar programs. Users can
also access, retrieve and save data on the hard drive of the main network server.

Centralized Support and Administration

Computer networking centralizes support, administration and network support tasks.
Technical personnel manage all the nodes of the network, provide assistance, and
troubleshoot network hardware and software errors. Network administrators ensure data
integrity and devise systems to maintain the reliability of information through the network.
They are responsible for providing high-end antivirus, anti-spyware and firewall software
to the network users. Unlike a stand-alone system, a networked computer is fully managed
and administered by a centralized server, which accepts all user requests and services
them as required.

Other uses
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging

Network Services
Computer systems and computerized systems help human beings to work efficiently and
explore the unthinkable. When these devices are connected together to form a network, the
capabilities are enhanced multiple-times. Some basic services computer network can offer
are.
 Directory services
 File services
 Communication services
 Application services
Directory Services
These services are mapping between name and its value, which can be variable value or
fixed. This software system helps to store the information, organize it, and provides various
means of accessing it.

 Accounting
In an organization, a number of users have their user names and passwords mapped
to them. Directory Services provide means of storing this information in cryptic
form and make available when requested.

 Authentication &and Authorization

User credentials are checked to authenticate a user at the time of login and/or
periodically. User accounts can be set into hierarchical structure and their access to
resources can be controlled using authorization schemes.

 Domain Name Services

DNS is widely used and one of the essential services on which internet works. This
system maps IP addresses to domain names, which are easier to remember and
recall than IP addresses. Because network operates with the help of IP addresses
and humans tend to remember website names, the DNS provides website’s IP
address which is mapped to its name from the back-end on the request of a website
name from the user.

File Services
File services include sharing and transferring files over the network.

 File Sharing
One of the reasons which gave birth to networking was file sharing. File sharing
enables its users to share their data with other users. User can upload the file to a
specific server, which is accessible by all intended users. As an alternative, user can
make its file shared on its own computer and provides access to intended users.

 File Transfer
This is an activity to copy or move file from one computer to another computer or to
multiple computers, with help of underlying network. Network enables its user to
locate other users in the network and transfers files.

Communication Services
 Email
Electronic mail is a communication method and something a computer user cannot
work without. This is the basis of today’s internet features. Email system has one or
more email servers. All its users are provided with unique IDs. When a user sends
email to other user, it is actually transferred between users with help of email
server.
  Social Networking
Recent technologies have made technical life social. The computer savvy peoples,
can find other known peoples or friends, can connect with them, and can share
thoughts, pictures, and videos.

 Internet Chat
Internet chat provides instant text transfer services between two hosts. Two or
more people can communicate with each other using text based Internet Relay Chat
services. These days, voice chat and video chat are very common.

 Discussion Boards
Discussion boards provide a mechanism to connect multiple peoples with same
interests. It enables the users to put queries, questions, suggestions etc. which can
be seen by all other users. Other may respond as well.

 Remote Access
This service enables user to access the data residing on the remote computer. This
feature is known as Remote desktop. This can be done via some remote device, e.g.
mobile phone or home computer.

Application Services
These are nothing but providing network based services to the users such as web services,
database managing, and resource sharing.
 Resource Sharing
To use resources efficiently and economically, network provides a mean to share
them. This may include Servers, Printers, and Storage Media etc.
 Databases
This application service is one of the most important services. It stores data and
information, processes it, and enables the users to retrieve it efficiently by using
queries. Databases help organizations to make decisions based on statistics.
 Web Services
World Wide Web has become the synonym for internet. It is used to connect to the
internet, and access files and information services provided by the internet servers.

Terminologies
Physical layer in the OSI model plays the role of interacting with actual hardware and
signaling mechanism. Physical layer is the only layer of OSI network model which actually
deals with the physical connectivity of two different stations. This layer defines the
hardware equipment, cabling, wiring, frequencies, pulses used to represent binary signals
etc.
Physical layer provides its services to Data-link layer. Data-link layer hands over frames to
physical layer. Physical layer converts them to electrical pulses, which represent binary
data. The binary data is then sent over the wired or wireless media.
Signals
When data is sent over physical medium, it needs to be first converted into electromagnetic
signals. Data itself can be analog such as human voice, or digital such as file on the disk.
Both analog and digital data can be represented in digital or analog signals.
 Digital Signals
Digital signals are discrete in nature and represent sequence of voltage pulses.
Digital signals are used within the circuitry of a computer system.
 Analog Signals
Analog signals are in continuous wave form in nature and represented by
continuous electromagnetic waves.

Transmission Impairment
When signals travel through the medium they tend to deteriorate. This may have many
reasons as given:
 Attenuation
For the receiver to interpret the data accurately, the signal must be sufficiently
strong. When the signal passes through the medium, it tends to get weaker. As it
covers distance, it loses strength.
 Dispersion
As signal travels through the media, it tends to spread and overlaps. The amount of
dispersion depends upon the frequency used.
 Delay distortion
Signals are sent over media with pre-defined speed and frequency. If the signal
speed and frequency do not match, there are possibilities that signal reaches
destination in arbitrary fashion. In digital media, this is very critical that some bits
reach earlier than the previously sent ones.
 Noise
Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signal is said to be Noise in
signal, which may distort the actual information being carried. Noise can be
characterized in one of the following class:
o Thermal Noise
Heat agitates the electronic conductors of a medium which may introduce
noise in the media. Up to a certain level, thermal noise is unavoidable.
o Intermodulation
When multiple frequencies share a medium, their interference can cause
noise in the medium. Intermodulation noise occurs if two different
frequencies are sharing a medium and one of them has excessive strength or
the component itself is not functioning properly, then the resultant frequency
may not be delivered as expected.
o Crosstalk
This sort of noise happens when a foreign signal enters into the media. This
is because signal in one medium affects the signal of second medium.
o Impulse
This noise is introduced because of irregular disturbances such as lightening,
electricity, short-circuit, or faulty components. Digital data is mostly affected
by this sort of noise.
Transmission Media
The media over which the information between two computer systems is sent, called
transmission media. Transmission media comes in two forms.
 Guided Media
All communication wires/cables are guided media, such as UTP, coaxial cables, and
fiber Optics. In this media, the sender and receiver are directly connected and the
information is send (guided) through it.
 Unguided Media
Wireless or open air space is said to be unguided media, because there is no
connectivity between the sender and receiver. Information is spread over the air,
and anyone including the actual recipient may collect the information.

Channel Capacity
The speed of transmission of information is said to be the channel capacity. We count it as
data rate in digital world. It depends on numerous factors such as:
 Bandwidth: The physical limitation of underlying media.
 Error-rate: Incorrect reception of information because of noise.
 Encoding: The number of levels used for signaling.

Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique to mix and send multiple data streams over a single medium.
This technique requires system hardware called multiplexer (MUX) for multiplexing the
streams and sending them on a medium, and de-multiplexer (DMUX) which takes
information from the medium and distributes to different destinations.

Switching
Switching is a mechanism by which data/information sent from source towards destination
which are not directly connected. Networks have interconnecting devices, which receives
data from directly connected sources, stores data, analyze it and then forwards to the next
interconnecting device closest to the destination.
Switching can be categorized as:

COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

A network consists of hardware (devices and media) and software (services) and
protocols to facilitate communication

Network Hardware
Network hardware refers to the collection of end devices, intermediary devices and
c o mmu nica t ion media that are used to build a network.

End devices
An end device, also known as a host, refers to a piece of equipment that is either the source
or the destination of a message on a network. It is the interface between the human
user and the network. Each host on a network is identified by an address
They include
  Computers
 Printers
 Servers
 Mobile phones
 PDAs
 etc.

End devices on a typical networks setup

Intermediary devices
Provide connectivity and ensures data flows across the network
Connect individual hosts to the network and can connect multiple individual networks
to form an internetwork
Use the destination host address to determine the path the messages take through the
network.
They include
 Hubs
 Switches
 Repeaters
 Bridges
 Router
 Gateway
 Transceivers
 Transponders

Repeaters]
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise,
regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an
obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most
twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than
100 meters. A repeater with multiple ports is known as a hub. Repeaters work on the
Physical Layer of the OSI model. Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate
the signal. This can cause a propagation delay which can affect network communication
when there are several repeaters in a row. Many network architectures limit the number of
repeaters that can be used in a row (e.g. Ethernet's 5-4-3 rule).
Bridges
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the
OSI model. Bridges broadcast to all ports except the port on which the broadcast was
received. However, bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but
learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge
associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address to that port only.
Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of
frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address
is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first
time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the
frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived.
Bridges come in three basic types:
 Local bridges: Directly connect LANs
 Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between
LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks,
largely have been replaced with routers.
 Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.
Switches
A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams (chunks of
data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in the
packets. A switch is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the ports
involved in the communication rather than all ports connected. A switch breaks the
collision domain but represents itself as a broadcast domain. Switches make forwarding
decisions of frames on the basis of MAC addresses. A switch normally has numerous ports,
facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading additional switches. Some switches
are capable of routing based on Layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels; these are
called multi-layer switches. The term switch is used loosely in marketing to encompass
devices including routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load
or by application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier).

Routers
A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by
processing information found in the datagram or packet (Internet protocol information
from Layer 3 of the OSI Model). In many situations, this information is processed in
conjunction with the routing table (also known as forwarding table). Routers use routing
tables to determine what interface to forward packets (this can include the "null" also
known as the "black hole" interface because data can go into it, however, no further
processing is done for said data).

COMMUNICATION MEDIA
Network media are the channels that provide pathways for messages to move around a
network. Modern networks primarily use three types of media
Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware and associated software
technology that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as
electrical cable optical fiber, and radio waves (wireless LAN).
A well-known family of communication media is collectively known as Ethernet. It is
defined by IEEE 802 and utilizes various standards and media that enable communication
between devices. Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect devices without wiring.
These devices use radio waves or infrared signals as a transmission medium.
a) Guided media (Wired technologies)
b) Unguided media (Wireless technologies)

Wired technologies
The order of the following wired technologies is, roughly, from slowest to fastest
transmission speed.
1. Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for telecommunication.
Twisted-pair cabling consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. Ordinary
telephone wires consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs. Computer
networking cabling (wired Ethernet as defined by IEEE 802.3) consists of 4 pairs of
copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of
two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic
induction. The transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to 10
billion bits per second. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms:
 Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and
 Shielded twisted-pair (STP).
Each form comes in several category ratings, designed for use in various scenarios.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

UTP stands for Unshielded Twisted Pair cable. UTP cable is a 100 ohm copper cable that
consists of 2 to 1800 unshielded twisted pairs surrounded by an outer jacket. They have no
metallic shield. This makes the cable small in diameter but unprotected against electrical
interference. The twist helps to improve its immunity to electrical noise and EMI.
For horizontal cables, the number of pairs is typically 4 pair as shown below.

Shielded Twisted Pair cable (STP)

This is type of copper telephone wiring in which each of the two copper wires that are
twisted together are coated with an insulating coating that functions as a ground for the
wires. The extra covering in shielded twisted pair wiring protects the transmission line
from electromagnetic interference leaking into or out of the cable. STP cabling often is used
in Ethernet networks, especially fast data rate Ethernets
 2. Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other work-
sites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire surrounded by
an insulating layer (typically a flexible material with a high dielectric constant), which itself
is surrounded by a conductive layer. The insulation helps minimize interference and
distortion. Transmission speed ranges from 200 million bits per second to more than 500
million bits per second.
Because of its structure, the coax cable is capable of carrying high frequency signals than
that of twisted pair cable. The wrapped structure provides it a good shield against noise
and cross talk. Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450 mbps.
There are three categories of coax cables namely, RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58 (Thin Ethernet),
and RG-11 (Thick Ethernet). RG stands for Radio Government.
Cables are connected using BNC connector and BNC-T. BNC terminator is used to terminate
the wire at the far ends.

3. An optical fiber
Fiber optics is a glass fiber. Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. When light ray hits
at critical angle it tends to refracts at 90 degree. This property has been used in fiber optic.
The core of fiber optic cable is made of high quality glass or plastic. From one end of it light
is emitted, it travels through it and at the other end light detector detects light stream and
converts it to electric data.
Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed. It comes in two modes, one is single mode
fiber and second is multimode fiber. Single mode fiber can carry a single ray of light
whereas multimode is capable of carrying multiple beams of light.
Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are
 less transmission loss,
 immunity from electromagnetic radiation, and
 Very fast transmission speed, up to trillions of bits per second.
One can use different colors of lights to increase the number of messages being sent over a
fiber optic cable.
Fiber Optic also comes in unidirectional and bidirectional capabilities. To connect and
access fiber optic special type of connectors are used. These can be Subscriber Channel
(SC), Straight Tip (ST), or MT-RJ.

Wireless Technologies
Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no
physical link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly.
Wireless signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate
antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it
converts the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency
range. The receptor on the other end receives these signals and converts them back to
digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

Wireless technologies include

 Radio transmission
 Microwave Transmission
 Infrared Transmission
 Light Transmission
 Terrestrial microwave
 Communications satellites
 Cellular and PCS systems
 Radio and spread spectrum technologies
 A global area network
Radio Transmission
Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate
through walls and structures alike. Radio waves can have wavelength from 1 mm – 100,000
km and have frequency ranging from 3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz
(Extremely High Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub-divided into six bands.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in
straight line and bounce back. The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they
cover long distance. High frequency radio waves have more power.
Wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital
cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum
technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. IEEE
802.11 defines a common flavor of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology
Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000
kilometers, over the earth’s surface.

Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles.
They use Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF
bands are spread upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the
earth.

Microwave Transmission
Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over
them can be sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because
Microwaves travels in straight lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly
in line-of-sight.
Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequency ranging
from 300 MHz to 300 GHz.
Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture
above, multiple antennas can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher
frequencies and do not penetrate wall like obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it
is using.

Infrared Transmission
Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength of
700-nm to 1-mm and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz.
Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as television and
it’s remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of
high frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.

Light Transmission
Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for data transmission is light or
optical signaling. This is achieved by means of LASER.
Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line. Hence the sender
and receiver must be in the line-of-sight. Because laser transmission is unidirectional, at
both ends of communication the laser and the photo-detector needs to be installed. Laser
beam is generally 1mm wide hence it is a work of precision to align two far receptors each
pointing to lasers source.

Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors works as Rx (receiver).

Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally, laser
beam is distorted by wind, atmosphere temperature, or variation in temperature in the
path.
Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to tap 1mm wide laser without
interrupting the communication channel.

Terrestrial microwave
Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based transmitters and receivers
resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low-gigahertz range, which
limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 48 km
(30 mi) apart.

Communications satellites
The satellites communicate via microwave radio waves, which are not deflected by the
Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit
35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of
receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.

Cellular and PCS systems

They use several radio communications technologies. The systems divide the region
covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area has a low-power transmitter or radio
relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area.

Infrared communication
They can transmit signals for small distances, typically no more than 10 meters. In most
cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of
communicating devices.

A global area network (GAN)

This is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs,
satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off
user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this
involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.

Selecting a network media

When selecting which media to use, you need to consider the following factors:
 The distance the media can successfully carry a signal. Each media has a maximum
range (length) over which it can reliably carry data.
 The environment in which the media is installed
 The amount of data and the speed at which it must be transmitted. Different
media have different bandwidths hence carry data at different speeds
 The cost of the media and not cost of installation. Different media have different
purchase prices and requirements for installation

SOFTWARE
The main software used for network management is a (Network Operating System)
Network Operating System
Unlike operating systems, such as Windows, that are designed for single users to control
one computer, network operating systems (NOS) coordinate the activities of multiple
computers across a network. The network operating system acts as a director to keep the
network running smoothly.
The two major types of network operating systems are:
 Peer-to-Peer
  Client/Server
Nearly all modern networks are a combination of both. The networking design can be
considered independent of the servers and workstations that will share it.

Peer-to-Peer
Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share resources and files located on
their computers and to access shared resources found on other computers. However, they
do not have a file server or a centralized management source. In a peer-to-peer network, all
computers are considered equal; they all have the same abilities to use the resources
available on the network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily for small to
medium local area networks. Nearly all modern desktop operating systems, such as
Macintosh OSX, Linux, and Windows, can function as peer-to-peer network operating
systems.

Advantages of a peer-to-peer network:

 Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server.
 Setup - An operating system (such as Windows XP) already in place may only need
to be reconfigured for peer-to-peer operations.

Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network:

 Decentralized - No central repository for files and applications.
 Security - Does not provide the security available on a client/server network.

Client/Server
Client/server network operating systems allow the network to centralize functions and
applications in one or more dedicated file servers. The file servers become the heart of the
system, providing access to resources and security. Individual workstations (clients) have
access to the resources available on the file servers. The network operating system
provides the mechanism to integrate all the components of the network and allow multiple
users to simultaneously share the same resources irrespective of physical location.

Advantages of a client/server network:

 Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
 Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase.
 Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into system.
 Interoperability - All components (client/network/server) work together.
 Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of a client/server network:

 Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated server.
 Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operation.
Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease across the network
Protocols and standards

Protocols
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An
entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities
cannot simply send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For
communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules
that govern data communications. A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics, and timing.
A group of inter-related protocols that are necessary to perform a communication
function is called a protocol suite.
 Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the
first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address
of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
 Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is
a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation?
For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination
of the message?
 Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and
how fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but
the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the
receiver and some data will be lost.
In a data communications network, protocols play the following roles:
 Determine the format or structure of the message, such as how much data to put
into each segment.
 Establish the process by which intermediary devices share information about the
path to the destination.
 Establish the method to handle error and system messages between intermediary
devices.
 Establish the process to setup and terminate communications or data transfers
between hosts.

CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORKS
Networks can be classified by the following
 Size or scale (geographical area/span)
 Network Configuration
 Topology or physical connectivity

Classification of networks by size or scale

Under this scheme, networks are classified as belonging to one of the following classes:-
 LAN-Local Area Network
 WAN-Wide Area Network
  MAN-Metropolitan Area Network
 PAN-Personal Area Network
 CAN- Campus Area Network
 HAN- Home Area Network
 SAN- Storage Area Network

Local Area Network (LAN)

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely
positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node. Current
wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although new standards
like ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing home wires (coaxial
cables, phone lines and power lines).

Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at data transfer rates up to
10 Gbit/s.

Characteristics of LAN
 Higher data transfer rates
 Smaller geographic range
 No need for leased telecommunication lines

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area
such as a country, or spans even intercontinental distances, using a communications
channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves.
A WAN often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone
companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI
reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A Metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city
or a town.

Personal Area Networks (PAN)

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among
computer and different information technological devices close to one person. Some
examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines,
telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and
wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters. A wired PAN is usually
constructed with USB and Firewire connections while technologies such as Bluetooth and
infrared communication typically form a wireless PAN
For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network which may contain up to
8 devices connected together in a master-slave fashion.

Home Area Network (HAN)

A home area network (HAN) is a residential LAN which is used for communication between
digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal
computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important
function is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a cable TV or
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) provider.

Storage Area Network (SAN)

A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated,
block level data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage devices, such as disk
arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the devices
appear like locally attached devices to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own
network of storage devices that are generally not accessible through the local area network
by other devices.

Campus Area Network (CAN)

A campus area network (CAN) is a computer network made up of an interconnection of
LANs within a limited geographical area. The networking equipment (switches, routers)
and transmission media (optical fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling etc.) are almost entirely
owned (by the campus tenant / owner: an enterprise, university, government etc.).
In the case of a university campus-based campus network, the network is likely to link a
variety of campus buildings including, for example, academic colleges or departments, the
university library, and student residence halls.

Backbone network
A backbone network is part of a computer network infrastructure that interconnects
various pieces of network, providing a path for the exchange of information between
different LANs or sub-networks. A backbone can tie together diverse networks in the same
building, in different buildings in a campus environment, or over wide areas. Normally, the
backbone's capacity is greater than that of the networks connected to it.
A large corporation which has many locations may have a backbone network that ties all of
these locations together, for example, if a server cluster needs to be accessed by different
departments of a company which are located at different geographical locations. The
equipment which ties these departments together constitutes the network backbone.
Network performance management including network congestion is critical parameters
taken into account when designing a network backbone.
A specific case of a backbone network is the Internet backbone, which is the set of wide-
area network connections and core routers that interconnect all networks connected to the
Internet.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the links between
nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the
Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network
are said to be tunneled through the larger network when this is the case. One common
application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have
explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example,
can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying
network with strong security features.
VPN may have best-effort performance, or may have a defined service level agreement
(SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a
topology more complex than point-to-point.

Intranets
Intranets are in-house, tailor-made networks for use within the organization and provide
limited access (if any) to outside services and also limit the external traffic (if any) into the
intranet.
An intranet might have access to the Internet but there will be no access from the Internet
to the organization’s intranet.
Organizations which have a requirement for sharing and distributing electronic
information normally have three choices:
- Use a proprietary groupware package such as Lotus Notes
- Set up an Intranet
- Set up a connection to the Internet
STUDY TEXT
Groupware packages normally replicate data locally on a computer whereas Intranets
centralize their information on central servers which are then accessed by a single browser
package. The stored data is normally open and can be viewed by any compatible WWW
browser. Intranet browsers have the great advantage over groupware packages in that
they are available for a variety of clients, such as PCs, Macs, UNIX workstations and so on. A
client browser also provides a single GUI interface, which offers easy integration with other
applications such as electronic mail, images, audio, video, animation and so on.

The main elements of an Intranet are:

• Intranet server hardware
• Intranet server software
• TCP/IP stack software on the clients and servers
• WWW browsers
• A firewall

Other properties defining an Intranet are:

• Intranets use browsers, websites, and web pages to resemble the Internet within the
business.
• They typically provide internal e-mail, mailing lists, newsgroups and FTP services
• These services are accessible only to those within the organization

Extranets
Extranets (external Intranets) allow two or more companies to share parts of their
Intranets related to joint projects. For example, two companies may be working on a
common project, an
Extranet would allow them to share files related with the project.
• Extranets allow other organizations, such as suppliers, limited access to the
organization’s network.
• The purpose of the extranet is to increase efficiency within the business and to
reduce costs
Classification of networks by network configuration
Under this scheme networks can also be categorized either as
 Client / Server OR
 Peer to Peer (P2PN)

Peer to Peer networks

 Nodes provide and request services-A node typically is a computer on the network.
 User in each node administers resources
 Cheap to implement
 Easy to setup
 Very weak security
 Additional load on nodes
 Most operating systems can support peer to peer networks

Client-Server networks
 Typically consists of a designated computer to administer the network
 Nodes are called clients
 Servers are used to control access
 Resources centralized on dedicated servers, from which clients get services on
request
 Nodes and servers share data roles
 Supports larger networks
 Strong security
 Expensive
 Access to data controlled by server
 Uses a Network operating system

Classification of Networks by Topology

Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a
computer. Essentially, it is the topological structure of a network, and may be depicted
physically or logically.
Physical topology refers to the placement of the network's various components, including
device location and cable installation, while
Logical topology shows how data flows within a network, regardless of its physical design.
Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal
types may differ between two networks, yet their topologies may be identical.

Typical topologies include:

 Bus
 Star
 Ring
 Mesh
 Hybrid
A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other
nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node - a ring. Data
travels from node to node, with each node along the way handling every packet.

Advantages
 Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit
 Performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load
 Does not require a central node to manage the connectivity between the computers
 Due to the point to point line configuration of devices with a device on either side
each device is connected to its immediate neighbor, it is quite easy to install and
reconfigure since adding or removing a device requires moving just two
connections.
 Point to point line configuration makes it easy to identify and isolate faults.
Disadvantages
 One malfunctioning workstation can create problems for the entire network. This
can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch that closes off the break.
 Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network
 Communication delay is directly proportional to number of nodes in the network
 Bandwidth is shared on all links between devices
 More difficult to configure than a Star: node adjunction ⇨ Ring shutdown and
reconfiguration

Mesh networking (topology) is a type of networking where each node must not only
capture and disseminate its own data, but also serve as a relay for other nodes, that is, it
must collaborate to propagate the data in the network.
A mesh network can be designed using a flooding technique or a routing technique. When
using a routing technique, the message propagates along a path, by hopping from node to
node until the destination is reached. To ensure all its paths' availability, a routing network
must allow for continuous connections and reconfiguration around broken or blocked
paths, using self-healing algorithms
Advantages
 Point to point line configuration makes identification and isolation of faults easy.
 Messages travel through a dedicated line meaning that only the intended recipient
receives the message: privacy and security is thus ensured,
 In the case of a fault in one link, only the communication between the two devices
sharing the link is affected.
 The use of dedicated links ensures that each connection carries its own data load
thus ridding of traffic problems that would have been encountered if a
connection/link was shared.

Disadvantages
 If the network covers a great area, huge investments may be required due to the
amount of cabling and ports required for input and output devices. It is a rare choice
of a network connection due to the costs involved.

Star topology
Star networks are one of the most common computer network topologies. In its simplest
form, a star network consists of one central switch, hub or computer, which acts as a
conduit to transmit messages. This consists of a central node, to which all other nodes are
connected; this central node provides a common connection point for all nodes through a
hub. In Star topology every node (computer workstation or any other peripheral) is
connected to central node called hub or switch.
Advantages
 Better performance: star topology prevents the passing of data packets through an
excessive number of nodes. At most, 3 devices and 2 links are involved in any
communication between any two devices. Although this topology places a huge
overhead on the central hub, with adequate capacity, the hub can handle very high
utilization by one device without affecting others.
 Isolation of devices: Each device is inherently isolated by the link that connects it
to the hub. This makes the isolation of individual devices straightforward and
amounts to disconnecting each device from the others. This isolation also prevents
any non-centralized failure from affecting the network.
 Benefits from centralization: As the central hub is the bottleneck, increasing its
capacity, or connecting additional devices to it, increases the size of the network
very easily. Centralization also allows the inspection of traffic through the network.
This facilitates analysis of the traffic and detection of suspicious behavior.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Installation and configuration is easy since every one device only requires a link and
one input/output port to connect it to any other device(s).

Disadvantages
 High dependence of the system on the functioning of the central hub
 Failure of the central hub renders the network inoperable

Bus network topology

A bus network topology is a network architecture in which a set of clients are connected
via a shared communications line, called a bus.
In a computer or on a network, a bus is a transmission path on which signals are dropped
off or picked up at every device attached to the line. Only devices addressed by the signals
pay attention to them; the others discard the signals.
A bus is a network topology or circuit arrangement in which all devices are attached to a
line directly and all signals pass through each of the devices. Each device has a unique
identity and can recognize those signals intended for it.

Advantages (benefits) of Linear Bus Topology

 It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.
 Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other networks.
 Bus topology costs very less.
 Linear Bus network is mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.

Disadvantages (Drawbacks) of Linear Bus Topology

 There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can be connected.
 Dependency on central cable in this topology has its disadvantages. If the main cable
(i.e. bus ) encounters some problem, whole network breaks down.
 Proper termination is required to dump signals. Use of terminators is must.
 It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station.
 Maintenance costs can go higher with time.
 Efficiency of Bus network reduces as the number of devices connected to it
increases.
 It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.
 Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent signal from the
source

Hybrid topology
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.
The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining topologies may
contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain topologies. Most WANs are connected
by means of Dual-Ring topology and networks connected to them are mostly Star topology
networks. Internet is the best example of largest Hybrid topology
NETWORK SWITCHING
Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading towards
the destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a port
or goes out it is called egress. A communication system may include number of switches
and nodes. At broad level, switching can be divided into two major categories:
 Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous
handshaking is required and acknowledgements are optional.
 Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there
is a need to pre-establish circuit along the path between both endpoints. Data is
then forwarded on that circuit. After the transfer is completed, circuits can be kept
for future use or can be turned down immediately.

Circuit Switching
When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication path, it is
called circuit switching. There 'is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travels
and no other data is permitted. In circuit switching, to transfer the data, circuit must be
established so that the data transfer can take place.
Circuits can be permanent or temporary. Applications which use circuit switching may
have to go through three phases:
 Establish a circuit
 Transfer the data
 Disconnect the circuit

Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable
example of circuit switching. Before a user can make a call, a virtual path between caller
and callee is established over the network.

Message Switching
This technique was somewhere in middle of circuit switching and packet switching. In
message switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit and is switching /
transferred in its entirety.
A switch working on message switching, first receives the whole message and buffers it
until there are resources available to transfer it to the next hop. If the next hop is not
having enough resource to accommodate large size message, the message is stored and
switch waits.
This technique was considered substitute to circuit switching. As in circuit switching the
whole path is blocked for two entities only. Message switching is replaced by packet
switching. Message switching has the following drawbacks:
 Every switch in transit path needs enough storage to accommodate entire message.
 Because of store-and-forward technique and waits included until resources are
available, message switching is very slow.
 Message switching was not a solution for streaming media and real-time
applications.

Packet Switching
Shortcomings of message switching gave birth to an idea of packet switching. The entire
message is broken down into smaller chunks called packets. The switching information is
added in the header of each packet and transmitted independently.
It is easier for intermediate networking devices to store small size packets and they do not
take much resources either on carrier path or in the internal memory of switches.

Packet switching enhances line efficiency as packets from multiple applications can be
multiplexed over the carrier. The internet uses packet switching technique. Packet
switching enables the user to differentiate data streams based on priorities. Packets are
stored and forwarded according to their priority to provide quality of service.

ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION

There are many reasons such as noise, cross-talk etc., which may help data to get corrupted
during transmission. The upper layers work on some generalized view of network
architecture and are not aware of actual hardware data processing. Hence, the upper layers
expect error-free transmission between the systems. Most of the applications would not
function expectedly if they receive erroneous data. Applications such as voice and video
may not be that affected and with some errors they may still function well.
Data-link layer uses some error control mechanism to ensure that frames (data bit
streams) are transmitted with certain level of accuracy. But to understand how errors is
controlled, it is essential to know what types of errors may occur.

Types of Errors
There may be three types of errors:
 Single bit error

In a frame, there is only one bit, anywhere though, which is corrupt.

 Multiple bits error

Frame is received with more than one bits in corrupted state.

 Burst error

Frame contains more than1 consecutive bits corrupted.

Error control mechanism may involve two possible ways:
 Error detection
 Error correction

Error Detection
Errors in the received frames are detected by means of Parity Check and Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC). In both cases, few extra bits are sent along with actual data to
confirm that bits received at other end are same as they were sent. If the counter-check at
receiver’ end fails, the bits are considered corrupted.

Parity Check
One extra bit is sent along with the original bits to make number of 1s either even in case of
even parity, or odd in case of odd parity.
The sender while creating a frame counts the number of 1s in it. For example, if even parity
is used and number of 1s is even then one bit with value 0 is added. This way number of 1s
remains even. If the number of 1s is odd, to make it even a bit with value 1 is added.

The receiver simply counts the number of 1s in a frame. If the count of 1s is even and even
parity is used, the frame is considered to be not-corrupted and is accepted. If the count of
1s is odd and odd parity is used, the frame is still not corrupted.
If a single bit flips in transit, the receiver can detect it by counting the number of 1s. But
when more than one bits are erroneous, then it is very hard for the receiver to detect the
error.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
CRC is a different approach to detect if the received frame contains valid data. This
technique involves binary division of the data bits being sent. The divisor is generated
using polynomials. The sender performs a division operation on the bits being sent and
calculates the remainder. Before sending the actual bits, the sender adds the remainder at
the end of the actual bits. Actual data bits plus the remainder is called a codeword. The
sender transmits data bits as codewords.

At the other end, the receiver performs division operation on codewords using the same
CRC divisor. If the remainder contains all zeros the data bits are accepted, otherwise it is
considered as there some data corruption occurred in transit.

Error Correction
In the digital world, error correction can be done in two ways:
 Backward Error Correction When the receiver detects an error in the data
received; it requests back the sender to retransmit the data unit.
 Forward Error Correction When the receiver detects some error in the data
received; it executes error-correcting code, which helps it to auto-recover and to
correct some kinds of errors.
The first one, Backward Error Correction, is simple and can only be efficiently used where
retransmitting is not expensive. For example, fibre optics. But in case of wireless
transmission retransmitting may cost too much. In the latter case, Forward Error
Correction is used.
To correct the error in data frame, the receiver must know exactly which bit in the frame is
corrupted. To locate the bit in error, redundant bits are used as parity bits for error
detection. For example, we take ASCII words (7 bits data), then there could be 8 kind of
information we need: first seven bits to tell us which bit is error and one more bit to tell
that there is no error.

BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES OF NETWORKS IN AN ORGANIZATION

Benefits of Networks in an Organization
Computer networks have highly benefited various fields of educational sectors, business
world and many organizations. They can be seen everywhere they connect people all over
the world.
There are some major advantages which compute networks has provided making the
human life more relaxed and easy. Some of them are listed below
a) Communication
Communication is one of the biggest advantages provided by the computer networks.
Different computer networking technology has improved the way of communications
people from the same or different organization can communicate in the matter of minutes
for collaborating the work activities. In offices and organizations computer networks are
serving as the backbone of the daily communication from top to bottom level of
organization. Different types of software can be installed which are useful for transmitting
messages and emails at fast speed.

b) Data sharing
Another wonderful advantage of computer networks is the data sharing. All the data such
as documents, file, accounts information, reports multimedia etc can be shared with the
help computer networks. Hardware sharing and application sharing is also allowed in
many organizations such as banks and small firms.

c) Instant and multiple accesses

Computer networks are multiply processed. Many of users can access the same information
at the same time. Immediate commands such as printing commands can be made with the
help of computer networks.

d) Video conferencing
Before the arrival of the computer networks there was no concept for the video
conferencing.
LAN and WAN have made it possible for the organizations and business sectors to call the
live video conferencing for important discussions and meetings

e) Internet Service
Computer networks provide internet service over the entire network. Every single
computer attached to the network can experience the high speed internet. Fast processing
and work load distribution

f) Broadcasting
With the help of computer networks news and important messages can be broadcasted just
in the matter of seconds who saves a lot of time and effort of the work.
People, can exchange messages immediately over the network any time or we can say 24
hour.

g) Photographs and large files

Computer network can also be used for sending large data file such as high resolution
photographs over the computer network.

h) Saves Cost
Computer networks save a lot of cost for any organizations in different ways. Building up
links thorough the computer networks immediately transfers files and messages to the
other people which reduced transportation and communication expense. It also raises the
standard of the organization because of the advanced technologies that are used in
networking.

i) Remote access and login

Employees of different or same organization connected by the networks can access the
networks by simply entering the network remote IP or web remote IP. In this the
communication gap which was present before the computer networks no more exist.

j) Flexible
Computer networks are quite flexible all of its topologies and networking strategies
supports addition for extra components and terminals to the network. They are equally fit
for large as well as small organizations.

k) Reliable
Computer networks are reliable when safety of the data is concerned. If one of the attached
system collapse same data can be gathered form another system attached to the same
network.

l) Data transmission
Data is transferred at the fast speed even in the scenarios when one or two terminals
machine fails to work properly. Data transmission in seldom affected in the computer
networks. Almost complete communication can be achieved in critical scenarios too.

m) Provides broader view

For a common man computer networks are an n idea to share their individual views to the
other world.

LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKS IN AN ORGANIZATION

The main disadvantage of networks is that users become dependent upon them.
For example, if a network file server develops a fault, then many users may not be able to
run application programs and get access to shared data. To overcome this, a back-up server
can be switched into action when the main server fails. A fault on a network may also stop
users from being able to access peripherals such as printers and plotters. To minimize this,
a network is normally segmented so that a failure in one part of it does not affect other
parts.
Another major problem with networks is that their efficiency is very dependent on the skill
of the systems manager. A badly managed network may operate less efficiently than non-
networked computers.
Also, a badly run network may allow external users into it with little protection against
them causing damage.
Damage could also be caused by novices causing problems, such as deleting important files.

All these could be summarized as below:

1) If a network file server develops a fault, then users may not be able to run
application programs
2) A fault on the network can cause users to loose data (if the files being worked upon
are not saved)
3) If the network stops operating, then it may not be possible to access various
resources
4) Users work-throughput becomes dependent upon network and the skill of the
systems manager
5) It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers, novices or industrial
espionage
6) Decisions on resource planning tend to become centralized, for example, what word
processor is used, what printers are bought, e.t.c.
7) Networks that have grown with little thought can be inefficient in the long term.
8) As traffic increases on a network, the performance degrades unless it is designed
properly
9) Resources may be located too far away from some users
10)The larger the network becomes, the more difficult it is to manage

CLOUD COMPUTING
Cloud computing is an information technology (IT) paradigm, a model for enabling
ubiquitous access to shared pools of configurable resources (such as computer networks,
servers, storage, applications and services) which can be rapidly provisioned with minimal
management effort, often over the Internet. Cloud computing allows users and enterprises
with various computing capabilities to store and process data either in a privately-owned
cloud, or on a third-party server located in a data center - thus making data-accessing
mechanisms more efficient and reliable. Cloud computing relies on sharing of resources to
achieve coherence and economy of scale, similar to a utility.
Cloud computing allows companies to avoid or minimize up-front IT infrastructure costs.
As well, third-party clouds enable organizations to focus on their core businesses instead of
expending resources on computer infrastructure and maintenance. ]Proponents also claim
that cloud computing allows enterprises to get their applications up and running faster,
with improved manageability and less maintenance, and that it enables IT teams to more
rapidly adjust resources to meet fluctuating and unpredictable business demand. Cloud
providers typically use a "pay-as-you-go" model. This could lead to unexpectedly high
charges if administrators are not familiarized with cloud-pricing models.

Characteristics
Cloud computing exhibits the following key characteristics:
 Agility for organizations may be improved, as cloud computing may increase users'
flexibility with re-provisioning, adding, or expanding technological infrastructure
resources.
 Cost reductions are claimed by cloud providers. A public-cloud delivery model
converts capital expenditures (e.g., buying servers) to operational expenditure. This
purportedly lowers barriers to entry, as infrastructure is typically provided by a
third party and need not be purchased for one-time or infrequent intensive
computing tasks. Pricing on a utility computing basis is "fine-grained", with usage-
based billing options. As well, less in-house IT skills are required for
implementation of projects that use cloud computing. The e-FISCAL project's state-
of-the-art repository contains several articles looking into cost aspects in more
detail, most of them concluding that costs savings depend on the type of activities
supported and the type of infrastructure available in-house.
 Device and location independence enable users to access systems using a web
browser regardless of their location or what device they use (e.g., PC, mobile
phone). As infrastructure is off-site (typically provided by a third-party) and
accessed via the Internet, users can connect to it from anywhere
 Maintenance of cloud computing applications is easier, because they do not need to
be installed on each user's computer and can be accessed from different places (e.g.,
different work locations, while travelling, etc.).
 Multitenancy enables sharing of resources and costs across a large pool of users
thus allowing for:
 Centralization of infrastructure in locations with lower costs (such as real
estate, electricity, etc.)
 Peak-load capacity increases (users need not engineer and pay for the
resources and equipment to meet their highest possible load-levels)
 Utilization and efficiency improvements for systems that are often only 10–
20% utilized.
 Performance is monitored by IT experts from the service provider, and consistent
and loosely coupled architectures are constructed using web services as the system
interface.
 Resource pooling is the provider’s computing resources are commingle to serve
multiple consumers using a multi-tenant model with different physical and virtual
resources dynamically assigned and reassigned according to user demand. There is
a sense of location independence in that the consumer generally have no control or
knowledge over the exact location of the provided resource.
 Productivity may be increased when multiple users can work on the same data
simultaneously, rather than waiting for it to be saved and emailed. Time may be
saved as information does not need to be re-entered when fields are matched, nor
do users need to install application software upgrades to their computer.
 Reliability improves with the use of multiple redundant sites, which makes well-
designed cloud computing suitable for business continuity and disaster recovery.
 Scalability and elasticity via dynamic ("on-demand") provisioning of resources on a
fine-grained, self-service basis in near real-time (Note, the VM startup time varies by
VM type, location, OS and cloud providers), without users having to engineer for
 peak loads. This gives the ability to scale up when the usage need increases or down
if resources are not being used.

Cloud computing benefits

Cloud computing boasts several attractive benefits for businesses and end users. Five of the
main benefits of cloud computing are:
 Self-service provisioning: End users can spin up compute resources for almost any
type of workload on demand. This eliminates the traditional need for IT
administrators to provision and manage compute resources.
 Elasticity: Companies can scale up as computing needs increase and scale down
again as demands decrease. This eliminates the need for massive investments in
local infrastructure, which may or may not remain active.
 Pay per use: Compute resources are measured at a granular level, enabling users to
pay only for the resources and workloads they use.
 Workload resilience: Cloud service providers often implement redundant
resources to ensure resilient storage and to keep users' important workloads
running -- often across multiple global regions.
 Migration flexibility: Organizations can move certain workloads to or from the
cloud -- or to different cloud platforms -- as desired or automatically for better cost
savings or to use new services as they emerge.
 On-demand self-service. A consumer can unilaterally provision computing
capabilities, such as server time and network storage, as needed automatically
without requiring human interaction with each service provider.
 Broad network access. Capabilities are available over the network and accessed
through standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous thin or thick
client platforms (e.g., mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and workstations).
 Measured service. Cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use
by leveraging a metering capability at some level of abstraction appropriate to the
type of service (e.g., storage, processing, bandwidth, and active user accounts).
Resource usage can be monitored, controlled, and reported, providing transparency
for both the provider and consumer of the utilized service.

Cloud computing service models

Software as a Service (SaaS). The capability provided to the consumer is to use the
provider's applications running on a cloud infrastructure. The applications are accessible
from various client devices through either a thin client interface, such as a web browser
(e.g., web-based email), or a program interface. The consumer does not manage or control
the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, storage,
or even individual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited user-
specific application configuration settings.

Platform as a Service (PaaS). The capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto
the cloud infrastructure consumer-created or acquired applications created using
programming languages, libraries, services, and tools supported by the provider. The
consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including
network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but has control over the deployed
applications and possibly configuration settings for the application-hosting environment.

Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS). The capability provided to the consumer is to provision

processing, storage, networks, and other fundamental computing resources where the
consumer is able to deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating
systems and applications. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud
infrastructure but has control over operating systems, storage, and deployed applications;
and possibly limited control of select networking components (e.g., host firewalls).

Security as a service (SECaaS)

Security as a service (SECaaS) is a business model in which a large service provider
integrates their security services into a corporate infrastructure on a subscription basis
more cost effectively than most individuals or corporations can provide on their own, when
total cost of ownership is considered. In this scenario, security is delivered as a service
from the cloud, without requiring on-premises hardware avoiding substantial capital
outlays. These security services often include authentication, anti-virus, anti-
malware/spyware, intrusion detection, and security event management, among others.

Mobile "backend" as a service (MBaaS)

In the mobile "backend" as a service (m) model, also known as backend as a service
(BaaS), web app and mobile app developers are provided with a way to link their
applications to cloud storage and cloud computing services with application programming
interfaces (APIs) exposed to their applications and custom software development kits
(SDKs). Services include user management, push notifications, integration with social
networking services and more. This is a relatively recent model in cloud computing, with
most BaaS startups dating from 2011 or later but trends indicate that these services are
gaining significant mainstream traction with enterprise consumers.

Cloud computing types

Private cloud
Private cloud is cloud infrastructure operated solely for a single organization, whether
managed internally or by a third-party, and hosted either internally or externally.
Undertaking a private cloud project requires significant engagement to virtualize the
business environment, and requires the organization to reevaluate decisions about existing
resources. It can improve business, but every step in the project raises security issues that
must be addressed to prevent serious vulnerabilities.

Public cloud
A cloud is called a "public cloud" when the services are rendered over a network that is
open for public use. Public cloud services may be free. Technically there may be little or no
difference between public and private cloud architecture, however, security consideration
may be substantially different for services (applications, storage, and other resources) that
are made available by a service provider for a public audience and when communication is
effected over a non-trusted network. Generally, public cloud service providers like Amazon
Web Services (AWS), Microsoft and Google own and operate the infrastructure at their data
center and access is generally via the Internet. AWS and Microsoft also offer direct connect
services called "AWS Direct Connect" and "Azure ExpressRoute" respectively, such
connections require customers to purchase or lease a private connection to a peering point
offered by the cloud provider.
Hybrid cloud
Hybrid cloud is a composition of two or more clouds (private, community or public) that
remain distinct entities but are bound together, offering the benefits of multiple
deployment models. Hybrid cloud can also mean the ability to connect collocation,
managed and/or dedicated services with cloud resources. A hybrid cloud service crosses
isolation and provider boundaries so that it can't be simply put in one category of private,
public, or community cloud service. It allows one to extend either the capacity or the
capability of a cloud service, by aggregation, integration or customization with another
cloud service.

Advantages of Cloud Computing

Cost Savings
Perhaps, the most significant cloud computing benefit is in terms of IT cost savings.
Businesses, no matter what their type or size, exist to earn money while keeping capital
and operational expenses to a minimum. With cloud computing, you can save substantial
capital costs with zero in-house server storage and application requirements. The lack of
on-premises infrastructure also removes their associated operational costs in the form of
power, air conditioning and administration costs. You pay for what is used and disengage
whenever you like - there is no invested IT capital to worry about. It’s a common
misconception that only large businesses can afford to use the cloud, when in fact, cloud
services are extremely affordable for smaller businesses.

Reliability
With a managed service platform, cloud computing is much more reliable and consistent
than in-house IT infrastructure. Most providers offer a Service Level Agreement which
guarantees 24/7/365 and 99.99% availability. Your organization can benefit from a
massive pool of redundant IT resources, as well as quick failover mechanism - if a server
fails, hosted applications and services can easily be transited to any of the available servers.

Manageability
Cloud computing provides enhanced and simplified IT management and maintenance
capabilities through central administration of resources, vendor managed infrastructure
and SLA backed agreements. IT infrastructure updates and maintenance are eliminated, as
all resources are maintained by the service provider. You enjoy a simple web-based user
interface for accessing software, applications and services – without the need for
installation - and an SLA ensures the timely and guaranteed delivery, management and
maintenance of your IT services.

Strategic Edge
Ever-increasing computing resources give you a competitive edge over competitors, as the
time you require for IT procurement is virtually nil. Your company can deploy mission
critical applications that deliver significant business benefits, without any upfront costs
 and minimal provisioning time. Cloud computing allows you to forget about technology and
focus on your key business activities and objectives. It can also help you to reduce the time
needed to market newer applications and services.

Disadvantages of Cloud Computing

Downtime
As cloud service providers take care of a number of clients each day, they can become
overwhelmed and may even come up against technical outages. This can lead to your
business processes being temporarily suspended. Additionally, if your internet connection
is offline, you will not be able to access any of your applications, server or data from the
cloud.

Security
Although cloud service providers implement the best security standards and industry
certifications, storing data and important files on external service providers always opens
up risks. Using cloud-powered technologies means you need to provide your service
provider with access to important business data. Meanwhile, being a public service opens
up cloud service providers to security challenges on a routine basis. The ease in procuring
and accessing cloud services can also give nefarious users the ability to scan, identify and
exploit loopholes and vulnerabilities within a system. For instance, in a multi-tenant cloud
architecture where multiple users are hosted on the same server, a hacker might try to
break into the data of other users hosted and stored on the same server. However, such
exploits and loopholes are not likely to surface, and the likelihood of a compromise is not
great.

Vendor Lock-In
Although cloud service providers promise that the cloud will be flexible to use and
integrate, switching cloud services is something that hasn’t yet completely evolved.
Organizations may find it difficult to migrate their services from one vendor to another.
Hosting and integrating current cloud applications on another platform may throw up
interoperability and support issues. For instance, applications developed on Microsoft
Development Framework (.Net) might not work properly on the Linux platform.

Limited Control
Since the cloud infrastructure is entirely owned, managed and monitored by the service
provider, it transfers minimal control over to the customer. The customer can only control
and manage the applications, data and services operated on top of that, not the backend
infrastructure itself. Key administrative tasks such as server shell access, updating and
firmware management may not be passed to the customer or end user.
It is easy to see how the advantages of cloud computing easily outweigh the drawbacks.
Decreased costs, reduced downtime, and less management effort are benefits that speak for
themselves.

The risks of cloud computing

 Environmental security — The concentration of computing resources and users in a
cloud computing environment also represents a concentration of security threats.
 Because of their size and significance, cloud environments are often targeted by virtual
machines and bot malware, brute force attacks, and other attacks.
 Data privacy and security — Hosting confidential data with cloud service providers
involves the transfer of a considerable amount of an organization's control over data
security to the provider. Make sure your vendor understands your organization’s data
privacy and security needs.
 Data availability and business continuity — A major risk to business continuity in the
cloud computing environment is loss of internet connectivity. Ask your cloud provider
what controls are in place to ensure internet connectivity. If a vulnerability is identified,
you may have to terminate all access to the cloud provider until the vulnerability is
rectified. Finally, the seizure of a data-hosting server by law enforcement agencies may
result in the interruption of unrelated services stored on the same machine.
 Record retention requirements — If your business is subject to record retention
requirements, make sure your cloud provider understands what they are and so they
can meet them.
 Disaster recovery — Hosting your computing resources and data at a cloud provider
makes the cloud provider’s disaster recovery capabilities vitally important to your
company’s disaster recovery plans. Know your cloud provider’s disaster recovery
capabilities and ask your provider if they been tested.

GREEN COMPUTING
This is the term used to denote efficient use of resources in computing
It is also known as Green IT
Green Computing is “Where organizations adopt a policy of ensuring that the setup and
operations of Information Technology produces the minimal carbon footprint. Key issues
are energy efficiency in computing and promoting environmentally friendly computer
technologies.

It is” the study and practice of designing, manufacturing, using, and disposing of computers,
servers, and associated subsystems.

Core objectives of Green Computing Strategies:

• Minimizing energy consumption
• Purchasing green energy
• Reducing the paper and other consumables used
• Minimizing equipment disposal requirements
• Reducing travel requirements for employees/customers

Overview of Green Computing:

“Greening” your computing equipment is a low-risk way for your business to not only help
the environment but also reduce costs. It’s also one of the largest growing trends in
business today. “Making a proper decision to go green in the workplace such as offices, not
only improves the net profit of your business, but also reduces your carbon footprint.
Reducing energy usage, which also reduces carbon dioxide emissions and your energy bill,
is the most effective thing you can do.
History:
The term “Green Computing" was probably coined shortly after the ‘ Energy Star’ program
began way back in 1992. One of the first results of green computing was the “Sleep mode”
function of computer monitors. As the concept developed, green computing began to
encompass thin client solutions, energy cost, accounting, virtualization practices, e-Waste,
etc.

Why Go Green?
We go green because of the following
 Climate Change
 Savings
 Reliability of Power
 Computing

Climate Change
First and foremost, conclusive research shows that CO2 and other emissions are causing
global climate and environmental damage. Preserving the planet is a valid goal because it
aims to preserve life. Planets like ours, that supports life, are very rare. None of the planets
in our solar system, or in nearby star systems have m-class planets as we know them.

Savings
Green computing can lead to serious cost savings overtime. Reductions in energy costs
from servers, cooling, and lighting are generating serious savings for many corporations.

Reliability of Power:
As energy demands in the world go up, energy supply is declining or flat. Energy efficient
systems helps ensure healthy power systems. Also, more companies are generating more of
their own electricity, which further motivates them to keep power consumption low.

Computing:
Computing Power Consumption has Reached a Critical Point: Data centers have run out of
usable power and cooling due to high densities.
Approaches to Green Computing:
1. Virtualization:
Computer virtualization is the process of running two or more logical computer
systems on one set of physical hardware.
2. Power Management:
ACPI allows an operating system to directly control the power saving aspects of its
underlying hardware. Power management for computer systems are desired for
many reasons, particularly:
• Prolong battery life for portable and embedded systems.
• Reduce cooling requirements.
• Reduce noise.
• Reduce operating costs for energy and cooling
 3. Power Supply:
Climate savers computing initiative promotes energy saving and reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions by encouraging development and use of more efficient
power supplies.
4. Storage:
There are three routes available, all of which vary in cost, performance, and
capacity. Example, desktop hard drive, Laptop hard drive, Solid state drive. Desktop
Hard Drive Laptop Hard Drive Solid State Drive
5. Video Card:
A fast GPU may be the largest power consumer in a computer. Energy efficient
display options include:
• No video card – use a shared terminal, shared thin client, or desktop sharing
software if display required.
• Use motherboard video output – typically low 3D performance and low power.
• Reuse an older video card that uses little power, many do not require heat sinks
or fans.
•
• Select a GPU based on average wattage or performance per watt.
6. Displays:
LCD monitors typically use a cold-cathode fluorescent bulb to provide light for the
display. Some newer displays use an array of light emitting diodes (LEDs) in place of
the fluorescent bulb, which reduces the amount of electricity used by the display.
LCD monitors uses three times less when active, and ten times less energy when in
sleep mode.CRT Display LCD Display LED Display

7. Materials Recycling:
Parts from outdated systems may be salvaged and recycled through certain retail
outlets and municipal or private recycling.
8. Telecommuting:
Telecommuting technologies implemented in green computing initiatives have
advantages like increased worker satisfaction, reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions related to travel and increased profit margins.

The goals of Green Computing:

• The goal of green computing reduces the use of hazardous materials, maximize
energy efficiency during the product’s lifetime, and promote the recyclability or
biodegradability of defunct products and factory waste.
• To comprehensively and effectively address the environmental impacts of
computing/IT, we must adopt a holistic approach and make the entire IT lifecycle
greener by addressing environmental sustainability along the following four
complementary paths:
• Green Use: Intelligent use of energy and information systems. Reducing the energy
consumption of computers and other information systems as well as using them in
an environmentally sound manner.
• Green Disposal: Reduction of waste, reuse and refurbishment of hardware and
recycling of out of use peripherals and other items. Refurbishing and reusing old
 computers and properly recycling unwanted computers and other electronic
equipment.
• Green Design: Efficient design of data centers and workstations. Designing energy –
efficient and environmentally sound components, computers, servers, cooling
equipment, and data centers.
• Green Manufacturing: Informed purchasing of components, peripherals and
equipment’s manufactured with the environment in mind. Manufacturing electronic
components, computers, and other associated subsystems with minimal impact on
the environment.

Future of Green Computing:

The plan towards green IT should include new electronic products and services with
optimum efficiency and all possible options towards energy savings.
That is enterprise wise companies are laying emphasis on moving towards Eco Friendly
Components in Computers, the use of eco-friendly sustainable components will become the
norm rather than the exception in future

INTERNET OF THINGS
The movement of information in the Internet is achieved via a system of interconnected
computer networks that share data by packet switching using the standardized Internet
Protocol Suite (TCP/IP).

The Internet is a giant worldwide network. The Internet started in 1969 when the United
States government funded a major research project on computer networking called
ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency NETwork). When on the Internet you move
through cyberspace.

Cyberspace is the space of electronic movement of ideas and information.

The web provides a multimedia interface to resources available on the Internet. It is also
known as WWW or World Wide Web. The web was first introduced in 1992 at CERN
(Centre for European Nuclear Research) in Switzerland. Prior to the web, the Internet was
all text with no graphics, animations, sound or video.

Common Internet applications

• Communicating
- Communicating on the Internet includes e-mail, discussion groups
(newsgroups), and chat groups.
- You can use e-mail to send or receive messages to people around the world.
- You can join discussion groups or chat groups on various topics.
• Shopping
- Shopping on the Internet is called e-commerce,
- You can window shop at cyber malls called web storefronts
- You can purchase goods using cheques, credit cards or electronic cash called
electronic payment.
• Researching
 - You can do research on the Internet by visiting virtual libraries and browse
through stacks of books.
- You can read selected items at the virtual libraries and even check out books.
• Entertainment
- There are many entertainment sites on the Internet such as live concerts,
movie previews and book clubs.
- You can also participate in interactive live games on the Internet.

How do you get connected to the Internet?

You get connected to the Internet through a computer. Connection to the Internet is
referred to as access to the Internet. Using a provider is one of the most common ways
users can access the Internet. A provider is also called a host computer and is already
connected to the Internet. A provider provides a path or connection for individuals to
access the Internet.

There are three widely used providers:

a) Colleges and universities – colleges and universities provide free access to the
Internet through their Local Area Networks,
b) Internet Service Providers (ISP) – ISPs offer access to the Internet at a fee. They
are more expensive than online service providers.
c) Online Service Providers – provide access to the Internet and a variety of other
services at a fee. They are the most widely used source for Internet access and less
expensive than ISP.

Connections
There are three types of connections to the Internet through a provider:
• Direct or dedicated
• SLIP and PPP
• Terminal connection

Direct or dedicated
This is the most efficient access method to all functions on the Internet. However, it is
expensive and rarely used by individuals. It is used by many organizations such as colleges,
universities, service providers and corporations.

SLIP and PPP

This type of connection is widely used by end users to connect to the Internet. It is slower
and less convenient than direct connection. However, it provides a high level of service at a
lower cost than direct connection. It uses a high-speed modem and standard telephone line
to connect to a provider that has a direct connection to the Internet. It requires special
software protocol:
SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) or PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol). With this type of
connection, your computer becomes part of a client/server network. It requires special
client software to communicate with server software running on the provider’s computer
and other Internet computers.
Terminal connection
This type of connection also uses a high-speed modem and standard telephone line. Your
computer becomes part of a terminal network with a terminal connection. With this
connection, your computer’s operations are very limited because it only displays
communication that occurs between provider and other computers on the Internet. It is
less expensive than SLIP or PPP but not as fast or convenient.