Module – 5

Airport Engineering

AIRPORT ENGINEERING: Layout of an airport with component parts and functions, Site
selection for airport, Aircraft characteristics affecting the design and planning of airport, Airport
classification, Runway orientation using wind rose with examples.
RUNWAY-Basic runway length-Corrections and examples, Runway geometrics, Taxiway-
Factors affecting the layout - geometrics of taxiway-Comparison between Runway and Highway,
Design of exit taxiway with examples.
Problems on Runway orientation, Basic Runway length, Exit taxiway design.

 Components of Airport
Therefore, the main components of airport are
1. Runway
2. Terminal Building
3. Apron
4. Taxiway
5. Aircraft Stand
6. Hanger
7. Control Tower
8. Parking

Runways: It is the most important part of an airport in the form of paved, long and narrow
rectangular strip which actually used for landing and takeoff operations. It has turfed (grassy)
shoulders on both sides. The width of runway and area of shoulders is called the landing strip.
The runway is located in the centre of landing strip. The length of landing strip is somewhat
larger than the runway strip in order to accommodate the stop way to stop the aircraft in case
of abandoned takeoff.
The length and width of runway should be sufficient to accommodate the aircraft which is
likely to be served by it. The length of runway should be sufficient to accelerate the aircraft to
the point of takeoff and should be enough such that the aircraft clearing the threshold of
runway by 15m should be brought to stop with in the 60% of available runway length. The
length of runway depends on various meteorological and topographical conditions. Transverse
gradients should not be less than 0.5% but should always be greater than 0.5%.
Terminal Buildings: Also known as airport terminal, these buildings are the spaces where
passengers board or alight from flights. These buildings house all the necessary facilities for
passengers to check-in their luggage, clear the customs and have lounges to wait before
disembarking.
The terminals can house cafes, lounges and bars to serve as waiting areas for passengers.
Ticket counters, luggage check-in or transfer, security checks and customs are the basics of
all airport terminals.
Hangers: A hangar is a closed building structure to hold aircraft, spacecraft or tanks in
protective storage. Most hangars are built of metal, but other materials such as wood and
concrete are also used
Hangars are used for protection from the weather, direct sunlight, maintenance, repair,
manufacture, assembly and storage of aircraft on airfields, aircraft carrier.
Aprons: Aircraft aprons are the areas where the aircraft park. Aprons are also sometimes
called ramps. They vary in size, from areas that may hold five or ten small planes, to the very
large areas that the major airports have.
Taxiway: Taxiway is the paved way rigid or flexible which connects runway with loading
apron or service and maintenance hangers or with another runway. They are used for the
movement of aircraft on the airfields for various purposes such as exit or landing, exit for
takeoff etc. The speed of aircraft on taxiway is less than that during taking off or landing
speed.
The taxiway should be laid on such a manner to provide the shortest possible path and to
prevent the interference of landed aircraft taxying towards loading apron and the taxiing
aircraft running towards the runway. The intersection of runway and taxiway should be given
proper attention because during turning operation, this part comes under intense loading. If it is
weaker then the aero plane may fell down from taxiway. Its longitudinal grade should not be
greater than 3% while it s transverse gradient should not be less than 0.5%. It is also provided
with a shoulder of 7.5m width paved with bituminous surfacing. The taxiway should be
visible from a distance of 300m to a pilot at 3m height from the ground.
Aircraft Stand: A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to provide access
to aircraft stands only.
Control Tower: A tower at an airfield from which air traffic is controlled by radio and
observed physically and by radar.
Parking: Parking is a specific area of airport at which vehicles park

 Criteria for airport site selection and ICAO stipulations

The selection of a suitable site for an airport depends upon the class of airport under
consideration. However if such factors as required for the selection of the largest facility are
considered the development of the airport by stages will be made easier and economical. The
factors listed below are for the selection of a suitable site for a major airport installation:
1. Regional plan
2. Airport use
3. Proximity to other airport
4. Ground accessibility
5. Topography
6. Obstructions
7. Visibility
8. Wind
9. Noise nuisance
10. grading, drainage and soil characteristics
11. Future development
12. Availability of utilities from town
13. Economic consideration
Regional plan: The site selected should fit well into the regional plan there by forming it an
integral part of the national network of airport
.Airport use: the selection of site depends upon the use of an airport. Whether for civilian or
for military operations. However during the emergency civilian airports are taken over by the
defense. Therefore the airport site selected should be such that it provides natural protection
to the area from air roads. This consideration is of prime importance for the airfields to be
located in combat zones. If the site provides thick bushes.
Proximity to other airport: the site should be selected at a considerable distance from the
existing airports so that the aircraft landing in one airport does not interfere with the
movement of aircraft at other airport. The required separation between the airports mainly
depends upon the volume of air traffic.
Ground accessibility: the site should be so selected that it is readily accessible to the users.
The airline passenger is more concerned with his door to door time rather than the actual time
in air travel. The time to reach the airport is therefore an important consideration especially for
short haul operations.
Topography: this includes natural features like ground contours trees streams etc. A raised
ground a hill top is usually considered to be an ideal site for an airport.
Obstructions: when aircraft is landing or taking off it loses or gains altitude very slowly as
compared to the forward speed. For this reason long clearance areas are provided on either
side of runway known as approach areas over which the aircraft can safely gain or lose
altitude.
Visibility: poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of the airport. The site selected should
therefore be free from visibility reducing conditions such as fog smoke and haze. Fog
generally settles in the area where wind blows minimum in a valley.
Wind: runway is so oriented that landing and takeoff is done by heading into the wind should
be collected over a minimum period of about five years.
Noise nuisance: the extent of noise nuisance depends upon the climb out path of aircraft type
of engine propulsion and the gross weight of aircraft. The problem becomes more acute with
jet engine aircrafts. Therefore the site should be so selected that the landing and takeoff paths
of the aircrafts pass over the land which is free from residential or industrial developments.
Grading, drainage and soil characteristics: grading and drainage play an important role in
the construction and maintenance of airport which in turn influences the site selection. The
original ground profile of a site together with any grading operations determines the shape of
an airport area and the general pattern of the drainage system. The possibility of floods at the
valley sites should be investigated. Sites with high water tables which may require costly
subsoil drainage should be avoided.
Future development: considering that the air traffic volume will continue to increase in future
more member of runways may have to be provided for an increased traffic.
Aircraft Characteristics:
Component parts of an Aircraft
Following are the seven essential parts of an aero plane:-
1. Engine
2. Flaps
3. Fuselage
4. Propeller
5. Three Controls
6. Tricycle Undercarriage
7. Wings and tail

Engine:
• The propulsion of the aircraft is mainly due to the engine.
• Engine can be divided into a) Piston Engine b) Jet engine c) Rocket Engine.
Propeller:
• Propeller is provided in the piston engine as well as the turbo prop engine
• It has two or more blades which are driven round in a circular path.
• The blades deflect the air backwards with acceleration and thus, forward thrust is
imparted to the airplane.
Fuselage:
• Main body structure - All other components are attached to it
• It Contains a) Cockpit or flight deck b) Passenger compartment
c) Cargo compartment
• Produces a little lift, but can also produce a lot of drag.
The fuselage must possess the following characteristics:
1. It is shaped to a fine point at the rear end and yet it should not be too fine so as to make
it unable to resist twisting stresses due to the wind.
2. It should have enough depth for strength. But it should not be very deep because in that
case, the side area may become very large which is undesirable for safety and
 efficiency.
Wings:
• The wings provide necessary force to lift the aircraft and to support and stabilize the
aircraft while in air.
• Wings contain very important parts such as Ailerons, Slats, Flap and spoilers.
• Also carries the fuel
• Designed so that the outer tips of the wings are higher than where the wings are
attached to the fuselage
• Called the dihedral angle.
• Helps keep the airplane from rolling unexpectedly

The wings have a number of movable parts, hinged to which facilitate their function. They
are:

a) Flaps: These are found at the trailing edge of the wing. The flaps work together with
the slats to increase lift. The flaps, when stretched out increase the surface area of the
wings, consequently increasing the area for air flow which in turn increases lift.
b) Ailerons: These are found at the trailing edge of the wing. They facilitate the turning
of the aircraft from left to right or from right to left.
c) Slats: Found at the leading edge of the wings, the slats open to facilitate the
movement of air from the bottom to the top of the wing to increase the speed of air
flow at the top of the wing. This action helps the wings to increase lift.

Tail Planes:
This element is found at the back of the aircraft. It consists of two parts; the vertical
part which is also referred to as the fin and the horizontal part which is also referred to as the
stabilizer. The stabilizer and the fin both have movable parts which enable movement of the
aircraft nose.
Elevator: The elevator is a movable part attached to the stabilizer which when moved up
enables the aircraft nose to move up and vice versa. This movement is referred to as pitching.
Rudder: The rudder is another movable part, attached to the fin that, when side moved to the
left will cause the aircraft nose to move right and vice versa. This movement is referred to as
yawing.

The wheel structures/ under carriage

• An aircraft touches down on the runway on its under carriage
• The main function of the wheels/under carriage is to cushion and absorb the shock
waves resulting from the impact when the aircraft touches the ground.
• It enables the aircraft to maneuver on ground – The suitable assembly of wheels
allows the aircraft to move on the runway carrying its entire weight.
 • The wheels are retracted at take-off to minimize drag.

 Aircraft Characteristics Affecting Airport Design:

1. Engine and Propulsion
2. Size
3. Aircraft capacity
4. Aircraft speed
5. Minimum turning radius
6. Minimum circling radius
7. Aircraft weight and wheel arrangements
8. Range
9. Noise
10. Take off and landing distances
11. Tire pressure and contact area.

Size of Aircraft: Size depends upon

1. Wing Span
2. Length ( Fuselage length)
3. The maximum height
4. Distance between main gears
5. Wheel base
6. Tail Width
Size decides load carrying capacity
Wing Span decides: The apron size, taxiway clearance, hangar size turning radius – ICAO
classification
The length of Aircraft decides: The width of exit taxiway, apron size, length of hanger etc.
The height decides: The height of hangers and its gate.
The gear treads and wheel base affect the minimum turning radius of the aircraft.

Air Craft capacity:

Aircraft capacity determines;
 Number of Passengers
 Baggage
 Cargo and
 Fuel.

Aircraft Speed:
• Speed now a days is measured in mach i.e. the speed of sound
• Piston engines – 500 to 800 km/hr (0.6 to 0.8 mach )
• Jet Engines - 1200 – 2400 km/hr (1 to 2 mach )
• Rocket engines - > 4800 km/hr ( 4 mach and above)
• Speed determines the travel time.
Speed has nothing to do with planning of airport, it gives an idea of the time of arrivalof
aircraft. However approach speed decides runway length.
Minimum Turning Radius: It is necessary to know the minimum turning radius of an aircraft
to decide the radius of taxiways and to ascertain its position in the landing aprons andhangars.

Minimum Circling radius: A certain minimum circling radius in space is required for the
aircraft to take a smooth turn. It is known as the minimum circling radius. It depends upon,
• Type of aircraft
• Air traffic volume
• Weather conditions
• The knowledge of minimum circling radius helps in separating two nearby airports by
adequate distance.
• For jet planes its around 80 km
• For other planes its around 8 – 15 km.
• If minimum circling radius is not provided it will reduce the airport capacity and
adjustment of timings for landing and take-off of aircrafts between the airports needs to
be adjusted.

Aircraft Weight and Wheel Configuration:

• Governs the length and thickness of the runways, taxiways.
• Number of wheels to be provided depends on aircraft weight.
• Structural design of the airport is based on the total load of the aircraft.
The weight of the aircraft may be classified into:
• Operating empty Weight – Weight of empty aircraft, including its crew and
all equipment needed for flight, but excluding passengers, fuel load and cargo.
• Pay load – revenue producing load which consists of passengers, mail and
cargo.
• Fuel Load- Weight of the fuel carried by the aircraft required for the trip and
certain reserve. It may vary from 9% to 40% of the total gross weight .
Wheel Configurations:-
More number of wheels lesser is the load on the runway pavement.
• Depends upon the size and type of aircraft.
• Wheel configuration also decides minimum turning radius.

Fuel Spillage:-
• The spilling of fuels and lubricants occur in loading aprons and hangers.
• It is difficult to avoid spilling completely.
• The bituminous pavements are seriously affected by fuel spillage. Hence the areas of
bituminous pavements below the fuel inlets, the engines, and main landing gears are
kept under constant watch by the airport authorities.
• Causes skidding of aircrafts.

Range:
• The distance that an aircraft can fly without refueling is called range.
• As range increases pay load decreases and vice versa.
Noise: This is a big problem in the areas where airports are quiet near to the developed areas.
Efforts are being made to bring it to minimum possible level.
The major source of noise is:
• Engine
• Machinery prominent during landing
• Primary jet, prominent during take off
• It causes Sleep disturbance, deafness, irritability, Loss of Concentration.
4.4 Typical airport layouts:
The layout of an airport mainly depends on the basic configurations of the runways. The
other airport elements are then correlated in such a way that an integrated layout is developed
giving smooth flow of traffic, keeping in mind the taxi distances to a minimum, providing
shortest route for the passengers. A proper airport layout provides full functional efficiency
with the minimum space utilization. An engineer should attempt to provide the simplest design
which yields the optimum service to air passengers. A good airfield layout should posses the
following characteristic:

 Landing, taxing and taking off as independent operations without interference.

 Shortest taxiway distance from loading runway end.
 Safe runway length
 Safe approaches
 Excellent control tower visibility
 Adequate loading apron space
 Sufficient terminal building facilities
 Sufficient land area to permit subsequent expansion
 Lowest possible cost of construction.
 Airport classification:
Based on take-off and landing:
• Conventional Take-Off and Landing Airport (CTOL)Runway Length > 1500 m
• Reduced Take-Off and Landing Airport (RTOL)Runway Length 1000 to 1500 m
• Short Take-Off and Landing Airport (STOL)Runway Length 500 to 1000 m
• Vertical Take-Off and Landing Airport (VTOL) Operational area 25 to 50 sq m.
FAA Classification:
Based on Air Craft Approach speed:
Approach Category Approach Speed (knots)
A < 91
B 91 – 120
C 120 – 140
D 141 – 165
E >165
1 knot = 1.852 kmph
3.3 Based on Function:
1. Civil Aviation
Domestic
International

2. Military Aviation
ICAO Classification:

Based on Geometric Design:

Airport Basic Runway Length (m) Width of Runway Maximum Longitudinal
Type Maximum Minimum Pavement (m) Grade (%)
A Over 2100 2100 45 1.5
B 2099 1500 45 1.5
C 1499 900 30 1.5
D 899 750 22.5 2.0
E 749 600 18 2.0

Based on Aircraft Wheel Characteristics:

Code No. Single Isolated Wheel Load (kg) Tyre Pressure (kg/cm2)
1 45000 8.5
2 34000 7.0
3 27000 7.0
4 20000 7.0
5 13000 6.0
6 7000 5.0
7 2000 2.5

Aerodromes in India:
International Hubs: This category includes airports currently classified as International
Airports and having facilities of world standards.
Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Thiruvananthapuram
Regional Hubs: Regional Airports will have to act as operational bases for regional airlines
and also have all the facilities currently postulated for model airports, including the capability
to handle limited international traffic. (Cochin, Ahmedabad etc)
Domestic Airports:

 Model Airports ( Indore, Nagpur, Vadodara, Bhubaneshwar)

 Operational (Udaipur, Kota, Kanpur)
 Non Operational (Patna, Mysore)

Custom Airports:
Having National and International tourist potential (Jaipur, Calicut, Agra, Gaya etc.)
Civil Enclaves (At defense airfields) :
• Operational ( Bagdodara, Leh etc.)
• Non Operational
Air force aerodromes
• Not for civil use
  Runway Orientation

According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) a runway is a "defined

rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft".

The orientation of the runway is an important consideration in airport planning and design. The
correct runway orientation maximizes the possible use of the runway throughout the year
accounting for a wide variety of wind conditions. FAA and ICAO regulations establish rules
about runway orientation and their expected coverage Runway Location Considerations.
FAA mandates identification standards for airport layout that is meant to assist pilots in easily
recognizing runways.

Runway is usually oriented in the direction of prevailing winds. The head wind i.e. the wind
direction of wind opposite to the direction of landing and taking-off provides greater lift on
the wings of the aircraft when it is taking-off. As such the aircraft rises above the ground
much earlier and in a shorter length of runway. During landing, the head wind provides a
breaking effect and the aircraft comes to a stop in a smaller length of runway. Landing and
take-off operations, if done along the wind direction, would require longer runway.

The challenge for the designer is to accommodate all of the aircraft using the facility in a reliable
and reasonable manner.

In navigation, all measurement of direction is performed by using the numbers of a compass. A

compass is a 360° circle where 0/360° is North, 90° is East, 180° is South, and 270° is West,
as shown in figure.

Wind Rose Diagram

Runway orientation using wind rose:
The wind data, i.e., direction, duration and intensity are graphically represented by a
diagram called wind rose. The plotting of the wind rose diagrams can be done in the
following two ways

Type I: Showing direction and duration of wind

Type II: Showing direction, duration and intensity of wind

Cross wind component: It is not possible to get the direction of opposite wind parallel to the
centre line of the runway length everyday or throughout the year.
 If the direction of wind is at an angle to the runway centre line, its component along
the direction of runway will be V Cos θ and that normal to the runway centre line will be V
Sin θ where V is the wind velocity. The normal component of the wind is called cross wind
component. Cross wind component should not exceed 25 kmph for mixed traffic.

Wind coverage:

The percentage of time in a year during which the cross wind component remains
within the limit of 25 kmph is called wind coverage of the runway.

According to FAA, the runway handling mixed air traffic should be so planned that
for 95 % of time in a year. For busy airports, the wind coverage may be increased to 98 % to
100%.

Type I wind rose:

The radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle represents the duration of
wind to a certain scale. The total percentage of wind blowing in each direction are plotted and
then joined by the straight lines. The best direction of runway is indicated along the direction
of the longest line on the wind rose diagram.
Type II wind rose:

– From the wind data table, it is observed that the percentage of time during which the wind
velocity is less than 6 kmph works out to (100-88) = 12. this period is called the calm
period and does not influence the operations of landing and take-off because of low wind
velocity.
– Thus the wind velocities below 6 kmph have no effect on the fixing of orientation of a
runway.
– Thus, the wind velocities below 6 Kmph have no effect on the fixing of orientation of a
runway.
– The concentric circles with radii corresponding to 6, 25, 50, and 80 kmph to some scale
are drawn. Thus, each circle represents the wind velocity to some scale
– Starting with centre of the concentric circles, the 16 radial directions are shown on the
outer circle. The mid points of 16 arcs on the outermost concentric circle are marked and
they are given the cardinal directions of compass like N, NNE, NE, ENE, E, etc.
– The recorded duration of winds and expressed as percentage are shown for each cardinal
direction. It may be noted that the cardinal direction is central to sector.
– A transparent rectangular template or paper strip is taken. Its length should be slightly
greater than the diameter of the wind rose diagram and its width should be greater than
twice the allowable cross wind component i.e. 25 kmph.
– The scale for cross wind component should be the same as that of the concentric circles of
the wind rose diagram.
– Along the centre of the length of this template, a line is marked corresponding to the
direction of runway.
– The two parallel lines, one on either side of the centre-line, is drawn at a distance equal to
the allowable cross wind component i.e. 25 Kmph from the centre line. In other words, the
two parallel lines are 50 Kmph away from each other.
– The wind rose diagram is fixed in position on a drawing board.
 – A hole is drilled in the centre of the template and it is placed on the wind rose diagram
such that its centre lies over the centre of the wind rose diagram.
– In this position, the template is fixed by a pin passing through its centre so that the
template can rotate about this pin as axis.
– The template is rotated and is placed along a particular direction.
– In this position of the template, the duration of 6-25, 25-50 and 50-80 Kmph winds are
read for the cardinal directions (N, NNE, NE etc.) lying between the two extreme parallel
line marked on the template.
– The sum of all these durations is expressed as the percentage and it gives the total wind
coverage for that direction.

Runway Length
• It is the length of runway under the following assumed conditions:
i. Airport altitude is at sea level.
ii. Temperature at the airport is standard 15°C.
iii. Runway is levelled in the longitudinal direction.
iv. No wind is blowing on runway.
v. Aircraft is loaded to its full loading carrying capacity.
vi. En-route temperature in standard.
Corrections for elevation, temperature and gradient
The basic runway length as discussed earlier is for mean sea level elevation having
standard atmospheric conditions. Necessary corrections are therefore applied for any change
in elevation, temperature and gradient for the actual site of construction.

Correction for elevation

• As the elevation increases, the air density reduces. This is in turn reduces the lift on
the wings of the aircraft and the aircraft requires greater ground speed before it can
rise into the air.
• To achieve greater speed, longer length of runway is required.
• ICAO recommends that the basic runway length should be increased at the rate of 7
per cent per 300m rise in elevation above the mean sea level.

Correction for temperature

• The rise in airport reference temperature has the same effect as that of the increase in
elevation. Airport reference temperature is defined as the monthly mean of average
daily temperature (Ta) for the hottest month of the year plus one third the difference
of this temperature ( Ta ) and the monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature (
Tm ) for the same month of the year.
• Thus airport reference temperature=
• ICAO recommends that the basic runway length after having been corrected for
elevation should be further increased at the rate of 1 percent for every 1°C rise of
airport reference temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature at that
elevation.
 Check for total correction for elevation plus temperature: ICAO further recommends that,
if the total correction for elevation plus temperature exceeds 35percent of the basic runway
length, these corrections should then the further checked up by conducting specific studies at
the site by model tests.

Correction for gradient

• Steeper gradient results in greater consumption of energy and as such longer length of
runway is required to attain the desired ground speed.
• ICAO does not recommend any specific correction for the gradient.
• FAA recommends that the runway length after having been corrected for elevation
and temperature should be further increased at the rate of 20 % for every 1 percent of
effective gradient.
• Effective gradient is defined as the maximum difference in elevation between the
highest and lowest points of runway divided by the total length of runway.

 Basic Elements of a Runway:

1. Structural Pavement
2. Shoulders
3. Runway Strip
4. Blast pad
5. Runway End safety area
6. Stop way and Clear way.

Structural pavement: It is the paved area whose length and width is designed to ensure a safe
operating surface. It supports the airplane load

Shoulders: The shoulders are adjacent to the structural pavement, which are designed to resist
erosion due to jet blast and to accommodate maintenance equipment and patrol.

Runway Strip: It includes the structural pavement, shoulders and an area that is cleared and
graded. This area should be capable of supporting fire, crash rescue and snow removal
equipment.

Blast Pad: The blast pad is an area designed to prevent erosion of surfaces adjacent to the ends
of the runways which are subjected to repeated jet blasts and to minimize excessive ground
maintenance. The area is either paved or planted with turf.

 Runway Geometric Design

• Factors considered in geometric design of runways:

i. Runway length
ii. Runway width
iii. Width and length of safety area
iv. Transverse gradient
v. Longitudinal and effective gradient
Runway length: The basic runway length as recommended by ICAO for different types of airport
is given in the table below. To obtain the actual length of runway, corrections for elevation,
temperature and gradient are applied to the basic runway length.

Runway width

• ICAO recommends the pavement width varying from 45 m to 18m for different types
of airport.
• The aircraft traffic is more concentrated in the central 24m width of the runway
pavement.
• Another consideration in determining the runway width is that the outermost machine
of large jet aircraft using the airport should not extend off the pavement on to the
shoulders. This is because the shoulder is usually of loose soil or established soil etc
which is likely to get into the engine and damage it.
• The outer engines of a large jet transport are about 13.5m from the longitudinal axis
of the aircraft.
• As such a pavement width of 45m will provide adequate protection to the engine from
the shoulder material during normal operations.
Width and length of safety area

• Safety area consists of the runway, which is a paved area plus the shoulder on either side of
runway plus the area that is cleared, graded and drained.
• The shoulders are usually unpaved as they are used during emergency. They may at the most
be prepared of stabilized soil or turf.
• Another advantage of providing shoulders on either side of runway is that they impart a sense
of openness to the pilot and improve psychology during landing and take-off.
• ICAO recommends that for non-instrumental runway, the width of safety area should be at
least 150m for A, B, C, and 78 m for D and E types and for instrumental runway, it should be
minimum 300m.

Transverse gradient

• This is essential for quick drainage of surface water. If surface water is allowed to
pond on the runway, the aircraft can meet severe hazards.
 • ICAO recommends that the transverse gradient of runway pavement should not
exceed 1.50percent for A, B, C and 2 percent for D and E types. It does not specify
the minimum limit of the transverse gradient.
• ICAO recommends that the transverse gradient of portion of the shoulder should not
exceed 2.50percent.
• Transverse gradient of the remaining portion of the shoulder should not exceed 5
percent.

Longitudinal and effective gradient

• The longitudinal gradient of runway increases the required runway length. ICAO
gives the following recommendations for the maximum longitudinal gradient and the
maximum effective gradient.
• For longitudinal gradient:
o A, B and C types: 1.50 percent
o D and E types: 2.00 percent
o For effective gradient
o A, B and C types: 1.00 percent
o D and E types: 2.00 percent
Rate of change of longitudinal gradient

• The abrupt change of longitudinal gradient restricts the height distance and may also
cause premature lift-off of the aircraft during the taking-off operation.
• The premature lift-off of aircraft will affect its performance of aircraft during its take-
off and can also develop structural defects in the aircraft.
• Too many changes in the gradients over a small length of runway can also restrict the
sight distance and increase the runway length.
• The changes in gradients should be smoothened by vertical curves.
• ICAO recommends that the rate of change of gradient should be limited to a
maximum of 0.10 percent per 30m length of vertical curve for A and B types, 0.2
percent for C type and 0.4 percent for D and E types of airports.

 Taxiway Planning

Geometric design standards:

• Length of taxiway
• Width of taxiway
• Width of safety area
• Longitudinal gradient
• Traverse gradient
• Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
• Sight distance
• Turning radius
Length of taxiway:
 It should be as short as practicable. This will save the fuel consumption.
 No specifications are recommended by any organization for limiting the length of
taxiway.

Width of taxiway:
 The width of taxiway is much lower than the runway width.
 The speed of the aircraft on a taxiway is also lower than the speed on runway.
 The pilot can comfortably maneuver the aircraft over a smaller width of taxiway
than on a runway.

Width of safety area:

 This area includes taxiway pavement shoulders on either side that may be partially
paved plus the area that is graded and drained.
 This may extend up to a point where it intersects a parallel runway, taxiway and
apron.
 Bitumen treated shoulders are normally used.
 The shoulders must be thick enough to support the airport petrol vehicles and the
sweeping equipment.

Longitudinal gradient:
 If the gradient is steep, there will be greater fuel consumption.
 ICAO recommends that the longitudinal gradient should not exceed 1.5 percent for A
and B types and 3 percent for other types of airports.

Transverse gradient:
 This is essential for quick drainage of surface water.
 ICAO recommends that for taxiway pavement like runway, the transverse gradient
should not exceed a value of 1.5 percent for A, B and C types and 2 percent for D and
E types of airports.
 ICAO does not specify any value for the transverse slope of taxiway shoulders.
 FAA recommends that it should be 5 percent for the first 3 m and 2 percent thereafter
for all types of airports.

Rate of change of longitudinal gradient:

 ICAO recommends that rate of change of slope in longitudinal direction should not
exceed 1 percent per 30 m length of vertical curve for A, B and C types and 1.2
percent for D and E types of airports.

Sight distance:
 ICAO recommends that the surface of a taxiway must be visible from 3 m height for a
distance of 300 m for A, B and C types and distance of 250 m must be visible from
2.1 m height for D and E types of airports.
 Transportation Engineering -BCV403

Turning radius:
Whenever there is a change in the direction of a taxiway, a horizontal curves is provided.
R = V2 / 125 f
Where, R – Radius, m
V – Speed, kmph
f – Coefficient of friction, 0.13
 For airport serving subsonic jet transports, minimum value of radius of curvature is
120 m is suggested.
 For airport serving supersonic jet transports, minimum value of radius of curvature is
180 m is suggested.

Table: Taxiway geometrics

Maximum Minimum Maximum rate of change
ICAO Taxiway longitudinal transverse of longitudinal gradient
classification width gradient, % gradient, % per 30 m, %
A 22.5 1.5 1.5 1.0
B 22.5 1.5 1.5 1.0
C 15 3.0 1.5 1.0
D 9.9 3.0 2.0 1.2
E 7.5 3.0 2.0 1.2

 Further Reading
1. http://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/flight/modern/airport1.htm
2. http://www.aai.aero/public_notices/aaisite_test/main_new.jsp
3. http://nptel.ac.in/reviewed_pdfs/105107123/lec31.pdf
4. http://www.ucalgary.ca/EN/civil/NLAircraft/Atrgpap.pdf

Department of Civil Engineering, JSSATE-Bengaluru Page 19