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Fast food
The relationship of fast food consumption
consumption with
sociodemographic factors, body
mass index and dietary habits
among university students Received 23 January 2022
Revised 14 March 2022
Accepted 31 March 2022
Nurgul Arslan
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences,
Malatya Turgut Özal University, Battalgazi, Turkey, and
lu
Jiyan Aslan Ceylan and Abdulkerim Hatipog
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences,
Mardin Artuklu University, Mardin, Turkey

Abstract
Purpose – University students are one of the vulnerable groups in terms of having nutritional problems due
to their lifestyle and social environment. This study aims to determine the consumption of fast food among
university students and evaluate factors that may impact it, such as sociodemographic factors, body mass
index (BMI) or nutritional habits.
Design/methodology/approach – A cross-sectional study was conducted among a random sample of
184 university students (47.8% men and 52.2% women) with a mean age of 21.1 6 2.0 years. The survey
included students’ sociodemographic characteristics, anthropometric measurements, nutritional habits and
fast-food consumption. Chi-square test, t-test and binary logistic regression analysis were used depending on
the characteristics of the data.
Findings – Results indicated that 39.7% of the students consumed fast food at least once in 15 days and
preferred these foods for taste, workload and social activity. Consumption of fast food occurred at an earlier
age in men (%13.6) and the portions were higher than portions of vegetables (p = 0.001). By using regression
analysis, a statistically significant relationship was found between the frequency of fast-food consumption
and age, gender, economic status, BMI, the amount of vegetables consumed daily and the habit of eating
breakfast (p < 0.05).
Research limitations/implications – It is planned to reach more students in the study. However, due
to the COVID-19 pandemic, transportation to students became difficult or could not be reached.
Originality/value – This study is one of the rare studies examining students’ orientation to fast food. The
number of studies in this field in Turkey is limited.
Keywords Fast food, Food behavior, Food choice, University students
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
Young adults in the 18–25 age group are one of the risky groups in terms of having
nutritional problems. Childhood and adolescence periods have special importance, as it is
Nutrition & Food Science
The authors are grateful to all those who participated in the questionnaire survey and contributed © Emerald Publishing Limited
0034-6659
their valuable thoughts and comments on this study. DOI 10.1108/NFS-01-2022-0003
NFS the period in which a healthy lifestyle and nutritional habits are acquired (Ayhan et al., 2012;
Moy et al., 2009; Pirouznia, 2001). In this period, adoption of an inactive lifestyle away from
physical activity and having wrong eating habits increase the risk of developing chronic
diseases such as obesity, metabolic syndrome, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases in the
adulthood period (Poti et al., 2014). Therefore, eating habits acquired in childhood should
also be protected in adulthood. However, as young adults who have reached university age
have to leave home due to their university education, they become more vulnerable to
external influences and begin to lose the good eating habits they have gained at home
(Ayhan et al., 2012; Moy et al., 2009; Brown et al., 2000). Fast food consumption has become
widespread in the last quarter-century, especially among university students and young
people. Fast food is a common term for a variety of “out-of-home” foods. Western-style fast
food, in particular, tends to be less healthy, as it is richer in energy (fat and sugar) and poorer
in nutrients and dietary fiber than homemade foods. This can lead to “passive
overconsumption” by creating an appetite problem (Whitton et al., 2014; Genena and
Salama, 2017; Janssen et al., 2018). Such consumption style may trigger some chronic
diseases. However, the emergence of many specific health problems such as vitamin A
deficiency, iron deficiency anemia and high body weight can be prevented in healthy-eating
young people (Janssen et al., 2018; Deger et al., 2021; Alsunni and Badar, 2015; Onurlubas,
et al., 2015). One of the unhealthy eating behaviors between university students and young
adults is skipping meals (Ganasegeran et al., 2012; Onurlubas, et al., 2015; Pendergast et al.,
2016). Breakfast is one of the skipped meals (Moy et al., 2009; Osako et al., 2005; Song et al.,
2005; Mullan and Singh, 2010). Those who have breakfast are less likely to over-eat for the
rest of the day. According to the American Heart Association reported in 2017, those who
have breakfast tend to have lower rates of heart disease, high blood pressure and high
cholesterol (Mohiuddin, 2019). Hartman et al. (Hartman et al., 2013) stated that 66%–95% of
higher education students do not consume the recommended amount of more than 5
portions of fruits and vegetables per day. Extensive epidemiological evidence suggests that
inadequate vegetable intake is associated with an increased risk of many chronic/non-
infectious diseases, including heart disease, obesity and some types of cancers (Morgan
et al., 2010). Therefore, encouraging adequate fruit and vegetable intake in young adults can
help prevent the development of some possible diseases in the future.
According to the results of many different studies, such young adults intensely consume
frying-style meals, sometimes every day of the week (Poti et al., 2014; Niba et al., 2017; Yun
et al., 2018; Ahmed et al., 2019; Alrashed et al., 2019; Lim et al., 2017). As is known, the
hydrolysis reactions that occur during frying foods with oil cause an increase in free fatty
acids, reactive oxygen species and trans fatty acids. These foods can cause organ failure and
histopathology changes in different organs such as the heart, intestinal mucosa, liver and
kidney (Amsalu et al., 2020). These frying oils have the potential to alter Aspartate
aminotransferase/Alanine aminotransferases levels in the body. In contrast, acrolein can be
formed with the Maillard reaction during frying foods containing carbohydrates such as
potatoes. Oral intake of acrolein was shown to exacerbate myocardial damage during
ischemic heart attack and was associated with nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity and reduced
life expectancy (Wang et al., 2019). With nutrition education, eating habits can be changed
positively in young adults as well as in other age groups. It was reported that science
students who received nutrition education had less total and saturated fat consumption
(Emrich and Mazier, 2009). Additionally, it was reported that university students who
received nutrition education increased their fruit and vegetable consumption and consumed
less unhealthy fats and cholesterol (Yahia et al., 2016; Matthews et al., 2014). However, it is
known that most of university students have a low nutritional literacy level. In a study
conducted on this subject, it was stated that 71% of newly graduated medical students in Fast food
the USA received insufficient education in nutritional counselling (Monlezun et al., 2015). consumption
Likewise, it was reported that only 31% of college students in Taiwan received nutritional
education. According to different research results, it was determined that university
students had a low level of nutritional literacy (Kalkan, 2019; Makiabadi et al., 2019). The
aim of this study was to determine the consumption of fast food among university students
and evaluate factors that may impact it, such as sociodemographic factors, body mass index
(BMI) or nutritional habits.

Methods
Setting, time and sample selection
This study was a descriptive study conducted and a single-center between March and April
2021, with university students studying in the province of Mardin. A random selection of
184 university students, 88 men (47.8%) and 96 women (52.2%), who agreed to participate in
the study were included in the study. Data were collected online via the information
collection form. Response rate was 36.8%.

Ethical considerations
The ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Mardin Artuklu
University, dated 23.03.2021 and numbered 2021/03. The data of the study were collected in
accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki Criteria.

General plan of the study

Participation in the study was voluntary and anonymous. The aim, plan and reasons for
conducting this study were explained to individuals. Prior to filling out the questionnaire,
the students were given instructions on how to fill out the questionnaire completely and
truthfully. Individuals who voluntarily accepted to participate in the study were included in
the study and online consent was obtained from the individuals for voluntary participation.

Information collection form used in the study

The questionnaire form was developed by the authors based on the studies in the literature.
The data of the study were obtained by information collection form and this consists of four
parts. The first part of the information form consists of the general characteristics of the
individuals, the second part is anthropometric features, the third part is the general eating
habits and the last part is the fast food preferences of the individuals and the factors that can
affect such preferences.

General characteristics of the participants

Information was obtained from individuals who agreed to participate in the study, including
open-ended and multiple-choice questions about their general knowledge (age, gender,
marital status, housing, smoking and alcohol consumption), physical activity status,
average walking distances per day, (activity status, frequency, type).

Anthropometric measurements
Individuals were asked to record their current height and weight measurements online on
the information collection form. BMI was calculated by dividing body mass (in kilograms)
by the square of body height (in meters). BMI value was evaluated as <18.5 “underweight”,
18.5 – 24.9 “healthy weight”, 25.0 – 29.9 “overweight” and 30.0 and above “obesity”.
NFS General eating habits
Nutrition questions were created in accordance with the purpose of the study. In addition to
general eating habits questions, questions about fast food consumption were also asked. In
the section containing the general nutritional habits of the individuals, the following
questions were asked: the number of meals, the status of skipping meals, the reason for
skipping meals, extra salt usage, daily consumption of 300–400 gr vegetables, the cooking
technique preferred while cooking (they were asked to mark more than one option), whether
they consider the food is healthy or not when consuming food, whether they have a snack
before sleeping at night or not.

Fast food and consumption preferences

General fast food habits were questioned along with questions that would affect fast food
consumption. In the last section of the information collection form, the following questions
regarding fast-food consumption of individuals were asked: fast food starting age, the fast
food type they prefer most, the reason for their preference for fast food, the frequency of fast
food consumption, do they find fast-food portions sufficient, how many portions of fast food
does they consume in one meal.

Statistical analysis
The data were analyzed by SPSS software (Statistical Package for Social Sciences 24.0, IBM)
and the results were expressed as means 6 standard deviation (SD) for quantitative
variables and qualitative variables as number and percentage. Chi-square test ( x 2) was
performed between two or more groups specified qualitatively and parametric independent
groups t test was applied for those with normal distribution in two independent groups.
Considering the factors affecting the frequency of fast food consumption, individuals who
consume fast food at least three times a week and at least five times a week were included in
the “frequently” category, individuals who consume fast food once in 15 days and once a
month were included in the category of “rarely” and while performing regression analysis,
the category of “frequently” was kept constant and predictive factors were added to the
analysis. The level of significance was considered as 0.05 and it was stated that the
difference was significant when p < 0.05.

Results
General characteristics of the individuals participating in the study were provided in
Table 1. It was determined that the mean age of women were higher than that of men and
their BMI value was lower. The number of male students with a BMI of 25.00–29.99 kg/m2
(19.3%) was found to be higher than the number of women students (10.4%). When the
family income status of the participants was examined, it was seen that participants with an
income of 2,000 TL and below were the highest among both women (68.8%) and men
(56.8%) students. It was determined that the mean daily walking distance for men was
higher than for women students.
When the general eating habits of the participants by gender were examined in Table 2,
it was seen that the habit of skipping meals was at high levels in both women (76.1%) and
men (73.8%) students and the most skipped meal was the evening meal. It was found that
the salt use habits of the participants were at low levels in both groups, whereas the
vegetable consumption habit was low in both women and men students. It was determined
that men students pay more attention to “healthy food” than women students. The
proportion of participants who received nutrition education was found to be higher in
women (33.4%). It was determined that the habit of snacking before going to sleep at night
General properties Women Men pa
Fast food
consumption
Age (y) (MeanþSD) 21.4 6 2.0 20.8 6 2.1 0.05
BMI (kg/m2) (MeanþSD) 21.2 6 3.0 22.7 6 3.0 0.01
BMI(kg/m2)
18.5-24.99 86 (89.5) 71 (80.6) 0.60
25.00-29.99 10 (10.4) 17 (19.3)
Parent profession (n%)
Unemployed 10 (10.4) 7 (7.9) 0.001*
Worker - tradesman 57 (59.3) 56 (63.6)
Officer 18 (18.7) 15 (17.0)
Retired 11 (11.4) 10 (11.3)
Monthly Income (TL*) (n%)
#2000 66 (68.7) 50 (56.8) 0.51
2001–3000 16 (16.6) 26 (29.5)
3001–4000 9 (9.4) 7 (7.9)
4001 5 (5.2) 5 (5.6)
Daily physical activity status
Mean daily walking distance (km) (n%)
#1 24 (25.0) 4 (4.5) 0.001* Table 1.
1-3 28 (29.1) 30 (34.0)
3-5 18 (18.7) 14 (15.9)
General
5 km 26 (27.1) 40 (45.4) characteristics of
participants
Notes: a: Independent groups t test; b: Chi-square Test ( x 2); * p < 0.05 *TL:Turkish Lira, km:Kilometers according to gender

was higher in women than in men. It was seen that the most preferred cooking technique in
both groups was frying.
Fast food consumption characteristics of participants by gender were given in Table 3. It
was determined that 40.6% of the women and 38.6% of the male consumed fast food at least
once in 15 days, and Lahmacun, hamburger and pizza were the most preferred fast foods.
The reason for consumption of these foods was mostly taste and social activities for women
and it was taste and high workload for men. It was determined that men students consume
more fast food portions on average than women students. While the age of starting fast food
was 12.9 6 3.8 years for men students, it was found to be 14.9 6 3.8 years for women
students. The results of the binary logistic regression analysis of the factors affecting the
fast food consumption frequency of participants were provided in Table 4. The regression
model that emerged as a result of the binary logistic regression analysis applied to
determine the effects of BMI, age, monthly income, gender, nutritional education, daily
consumption of 300–400 gr of vegetables, breakfast habits, eating habits at night, portion
amount of nutrients on the frequency of fast food consumption of students was found to be
statistically significant (Omnibus ( x 2 ) 150.818, p < 0.005, Hosmer and Lemeshow =
p < 0.001). The independent variables of the study describe 71% of the frequency of fast
food consumption of participants. Independent variables of “BMI, age, monthly income,
gender, daily vegetable consumption, regular breakfast habits, night eating habits” were
significant predictors. It is observed that as the BMI value of participants increases their
frequency of fast food consumption increases. Participants have less fast food consumption
frequency with the increase of age. The increase in the income of participants leads to more
fast food consumption frequency. The fact that women students consume less fast food than
men students and that they have a daily vegetable consumption habit indicates that women
NFS Women Men
Dietary habits n (%) n (%) pa

Do you skip meals?

Yes 73 76.1 65 73.8 0.11
No 23 23.9 23 26.1
If “yes”, which meal?
Breakfast 22 22.9 30 34.1 0.001*
Midday 35 36.4 15 17.1
Evening 39 40.6 43 48.9
Do you use salt?
Yes 12 12.5 12 13.6 0.001*
No 48 50.0 52 59.1
Sometimes 36 37.5 24 27.2
Do you consume 300-400 gr of vegetables daily?
Yes 24 25 16 18.2 0.001*
No 72 75 72 81.9
Do you pay attention to the healthy food?
Yes 49 51.1 52 59.1 0.001*
No 47 48.9 36 40.1
Have you received nutrition education?
Yes 32 33.4 20 22.7 0.006*
No 64 66.6 68 77.3
Do you get snack at night before going to sleep?
Yes 68 70.8 65 73.9 0.001*
No 28 29.2 23 26.1
Preferred Cooking Technique (more than one option was marked)
Grill 1 18.9 16 18.2 0.001*
Baking 2 21.9 24 27.3
Table 2. Boiling 49 51.2 42 47.8
General nutritional Frying 96 100 88 100
habits of participants
by gender Notes: a: Chi-square Test ( x 2 ); *: p < 0.05

students consume fast food less frequently. It was observed that participants who have a
regular breakfast habit consume fast food less frequently than those who do not have this
habit. It was observed that participants who find the portion size insufficient consume fast
food more frequently.

Discussion
In this study conducted to evaluate the fast food consumption habits of university students
and the factors affecting them, it was determined that 14.7% of the students were slightly
obese, those who did not receive nutrition education and did not consume 300–400 gr
vegetables per day were found to have a high rate.
Many developing countries are facing a rapid increase in obesity as a result of a dietary
transition where more processed or unhealthy foods containing high amounts of sugar, fat
and salt are consumed (Otterbach et al., 2021). Although most of the research regarding out-
of-home food consumption had been conducted in Australia, the UK and the USA, problems
such as poor dietary habits and the increasing prevalence of non-infectious diseases raise
equally concern for urban centers with developing economies (Janssen et al., 2018). In
 Women Men
Fast food
Fast food consumption n (%) n (%) p consumption
Fast food consumption frequency
At least once a month 27 28.2 24 27.3 0.001*
At least one in 15 days 39 40.6 34 38.6
At least 3 times per week 19 19.8 25 28.4
At least 5 times per week 11 11.5 5 5.6
Most preferred fast food
Hamburger 46 47.9 24 27.3 0.001*
Pizza 12 12.5 16 18.2
Lahmacun 38 39.6 48 54.55
Reason for preference
Cheap 6 6.3 12 13.6 0.001*
Delicious 35 36.5 34 38.6
Social activity 30 31.2 12 13.6
Workload 25 26.0 30 34.2
Do you find the portions adequate?
Yes 79 82.3 57 64.7 0.001*
No 17 17.7 31 35.3
How many portions do you consume?
1 portion 76 79.2 47 53.5 0.001*
2 portions 20 20.8 40 45.5
Table 3.
Fast food starting age Fast food
10 years and under 8 8.3 12 13.6 0.001*
11–15 years 26 27.1 39 44.3
consumption
16 years and older 62 64.6 20 22.7 characteristics of
participants by
Notes: a: Chi-square Test ( x 2 ); *: p <0.05 gender

addition, it is stated that the fast food consumption trend among people has also increased
rapidly in recent years (Jyoti Dowarah et al., 2020). In this study, it was found that the rate of
students whose fast food consumption frequency was at least once in 15 days was the
highest, and Lahmacun, hamburger and pizza were the most preferred foods. The students
stated that they preferred to consume fast food due to taste, workload and social activity
reasons. In many studies conducted with university students in countries such as USA,
Bangladesh, Turkey and India, it was found that the frequency of fast food consumption
was high and these foods were preferred for reasons such as social environment, pleasure,
taste and easy access (McLean-Meyinsse et al., 2015; Banik et al., 2020; Yardimci et al., 2012;
Prabhu, 2015; Shami and Fatima, 2017; Abraham et al., 2018). Considering the results of the
research, it can be said that the prevalence of consuming fast food due to cognitive or
emotional factors is high in both developed and developing countries.
It is stated that there is a relationship between dietary preferences and exposure to
unhealthy food and beverage marketing. One study found that the degree of exposure to
marketing fast food and sugary drinks varies according to socio-demographic factors,
ethnicity and education (Vanderlee et al., 2021). A study conducted by Otterbach et al. (2021)
found that each additional kilometer between supermarket or fast-food shops to the house
where the individuals live, the BMI was reduced by 0.014 kg\m2 and the likelihood of obesity
reduced significantly (Otterbach et al., 2021). Young adults in the 18–25 age group are also at
risk for nutritional problems (Moy et al., 2009). Especially, as they are responsible for their
NFS Fast food consumption frequency
Fixed: often b 6 SE p

Fixed 0.877 6 2.1 0.000

BMI(kg/m2) 0.043 6 0.055 0.032
Age(y) 0.040 6 0.081 0.021
Monthly income(TL) 0.072 6 . 0187 0.003
Gender
Women 0.122 6 0.363 0.037
Have you received nutrition education?
Yes 0.116 6 0.377 0.008
300–400 gr vegetable consumption per day
Yes 0.449 6 0.403 0.006
Do you pay attention to the healthy food?
Yes 0.562 6 0.342 0.001
Table 4. Do you have regular breakfast habit?
The results of the Yes 0.217 6 0.333 0.005
binary logistic Snack before sleeping at night
regression analysis Yes 0.559 6 0.391 0.003
of the factors
Do you find the portions adequate?
affecting the fast Yes 0.366 6 0.403 0.004
food consumption Nagelkerke R2 = 0.716, Omnibus ( x 2 ) 150.818, p < 0.005, Hosmer and Lemeshow = p > 0.005
frequency of
participants Note: BMI: body mass index

daily diet and lifestyle, they are at the risk of developing obesity while their transition to
university life (Newcombe et al., 2012). In this study, it was determined that men started fast
food consumption at an earlier age than women and the average consumption portions and
average BMI values were higher in men. It was determined that the students mostly
preferred frying as the cooking style. Similarly, in other studies, it was found that the
majority of the students preferred to consume fried foods more (Niba et al., 2017; Shami and
Fatima, 2017). In our study, the rates of men who pay attention to healthy food and women
who have the habit of snacking before going to sleep at night were higher. In a study
conducted with 231 students with an average age of 20 years, it was determined that women
had more nutritional knowledge and, as their nutritional knowledge increased, their fat and
cholesterol intake decreased (Yahia et al., 2016). By providing education on healthy cooking
methods to students, healthy eating habits can be gained.
As a result of the binary logistic regression analysis, it was found that as BMI and
monthly income increased, the frequency of fast food consumption increased. It was found
that these foods was consumed less frequently in women who had breakfast regularly,
consume vegetables every day and those who were older. In addition, the frequency of fast
food consumption was higher in individuals who find the portion size insufficient and had
the habit of snacking food and beverage at night. Similar to this study, in another study, it
was found that fast food consumption decreases as individuals get older and the prevalence
of obesity increases in those who consume fast food (Jacob et al., 2020). Consistent with
the results of this study, Whitton et al. (2014) also found that the younger age group and
those with higher incomes have a more regular consumption of fast food, that these
individuals do not meet the recommended consumption of whole grains and fruits and that
their BMIs are high. Whitton et al. (2014) found that the young age group and those with a Fast food
high-income level had more regular fast food consumption; these individuals did not meet consumption
the recommended amount of consuming whole grains and fruits and their BMI was found to
be high, which concur with the results of this study (Whitton et al., 2014). In addition, it can
be said that there are contradictory results in the studies conducted on this subject. While
one study determined that there was no significant relationship between the frequency of
fast food consumption and BMI, another study found that fast food consumption habits
were independent of age and gender (jyoti Dowarah et al., 2020; McLean-Meyinsse et al.,
2015). There are also studies in which fast food consumption habits are associated with the
number of individuals in the family (Nemati et al., 2020), socioeconomic level (Banik et al.,
2020) and health awareness (Yun et al., 2018). It can be said that culture and race are also
important factors in fast food habits. In fact, one study found that Japanese people stay at
fast food restaurants longer than Americans and are more likely to share the fast food they
order with others (Kobayashi, 2012). As a result of the conducted studies, it can be said that
factors such as age, gender, educational status and habits have an effect on the decisions
they make while meeting their nutritional needs and that nutritional education or knowledge
is an important factor in the acquisition of healthy lifestyle behaviors.

Conclusions and recommendations

As a result, in this study, it was determined that demographic characteristics of individuals
such as gender, age, economic status and dietary habits and information such as daily
vegetable consumption, having regular breakfast and having snack at night were effective
on the frequency of consumption of fast food. Although consumption of fast food containing
high amounts of energy, saturated fat, sugar and sodium negatively affects human health
by causing chronic diseases such as obesity and cardiovascular disease in the long term, it
was found that students preferred to consume such foods. There is a need to providing
education on health issues and reducing the consumption of fast food, raising the awareness
of individuals about their nutritional needs, changing their food preferences in a healthy
way and taking appropriate policy measures. The large availability of fast food restaurants
should be prevented and the number of restaurants that promote healthy eating should be
increased, especially in the social areas of university students inside or outside the campus.

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Corresponding author
Nurgul Arslan can be contacted at: [email protected]

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