MOLES AND E1QUATIONS

Atomic Mass: The atomic mass is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom
(element).
Atomic Mass = number of protons + number of neutrons in an atom. In the periodic table , sodium has
12 neutrons and 11 protons.Atomic number is 12 +11 =23. Calculate atomic mass of chlorine , oxygen ,
potassium.

Isotopes : Atoms with the same atomic number but different atomic masses (due to the difference
in the number of neutrons in an atom) . E.g Cl -35 and Cl-37.
Cl -35 has 17 protons and 18 neutrons , Cl-37 has 17 protons and 20 neutrons. same number of
protons (atomic number) but different number of neutrons.
The relative atomic mass (RAM) of an atom is the number of times an atom is heavier than one twelfth
of a carbon-12 atom. It is calculated by adding together the number of protons and neutrons in an atom.

The atomic mass is usually a whole number unless where an element occurs in a number of isotopes. Here
the atomic mass is the average atomic weight of the isotopes in the ratio of their existence.

Example 1. Chlorine exist in two isotopic forms; 35Cl and 37Cl in percentage compositions of 75% and 25%
respectively.
Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.
= 3550
Every 100 atoms of chlorine there is 7355a5to0ms of 35Cl and 25 atoms of 37Cl
Average atomic mass =
100
Total mass of 100 atoms = 35.5
of chl o ri n e = 75 x 35 + 25 x 37
 T h e R AM of chlorine is 35. 5

Exercise 1a
1. A sample of ordinary neon is found to consist of 20Ne, 21Ne and 22Ne in percentage 20Ne = 90.22%, 21Ne = 0.26%
and 22Ne = 8.82%. Calculate the actual atomic weight of neon.

2. Copper has a relative atomic mass of 63.55 and consists of two isotopes of mass number 63 and 65.
Calculate the percentage composition of the isotopes. (1993/1/4)

3. The two isotopes of hydrogen having mass number 1 and 2 have atomic weight equal to 1.007825 and
2.01473 as determined by mass spectrograph. These isotopes are present in ordinary hydrogen in ratio of
6400 to 1. Determine the mean-atomic weight of hydrogen atoms.

4. 2002/1/2, The mass spectrum of chlorine shows peaks at masses 70, 72, and 74. the heights of the peaks are
in ratio of 9:6:1
Calculate
a. The average atomic mass of chlorine (2marks)
b. The relative abundance of 35Cl and 37Cl. (3 marks)

5. 2001/2/1,
a. Define the term relative atomic mass (2mark)
b. Explain how the relative atomic mass can be dertermined by the mass spectrometer (10 marks)
c. The mass spectrum of an element, A, contained four lines at mass/charge of 54, 56, 57, and 58 with
relative intensities of 5.84, 91.68, 2.17 and 0.31 respectively
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 2
i. Explain what the term relative intensities means
ii. Calculate the relative atomic mass of A

6. 2004/1/03,(b) An element Y has three naturally occurring isotopes with isotopic masses and relative
abundances’
as shown below:.
Isotopic mass Relative abundance (%)
23.98 78.60
24.98 10.11
25.98 11.29
Calculate the relative atomic mass of Y (2 marks)

Formula masses (relative formula mass or Molecular mass)

This is the number of times a molecule is heavier than one twelfth of a carbon-12 atom. It is calculated by
addition of
the individual RAM of the constituent atoms in a molecules, Relative formula mass has no units

Example 2.
What is the formula mass of Ozone, O3?

The Ozone molecule contains three oxygen atoms, each of which weighs 16 grams.
 the formula mass of Ozone is 3 X 16 = 48
Example 3. What is the formula mass of Ammonia, NH3?

RAM of nitrogen atom is 14 and that of hydrogen atom is 1. There are three hydrogen atoms in
the molecule and one nitrogen atom;

the formula mass of ammonia is: 14 + (3 X 1) = 17 grams.

Example 4. What is the formula mass of Glucose, C6H12O6 ?

(C= 12 , H=1 , and O=16)

 The formula mass of Glucose is

= 6 x 12)+(12 x 2)+(6 x 16)

= 72+12+96
= 180
Exercise Ib
(1) Calculate the formula mass of
(a) Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4
(b) Sodium carbonate decahydrate,
Na2CO3.10H2O. (c) Oxalic acid, HOOC-COOH
(d) Maleic acid HOOC-CH=CH-COOH

B. THE MOLE
A mole is the AMOUNT of a substance which contain as many elementary units (particles, i.e.,
 molecules,
atoms, ions etc) as there are in 12 g of carbon-12 isotope (126C). A mole of any substance contains 6.02 X 1023
particles.
The number of particles in any mole of a substance ( 6.02 x 1023) is called AVOGADRO'S NUMBER, L.
 3

Molar Mass is the mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance. It is numerically equal to its relative atomic mass or
its relative formula mass. e.g., One mole of carbon weighs 12 g, 1 mole of oxygen molecule weighs 32 g, and 1
mole of ammonium sulphate weighs 132 g.

CALCULATIONS USING THE AVOGADRO

NUMBER
The Avogadro number, L, is taken as 6.0 x 1023 in the following
examples.

Example 5. How many C atoms are there in a carbon rod weighing 8 g

(C=12).
12 g (RAM of carbon in g or 1 mole) of carbon have
6.0 x 1023 atoms.
23
 8 g of carbon has
8x6.6 x10
atoms
12

= 4.0 x 1023 atoms

Example 6. How many grams of copper (Cu=64) contain 4.5 x 1023 atoms?

6.0 x 1023 atoms are in 1 mole of copper i.e. 64 g

23
4.5 x10 x 64
 4.5 x 1023 atoms are in
23
6.0 x10
= 48 g
Example 7. How many (i) molecules (ii) atoms are there in 35.5 g of gaseous chlorine Cl2?

(i) Mass of 1 mole of chlorine molecule, Cl2 = 71 g

i.e. 71 g of chlorine contain 6.0 x 1023 molecules.

23
 35.5 g of chlorine contains
35.5 x 6.0 x10
71

= 3.0 x 1023 molecules

(ii) Each chlorine molecule contains 2 atoms. Hence there are

2 x 3.0 x 1023 atoms in 35.5 g of gaseous chlorine, Cl2

 No. of atoms in 35.5 g of chlorine gas = 6.0 x 1023 atoms.

Example 8. How many ions are there in 13.5 g of copper (II) chloride, CuCl2?
Mass of 1 mole of CuCl2 = 64 + (2 x 35.5)
= 135 g
There are 3 ions (one copper and two chloride ions) in CuCl2

molecule. i.e. 1 mole or 135 g of CuCl2 contain 3 x 6.0 x 1023 ions.

 4
13.5 x 323 6.0
 13.5 g of CuCl2 contain x10
135

= 1.8 x 1023 ions.

[NB. it contains 0.6 x 1023 copper ions and twice that i.e. 1.2 x 1023 chloride ions.]

The ‘mole' concept in calculations

To convert Mass of a substance into moles

Mass of subs tan ce

No. of moles =
Mas of 1mole

To convert moles of a substance in grams

Mass in grams = No. of moles x mass of 1 mole.

Example 9. How many moles of carbon dioxide molecules are present in 11 g of carbon dioxide, CO 2?

Mass of 1 mole of CO2 = 12 + (2 x 16) = 44 g

Mass in grams
No. moles of CO2 =
Mass of 1mole
11
= moles = 0.25 moles
44
Example 10. What is the mass of 3 mole of carbon monoxide?

The Molar mass of CO = (12 + 16) = 28 g

Mass in grams = No. of moles x mass of 1 mole.

= 3 x 28

= 84 g

Example 11. What mass of magnesium (Mg=24) would contain the same number of atoms as 4 g of carbon .
(C=12)
Ma s s in g r a ms 4
No. of moles of carbon =  moles
Mass of 1mole 12
= 0.333 mol
A mole of any element contains the same number of atoms.
Hence 0.333 moles of magnesium contain the same number of atoms as 4 g of carbon.

Mass of 0.333 moles magnesium =

No. of moles x Mass of 1 mole
= 0.333 X 24
 5
= 8 g.

Example 12 . Calculate the mass of

(i) 1 atom of magnesium.
(ii) 5 molecule of ethane.

(i) Relative atomic mass of magnesium = 24

24 x1
1 atom of magnesium = 23
6.0 x10

= 4 X 10-23 g

(ii) Molar mass of C2H6 = (2 x 12) + (6 x 1)

= 30 g
3 0x1 23
1 molecule of ethane = 23  5x10 g
6 x10

5 molecules of ethane = 25 X 10-23 = 2.5 X 10-22 g

Example 13. Calculate the mole of each element present in 18.4 g of iron (III) sulphate.

Molar mass of Fe2(SO4)3 = 2 x 56 + 3 x 32 + 12 x 16

= 112 + 96 + 192

= 400 g

Mass given
No. of moles of Fe2(SO4)3 =
Mass of 1mole
18.4
=
400 = 0.046 mole

 No. of moles of iron = 0.046 x 2 = 0.092 moles.

 No. of moles of sulphur = 0.046 x 3 = 0.138 moles
 No. of moles of oxygen = 0.046 x 12 = 0.552 moles

Exercise II
1. Using the Avogadro's constant equal to L, find the number of atoms in the following masses of calcium:(i) 200
g
(ii) 1 kg, (iii) 4 g.

2. Taking Avogadro's constant equal to 6 x 1023, find the number of molecules in

(a) 3.4 g of ammonia, NH3 (b) 7.7 g of carbon tetrachloride CCl4
 6
(c)16 g of sulphur dioxide, SO2 (d) 1 g of hydrogen, H2.

3. What mass of carbon dioxide has the same number of molecule as 7 g of nitrogen, N2?

4.What is the mass of 0.5 mole of aluminium sulphate, Al2(SO4)?

5. Which of these contains the same number of atoms: 16 g of sulphur, 40 g of calcium, 40.5 g of aluminium or
28 grams of iron?

(Ca = 40, N =14, C = 12, S =32, O = 16, Al =27, Fe =56)

C. Percentage composition:
Formulae
Example 14. Calculate the percentage composition by mass of magnesium oxide, (Mg = 24, O = 16).

(i) Write formula of the compound: MgO

(ii) Find the formula mass of the compound: 24 + 16 = 40

(iii) Express each atomic mass as a percentage of the formula mass.

24 x100%
Percentage of Magnesium = = 60%
40

16 x100%
Percentage of oxygen = = 40%
40

Example 15. Calculate the percentage of water of crystallization in hydrated sodium carbonate,
Na 2CO3.10H2O?

Formula mass of Na2CO3.10H2O = 46 +12 +48 +20 +160 = 286

Note: The percentage of water should be calculated as a complete, separate unit i.e. (10 H2O = 180) in this
case.

180 x100%
per cent water in Na2CO3.10H2O =
286

= 62.94%
Formulae: Empirical and molecular
The empirical formula (E.F) of a compound is the simplest formula which expresses its composition by mass.
It does not give the exact number of various atoms present in one formula unit of molecule of a compound.
 7

The molecular formula (M.F) of a compound is the one which shows the exact number of each kind of each
atom present in a molecule of a compound.
The molecular formula is always a simple multiple of the empirical formula.
i.e. M.F = n(E.F) where n is a whole number e.g., E.F of glucose is CH2O, whereas its M.F. is C6H12O6
which
(CH2O)6.

Molecular formulamass
OR = n, a whole number.
Emperical formulamass

Example 16.Determine the formula of a lead compound, given that 4.14 g of lead combines with 0.64 g of
sulphur and 1.28 g of oxygen.
We shall use the 'mole' concept to find the formula of the compound. Proceed as shown in the table below:
Element Lead, Pb Sulphur, S
Oxygen, O
symbol
Mass in g 4.14 0.64 1.28
RAM 207 32 16
No. of 4.1 4 0.6 4 1.2 8
moles  0.02  0.02  0.08
207 32 16

Ratio of 0.0 2 0.0 2 0.0 8

mole 1 1 4
0.02 0.02 0.02
No. of 1 1 4
atoms
E.F PbSO4

Example 17. The combustion of 0.92 g of copper gave 1.15 g of copper oxide.

Calculate the percentage of copper and oxygen in the sample and hence its
formula. Mass of oxygen in the oxide = 1.15 - 0.92 = 0.23 g
0.9 2 x10 0%
Percentage of copper =  80%
1.15
0.2 3x10 0%
Percentage of oxygen =  20%
1.15
Copper, Cu = 64 Oxygen, O = 16
Percentage 80 20

No. of moles 80 20
 1.25  1.25
64 16
No. of atoms
1.25 1.25
1 1
1.25 1.25
Formula CuO
 8

 The formula of copper oxide is CuO.

Example 18 3.22 g of hydrated sodium sulphate, Na2SO4.nH2O were heated till all the water of crystallization
was driven off. The anhydrous salt left had a mass of 1.42 g. Determine the formula of the hydrated salt.
Compound Na2SO4 H2O
Mass in g 1.42 1.80 (3.22 - 1.42)
R.M.M 142 180
1.4 2 1.8 0
No. of moles  0.01  0.1
142 18
Ratio of mole 1 10

Hydrated sodium sulphate is

Na2SO4.10H2O

Example 19. An organic compound was found to contain 12.8% carbon, 2.1% Hydrogen and 85.1% bromine.
A rough estimate gave its relative molecular mass between 150 and 200. Determine its molecular formula.
Explain your answer.

Element C (=12) Br (=80)

H (=1)
No. of 12.8 2.1 85.1
mole  1.06  2.1  1.06
12 1 80
/mole 1 2 1
ratio/No.
of atoms

Empirical formula = CH2Br

E.F. mass =12 + 2 + 80 = 94
Molecular formula mass = n x E.F. Mass = n x 94

i.e. M.F. mass can be 94 or 188 or 289.

In this case, it is then 188 and the M.F. of the compound is C 2H4Br2

Exercise III
1. What is the percentage of hydrogen and oxygen in ethanoic acid, CH3COOH?

2. 24.0 g of a lead oxide was completely reduced by heating it with carbon to 20.8 g of lead. What is the formula
of the oxide that was reduced?

3. If 0.5 mole of a hydrated salt X.nH2O contains 63 g of water of crystallization, find the value of n.

4. 2.8 g of iron reacted with 5.3 g of chlorine to form the

chloride. (a) Determine the simplest formula of the chloride.
(b) If the molecular mass of the chloride is325. Find the molecular formula and structural formula of the chloride.

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5. When 3.6 g of magnesium was burnt in nitrogen, 5.0 g of magnesium nitride was formed. Determine the
simplest

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 9
formula of the nitride.
6. A liquid compound X has relative molecular mass of 114 and the ratio of carbon atoms to hydrogen atoms is
4:9. Determine the molecular formula of the compound. To which homologous series of organic compounds
does it belong?

7. An organic compound contains by mass 60% carbon, 13.3% hydrogen and 27.7% oxygen. Determine its
simplest formula? Find its possible molecular formula if its relative molecular mass is estimated to be between
50 and 80.

8. When 0.29 g of a substance X was burnt in oxygen, 0.66 g of carbon dioxide and 0.27 g of water were
formed.
Calculate (i) the masses of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in
X. (ii) Determine the empirical formula of X.

9 (a) A compound X contains carbon, 66.7% and hydrogen 11.1% the rest being oxygen. Determine the
empirical formula of X.
(b) The vapor density of X is 36; determine the molecular formula of X.
10. Combustion of 5.4 g of a compound containing C, H and O only gave 7.92 g of CO2 and 3.24 g of H2O.
Calculate the empirical formula of the compound? The compound has a R.M.M of 180, determine its molecular
formula.

1997/2
(a) A compound b contain 92.31% carbon and 6.69%
hydrogen
Determine the empirical formula of B
(2marks)
(b) B burns with a sooty flame and has a vapour density of 39. Determine molecular formula and write its
molecular structure.

2002/2/1(a)
A compound X, vapor density 58, contain carbon 62.07%, hydrogen 10.34%, the rest being oxygen. X does not
burn with sooty flame.

(i) Calculate the empirical formula of X

(C=12, H=1, O=16) (3marks)
(ii) Determine the molecular formula of X

1993/1/7
(a) When 4.90 g of organic compound X, containing carbon and hydrogen only was burnt in oxygen, 15.78g of
carbon dioxide and 5.38 g of water were formed. Calculate the empirical formula of X.
2003/1/7
(a) When 4.90g of organic compound X, containing carbon and hydrogen only was burnt in
oxygen, 15.78g of carbon dioxide and 5.38g of water were formed. Calculate the empirical
formula of X (2 ½ marks)
(b) X was steam distilled at 800C and 760mmHg and the distillate was found to contain 90.8% by
mass of X. ( the vapor pressure of water at 800C is 240mmHg).
a. Calculate the formula mass of X.
b. Deduce the molecular formula of X.
2005/1/16
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A compound P contains 52.2% carbon, 13.0% hydrogen, the rest being oxygen

Foundation College 10
(i) Determine the empirical formula of P.
(ii) When vaporized, 0.1g of P occupied 78.8cm3 at 1570C and pressure of 740mmHg.
(i) Calculate the formula mass of P
(ii) Determine the molecular formula of P

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 10
(iii) Write the structural formula of all the possible isomers of P
(iv) P does not react with sodium metal. Identify P
(v) Write equation to show how P can be prepared from methanol.

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 11
D. Calculation involving Equations, Masses and Volumes
Chemical changes can be described by use of chemical equations, e.g., carbon dioxide reacts with oxygen to
form carbon dioxide. This reaction is written as:

C + O2  CO2 ..................... (1)

The plus sign (+) indicates addition of carbon to oxygen (vice versa) OR a mixture of the two. The arrow () is
often read 'yields'. Substances on the left of the arrow are reactants, or starting materials. Those on the right
are the products of the reaction. Chemical equations have meaning on the atomic and molecular level.
The equation (1) means that one atom of carbon (C) reacts with one molecule of oxygen (O2) to produce one
molecule of carbon dioxide, CO2. One carbon atom weighs 12 grams. One oxygen molecule weighs 32 grams,
(2 x 16 grams per oxygen atom).
Similarly, in the above equation 12 grams of carbon react with 32 grams of oxygen. i.e., 12 mass units of carbon
react
with 32 mass units of oxygen. The ratio of the masses of the individual reactants is
12:32.

It is not convenient to weigh gases. They are normally measure by volumes. The volume occupied at s.t.p. by
one mole of oxygen or carbon dioxide is 22.4 dm3 or 22400 cm3. This volume is called the molar volume.

Equal volumes of all gases, under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, contain the same number of
molecules (Avogadro's Law)

It follows that 1 mole of any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 dm 3 at s.t.p. and a volume of 24.0 dm3 at r.t.p. (room
temperature and pressure).

These are the values we will be using in all

calculations. Gay-Lussac's Law

When gases react together, they do so in volumes which are related to each other in simple ratio and to
the
product if gaseous, provided all measurements are made at the same temperature and
pressure.

Example 20 How much marble (CaCO3) remains undissolved and what volume of carbon dioxide (at r.t.p.)
formed when all 14.6 g of hydrochloric acid are allowed to react with 50g marble?

The equation is as follows:

CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq)  CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
1 mole 2 moles 1 mole

The question can be solved using mole

concept. Molar mass mole of HCl =36.5 g.

14.6
Moles of HCl used = = 0.4 mole
36.5

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Mass of CaCO3 that reacted (thus dissolved)
From the equation,
2 moles of HCl react with 1 mole of CaCO3 (=100)

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 12
0.4
0.4 mole of HCl react with = 0.2 mole of CaCO3.
2
= (0.2 x 100)g
= 20 g of CaCO3

 Mass of undissolved CaCO3 = (50 - 20) = 30 g.

Volume of CO2
2 moles of HCl liberate 1 mole or 24 dm3 of CO2 at r.t.p.

 0.4 mole of HCl will liberate 0.4 x 2 4  4.8 dm3 of CO2.

2

Example 21. According to the equation: 2C + O2  2CO

How many moles of carbon which react with 9.6 dm3 of oxygen at r.t.p?

1 mole or 24 dm3 (at r.t.p.) of O2 react with 2 mole of carbon.

2
1 dm3 of O2 reacts with moles of carbon
24

2 x9.6
 9.6 dm3 react with  0.8 of carbon.
moles
24

Example 22. 40 cm3 of oxygen was added to 30 cm3 of carbon monoxide and the mixture ignited. What is the
volume and composition of the resulting mixture? (All volumes measured at the same temperature and
pressure).

2CO (g) + O2 (g)  2CO2 (g)

2 mole 1 mole 2 moles
2 vol. 1 vol. 2 vol. (Gay-Lussac's Law)
30 cm3 15 cm3 30 cm3 (volume ratio)

The volume of CO2 produced is the same as that of CO used up, i.e. 30 cm3 of CO2 are produced.
15 cm3 of the 40 cm3 of oxygen are used up in the reaction, i.e. 25 cm3 of oxygen
30 cm3 of carbon dioxide produced and thus has a volume of 55 cm3.

EXERCISE IV
1. Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide obtained by burning 2.4g of magnesium in excess oxygen.

2. 0.2 g of copper (II) oxide is heated in a stream of hydrogen. Calculate the mass of copper obtained if the
reduction is 100 percent.
3. What mass and volume of oxygen (at r.t.p.) would be formed when 4.9 g of potassium chlorate (KCIO3) are
heated and completely decomposed into potassium chloride and oxygen?
 13
4. Find the mass of sodium carbonate produced and the volume of carbon dioxide gas evolved at r.t.p. when 42
g of
sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) is heated and completely
decomposed?

5. Write the equation of the reaction between sodium and water. 4.6 g of sodium are completely dissolved in
water. Calculate the mass and volume (at r.t.p.) of hydrogen produced.

6. When 3.1 g of a carbon dioxide MCO3 are heated to constant mass, the volume of carbon dioxide evolved
during the heating is 600 cm3 at r.t.p. What is the relative atomic mass of M?

7. 2.8 g of iron is reacted completely with chloride according to the reaction: 2 Fe (s) + 3 Cl2 (g)  2 FeCl3
(s). Find the mass of iron (III) chloride formed and the minimum volume of chloride at r.t.p. needed for this
reaction.

8. Find the mass of copper (II) sulphide that can be precipitated when hydrogen sulphide is bubbled through a
solution of copper (II) sulphate containing 4.0 g of copper (II) sulphate.

9. The equation for the reduction process taking in the blast furnace is Fe2O3(s) + 3CO (g)  2Fe(s) + 3 CO2
(g) What is the maximum mass of iron which could be extracted from 40 tones of iron (III) oxide? What is
the mass
and volume (at r.t.p) of carbon dioxide
produced?

10. What mass of 90 percent pure ammonium chloride would be needed just to react completely with 14.8 g
of slaked lime, Ca(OH) 2 ? What volume at s.t.p of ammonia will be produced?

11. What volume of oxygen is need for complete combustion of 20 litres of propane (C3H8) to carbon dioxide
and water, measured at r.t.p.?

12. Ethene reacts with oxygen according to the

equation
C2H4 (g) + 3O2 (g)  2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
15 cm3 of ethene were mixed with 60 cm3 of oxygen and the mixture was sparked to complete the reaction.
All volumes were measured at a pressure of 1 atm. and (i) at a temperature of 1200 C (ii) at room temperature.
Find the volume and composition of the gas mixture left at the end of the experiment in each case.

13*. 10 cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon were mixed with 90 cm3 of oxygen and sparked. The resulting volume
at r.t.p. was 70 cm3, which reduced to 30 cm3 on shaking with sodium hydroxide. Find the empirical formula of
the hydrocarbon.

14 According to the equation,

C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g)  3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)
(a) How many moles of CO2 will be produced in the reaction of 1 Mole of
O2? (b) How many grams of CO2 are produced by 1 mole O2?
(c) How many grams of propane (C3H8) will react with 3.2 g of
O2? (d) How many moles of propane (C3H8) will produce 9 g of
H2O?
(e) How many moles of CO2 will be produced with 36 g of
water?
*(f) What are the maximum moles of CO2 that will be produced from a mixture of 12 g of C3H8 and 8 g of O2?
Assume complete reaction.

**Q15 From the equation

C + O2  CO2
What will be the partial pressure of CO2 in the product mixture formed from 20 g of O2 and 3 g of CO2,
assuming complete reaction.
 14
1992/1/2
When 20 g of a mixture containing anhydrous sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate was heated
and cooled, the mass of the mixtures changed to 13.8 g.
(a) Write equation for the reaction that took place during the heating (1 ½ marks)
(b) Calculate the percentage of sodium carbonate in the mixture

1995/1/7
1.18g of compound P on evaporation occupied 300cm3 at
s.t.p. (a) Calculate the relative molecular mass of P.
(b) The empirical formula of P is C2H4O. Determine its molecular formula
(c) Compound P reacts with sodium carbonate to produce a gas that turns lime water milky. Write the structural
formula of P.

2000/1/17
When 0.55g of organic compound T was burned in oxygen 0.220g of carbon dioxide and 0.135g of water were
formed.
(i) Determine empirical formula of T
(ii) When 0.225g of T was vaporized at 1270C and 760mmHG it occupied a volume of 119.11cm3.
(Molar volume of a gas at s.t.p is 22.4dm3). calculate the formula mass of T and determine molecular
formula of T
(iii) T reacts with acidified potassium dichromate to form ethane-1,2-dioic acid. Write the formula and the
IUPAC name of T.
2001/1/8
When 142cm3 of a hydrocarbon Q, of molecular mass 58 was exploded with excess oxygen and cooled
to room temperature, the volume of the residual gas was 694cm3. After addition of concentrated
potassium hydroxide, the volume decreased to 126cm3
(a) determine the molecular formula of Q
(b) write the names and the structural formula of all isomers of Q
2004
(a) When 8.8g of a hydrocarbon, Z, was burn in excess air, 14.4g of water and 13.44dm3 of carbon
dioxide were obtained at s.t.p. determine the empirical formula of Z.
(b) The vapor density of Z is 22. Write the name and molecular formula of Z.
(c) Write equations to show how Z can be synthesized from alcohol
(d) Indicate a mechanism for the first stage of the reaction in (c)(i).

2005/1/16
A compound P contains 52.2% carbon, 13.0% hydrogen, the rest being oxygen
(i) Determine the empirical formula of P.
(ii) When vaporized, 0.1g of P occupied 78.8cm3 at 1570C and pressure of 740mmHg.
(vi) Calculate the formula mass of P
(vii) Determine the molecular formula of P
(viii) Write the structural formula of all the possible isomers of P
(ix) P does not react with sodium metal. Identify P
(x) Write equation to show how P can be prepared from methanol.
 15

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 16
Calculations involving Concentration of Solution.
Definitions
1. The concentration of a substance is the number of moles or the mass of a solute dissolved or contained in
a known volume of solution. Usually the concentration of a solution is expressed in either number of
grams or number of moles of solute per litre of solution.
2. A standard substance/primary standard is a pure substance whose mass can easily be weighed accurately
and is used to standardize others.

Properties of primary standard

- Should have high molecular mass to be weighed accurately with little errors
- Should form stable solutions
- It should be stable in air, i.e., it shouldn't be hygroscopic, deliquescent, react with air, easily lose its
water of crystallization and/or it should not be volatile.

3. A Standard solution is a solution whose concentration is known, usually expressed in terms of molarity,
mole/litre, moles/dm3, or grams/litre.
4. The Molarity of solution is the number of moles of the solute contained in 1 litre, 1000 ml or 1000 cm3 of
solution.

mass of solutedissolved inonelitre

Molarity =
mo ral ( formula) mass
concentration in g /
l
or =
olar ( formula) mass

Molarity x volume
Hence, No. of moles =
100ml of solution

If solutions of compounds A and B react according to the

equation aA + bB  cC + dD,

V A xM A a
then 
VB xM B b

where, VA and VB: volumes of solution

and mA and mB: molarities of solutions

5. A molar solution is a solution containing 1 mole of a solute/substance per litre.

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 17
Example 23. Calculate the molarities of (a) 7g of potassium hydroxide KOH, in 250cm 3 solution (b) 9.8g of
sulphuric acid in 2 dm3 solution.
(a) RMM of KOH = 39 + 16 + 1 56 g
7g of KOH in 250cm3 solution  28g KOH in 1000cm3
or 1 dm3 solution

g / dm 28
Molarity of KOH =   0.5M
RFM 56

b) RMM of H2SO4 = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98g

9.8g of H2SO4 in 2dm3 solution = 4.9g in 1 dm3 solution.

g / dm 4.9
Molarity of H2SO4 =   0.05M
RFM 98

Example 24. 25.0 cm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide of concentration 0.1 mole dm -3 were exactly neutralized
by
20.0 cm3 of a solution of hydrochloric acid. Calculate the concentration of the acid solution (a) as a molarity
(b) in g/dm3.

Reaction equation:
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O (aq)

Mole of NaOH
1000 m3 contain 0.1 moles

2 5x0.1
25 cm3 will contain  0.0025 moles
1000
Moles of HCl
From the equation
1mole of NaOH react with 1 mole of HCl
 moles of HCl = moles of NaOH
= 0.0025moles
Molarity of HCl
20cm3 contain 0.0025mole
0.002 5x100 0
1000cm3 will contains  0.125moles
20
=> molarity of HCl = 0.125M

Concentration = moles x RFM

= 0.125 x 36.5
= 4.58 g/dm3

Example 25. In a titration 30 cm3 of 0.4M sodium hydroxide require 40cm3 of 0.15 M phosphoric acid, H3PO4.
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 18
(i) How many moles of sodium hydroxide are present in 30cm 3 of solution?
(ii) How many moles of phosphoric acid are present in 40cm3 of solution?
(iii) Find the number of moles of sodium hydroxide required to neutralize one mole of phosphoric acid?

(iv) Write the formula of the sodium salt formed and the equation for the reaction between the acid and
sodium hydroxide?

Answer
3 0x0.4
(i) moles of NaOH =  0.012 moles
1000

40x0.15
(ii) moles of H3PO4 =  0.006 moles
1000

(iii) NaOH : H3PO4

0.012 : 0.006
0.006 0.006
2: 1
2 moles of NaOH required neutralizing one of phosphate acid.

(iv) 2NaOH(aq) + H3PO4 (aq)  Na2HPO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

The formula of sodium salt formed is Na2HPO4

Example 26. 24.0cm3 of sodium of 0.1M KOH were exactly neutralized by 30.0cm3 of sodium of χ M H2SO4.
Find
the concentration of the acid solution (a) as the molarity χ (b) in g/dm 3

2KOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq)  K2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Mole of KOH
1000 cm3 contain 0.1 moles

2 4x0.1
24.0 cm3 will contain  0.0024 moles
1000
Moles of H2SO4
From the equation
2mole of KOH react with 1 mole of H2SO4
 moles of H2SO4 = ½ moles of KOH
0.00 2 4
=  0.0012moles
2
Molarity of χ of H2SO4

30cm3 contain 0.0012mole

0.0 0 1 2x1 0 0 0
1000cm3 will contains  0.04 moles
30

χ = 0.04M
Thus g/dm3 of H2SO4 = 0.04 X 98 = 3.92g/dm3
 19

Example 27. In an experiment to determine the concentration dilute sulphuric acid in moles per litre, 25 cm3 of
0.2M
sodium hydroxide solution required 24.6 of the acid. Calculate the molarity of the acid.

Equation.

2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq)  Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Moles of the NaOH that reacted

1000 cm3 contains 0.2 mole

0.2
1cm3 contains moles
1000
0.2 x 2 5
25 cm3 contain  0.005moles
1000
Moles of H2SO4
From the equation: 2 mole of NaOH reacts with 1 mole H2SO4.

0.05 mole of NaOH react with (½ x 0.005) mole of acid

Molarity
 Mole of H2SO4 in 24.6cm3 that reacted = 0.0025mole

0.0025
1 cm3 contain
24.6
0.0 0 2 5x1 0 0 0
 1000 cm3 contain  0.102 mole
24.6

Therefore, molarity of H2SO4 solution is 0.102M

Example 28. Find the volume of 0.25M HCl required to exactly react with 20 cm3 of 0.1M sodium carbonate
solution.

Reaction equation
Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq)  2NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Moles of the Na2CO3 that reacted

1000 cm3 contains 0.1 moles
0.1
1cm3 contains moles
1000
Moles of HCl
20 cm3 contain
0.1x 2 0
 0.002
moles
1000
 20
From the equation; 1 mole of Na2CO3 reacts with 2 mole HCl

0.02 mole of Na2CO3 react with (0.002x2) mole of HCl

= 0.004 moles
Volume of hydrochloric acid required
0.25moles are contained in 1000cm3

1000x0.004
 0.004 moles will be in
0.25
= 16 cm3

The volume required is 16 cm3

Example 29. 20 cm3 of 0.1 M nitric acid was completely neutralized by 10 cm3 of a hydroxide of a divalent metal
X(OH)2 which was made by dissolving 5.8g of the hydroxide in 1 litre of solution. (H=1,

O=16). (a) Calculate the molarity of the hydroxide.

Reaction equation

X(OH)2 (aq) + 2HNO3 (aq)  X(NO3) (aq) + 2H2O (l)

No. of moles of the nitric acid that reacted

1000 cm3 contains 0.1 moles

0.1
1 cm3 contains moles
1000

20x0.1
=> 20 cm3 contain
1000
= 0.002 moles

(b) Calculate the molar mass of X(OH)2 and hence determine the atomic mass of X.

From the reaction equation 2 moles of nitric acid react with 1 mole of the hydroxide.

1 mole of nitric acid react with ½ moles of X(OH)2

 moles of the hydroxide in reacted 0.002 x ½

= 0.001 mole
Molarity of X(OH)2
 10 cm3 of X(OH)2 contain 0.001 mole

0.001
1 cm3 contains moles
1000
0.001x1000
 1000 cm3 contains
10
= 0.1 moles
 21

Therefore, molarity of the hydroxide = 0.1M.

concentration g /
(b) Molar mass of X(OH)2 =
l morality
5.8
=  58g
0.1

The atomic mass of X is obtained from using the molar mass,

i.e. Molar mass of X(OH)2 = X + 2(16+1) = 58

= X + 34 = 58

 X = 24g

Thus, the hydroxide of compound X is magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2.

Example 29. In determination of water of crystallization of Na 2CO3.nH2O, 14 cm3 of 0.2M HCl was required to
neutralize 25cm3 of sodium carbonate prepared by dissolving 4g of Na 2CO3.nH2O in 250 cm3 of solution.

(a) Calculate the molarity of sodium carbonate.

(b) Calculate the molar mass of the hydrated sodium carbonate and hence calculate the number of moles n of
water of crystallization.

Equations.
Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq)
 2NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

Moles of the acid that reacted

1000 cm3 contain 0.2 mole

0.2
1 cm3 contain moles
1000
0.2 x14
 14 cm3 contain = 0.0028 moles
1000
From the reaction equation, 2 moles of HCl react with 1 mole of the base.

0.0028
Thus, moles Na2CO3 in 25 cm3 that reacted =
2
= 0.0014moles
0.28
1 cm3 contain =
2 x 25
0.28 x1000
 1000 cm3 contain
2 x 25
 22

= 0.056 M.

thus, molarity of sodium carbonate solution is 0.056M.

(b) Molar mass of hydrated sodium carbonate

Con cen tration g 2 x4

Molar mass  = = 286 g
/l
Molarity 0.056

Value of n in the formula Na2CO3.nH2O is calculated using the molar

mass. thus, (23 x 2) + 12 + (16 x 3) + 18n = 286

18n = 286 - 106

n = 10

Example 29. During determination of Basicity of an acid HnA, 25 cm3 of KOH prepared by dissolving 11.2 g in
1 litre of solution was required to neutralize 25 cm3 of 0.1M HnA.

(a) Calculate the molarity of the

hydroxide. (b) Calculate the basicity of the
acid.

a) Molarity of the hydroxide.

concentration ( g
Molarity = Formula mass of KOH = 39 + 16 + 1
//)
Formula mass
= 56g

1 1.2
 Molarity =  0.2M
56

(b) Basicity of the acid.

Equation., nKOH (aq) + HnA (aq)  KnA (aq) + nH2O (l)

Reaction ratio n:1

Moles of the KOH that reacted
0.2 x 2 5
=  0.005moles
1000
Moles of the acid that reacted
 23
0.1x 2 5
=  0.0025moles
1000

0.00 5
Thus n  
2
0.0025

Example 31. What volume of 5M H2SO4 is required to prepare 250 cm3 of 0.25M of the acid.

Molarity1 x Volume1 = Molarity2 x Volume2

5 x volume conc. acid = 0.25 x 250

0.25 x 250
Volume of the conc. acid =
5
= 12.5 cm3
Example 32. 10 cm3 of concentrated sulphuric acid were diluted to 1000 cm 3. 25 cm3 of this diluted acid were
neutralized by 30 cm3 of 0.3 M sodium hydroxide. Calculate the mass of the acid in 1 dm3 of the concentrated
acid.

Equation.

H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq)  Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (aq)

Moles of NaOH that reacted.

1000 cm3 contain 0.3 mole

0.3
1 cm3 
1000

0.3x30
 25 cm3 
1000

= 0.009 moles
but, 2 moles of NaOH react with 1 mole of the acid.

 moles of H2SO4 in 25 ml of the dilute acid

= 0.009 x ½

0.009 x 1000
1000cm3 contain  0.18  molarity of the dilute solution is 0.18M
25 x 2 moles
Since 10 cm3 of the concentrated acid was diluted to 1000 cm3 to make the dilute solution,

then. Molarity1 x Volume1 = Molarity2 x Volume2

 24

10X = 1000 x 0.18

where X is the molarity of the concentrated

acid. thus, X = 18M
The mass of the acid in = Molarity x Molar
mass
1dm3 of concentrated acid

= 18 x 98

= 1764 g.

Example 33. In the determination of the percentage purity of NH4Cl; 5.0 g of an impure salt of NH4Cl was
boiled with 100cm3 of 2M NaOH for about 10 minutes. The residual solution was made up to 250 cm 3 in a
volumetric flask with distilled water. 25 cm3 portion of the resultant solution required 22.4 cm3 of 0.5M HCl for
neutralization using methyl orange indicator.

(a) Calculate the percentage of NH4Cl in the

sample

(b) Hence determine the percentage of ammonia in the pure

sample. Equations

(i) Sodium hydroxide react with NH4Cl to release ammonium gas which is lost on heating as per the

equation. NH4Cl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NH3 (g) + NaCl (aq) + H2O (aq)

(ii) Excess sodium hydroxide reacts with HCl as per the equation.

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)

Moles of the acid that reacted with excess base

1000 cm3 contain 0.5 moles

0.5 x 22.4
 22.4 cm3 contain
1000
= 0.0112 moles
But, 1 mole of the acid reacts with 1 mole of the base

 moles of excess NaOH in 25 cm3 of the solution

0.0112x 250
250 cm3 will contain = 0.0112 moles
25
 25
Moles of NaOH added to impure NH4Cl

1000 cm3 contain 2 moles

2 x10 0
 100 cm3 contain  0.2moles
1000

Mole of NaOH that reacted with NH4Cl is equivalent to the difference between moles NaOH added and that
found in excess.

= 0.2 - 0.112 = 0.088 moles

Since 1 mole of NaOH reacts with 1 mole NH4Cl, then mole of NH4Cl that reacted
= 0.088

Mass of 0.088 moles of NH4Cl = molarity x molar mass

= 0.088 (14+4+35.5)
= 4.708g

Percentage purity = Mass of pure substance x 100

Total mass of impure sample

4.708 x100
 Percentage purity of NH4Cl =
5.0

= 94.2%
(b) Percentage of ammonia in the pure sample
Every 53.5 g of NH4Cl contain 17g of NH3

17 x 4.70 8
 4.708 contain  1.496g
53.5
1.496 x100
Percentage of NH3 in pure sample 4.708

31.77%

Exercise V
1.What is the molarity of 21.2 g of sodium carbonate dissolved in 10 litres of solution (Na=23, C=12, O=16).

2. Find the volume of 0.01M sodium hydroxide which is required to react exactly with 25 cm3 of 0.02M HCl.

3. 25 cm3 of 0.1M sodium carbonate was found to react with 23.3 cm3 of HCl to complete neutralization.
Calculate the molarity of hydrochloric acid.
4. A solution of 0.1M HCl and volume 25 cm3 required 12.5 cm3 of a metal hydroxide M(OH)2 which was
prepared by dissolving 1.45 g of the M(OH)2 in 250cm3 of solution. (H=1, O=16)
(a) Calculate the molarity of M(OH)2
 26
(b) Calculate the molar mass of
M(OH)2
(c) Calculate the atomic mass of
M.

5. Calculate the molarity and concentration in grams per litre of a sodium hydroxide solution, if 12.5 cm3 of
0.2M H2SO4 acid required 25 cm3 of NaOH for complete neutralization.

6. 25 cm3 of oxalic (H2C2O4.nH2O) acid solution prepared by dissolving 2.52 g of the acid into 250 cm3 required
20 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution prepared by dissolving 8 g of the hydroxide in one litre of solution.

(a) Calculate the molarity of sodium hydroxide

solution.
(b) Calculate the molarity of oxalic (H2C2O4.nH2O) acid
solution
(c) Calculate the value of n (the mole of molecules of water of crystallization (c=12, H=1, O=16,
N=23)

7. Calculate the molarities/concentrations of the following solutions.

(a) 20.0g of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, in 250cm3 of solution;
(b) 3.8g of iron (II) sulphate, FeSO4, in 100cm3 solution.

8. Calculate the number of moles of the named substance in

(a) 50cm3 of 0.1 M nitric acid.
(b) 100cm3 of 1.5 M sodium carbonate.

9. Calculate the masses of dissolved substances contained in

(a) 100cm3 of 2 M sodium sulphate solution, Na2SO4.
(b) 50cm3 of 0.2 M potassium carbonate, K2CO3.

10. 8.48 grams of a mixture of sodium chloride and anhydrous sodium carbonate were dissolved in 100
cm3 of solution. 5 cm3 of this solution required 40 cm3 of 0.1M HCl for complete neutralization.
Calculate the percentage composition of the original mixture.

11. Concentrated hydrochloric acid containing 36% by mass of the acid has a density of 1.18 g/cm3.
Calculate the volume of this acid required to neutralize 8.4 grams of sodium hydrogen carbonate.

12. 20 cm3 of 0.9M sodium hydroxide solution were added to 50 cm3 of nitric acid. The excess acid
neutralized 20 cm3 of 1.1M alkali. Calculate the molarity of the original acid solution and the number
of grams of nitric acid per dm3 of this solution.

13. 2 grams of impure calcium carbonate were added to 80 cm3 of 1.25M hydrochloric acid. The
resulting solution was made up to 100 cm3 and 10 cm3 of this neutralized 12.5 cm3 of sodium
hydroxide solution containing 20 g/dm3. Determine the percentage purity of the calcium carbonate.
14. 0.15 gram of an ammonium salt was heated with excess sodium hydroxide. The ammonia given off
was absorbed in 25 cm3 of 0.16M HCl. The excess acid required 12 cm3 of 0.2M sodium hydroxide
for neutralization. Calculate the percentage of ammonia in the salt.

15. 24 cm3 of solution of tribasic acid containing 12 grams of the acid per dm3 of solution just
neutralized
48 cm3 of 0.09M sodium hydroxide. Calculate the molar mass of the acid.
 27

1985/2/6
(a) (i) Explain the term primary standard solution (3marks)
(ii) Why is sodium hydroxide NOT recommended as a primary standard for volumetric
analysis? (2 marks)
(b) (i) Why does the salt of sodium carbonate behaves as an alkali in acid-base titration?
(ii) 21.40g of hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3.xH2O) was dissolved in water to make a litre
of solution. 25 cm3 of this solution required 18.70cm3 of 0.2M standard hydrochloric acid
solution for complete neutralization. Calculate the value of X.
1991/1/11
A hydrated compound Q contains the following ions, iron, sulphate and ammonium.
(a) When 9.64g of Q was heated, 4.32g of water was evolved. Determine the number of moles of water
of crystallization in Q. (1mark).

(b) When a solution containing 9.64g of Q was heated strongly with excess sodium hydroxide solution,
2.14g of hydroxide of iron was formed together with ammonia. The ammonia required 100cm3 of 0.2M
hydrochloric acid for complete neutralization.
Calculate
(i) the number of moles of ammonium ions in Q
(2marks)
(ii) the number of moles of irons in Q (2marks)
(c) A solution containing9.64g of Q was treated with excess barium chloride solution gave 9.32g of
barium sulphate. Determine the number of moles of sulphate ions in Q (2marks)
(d) Determine the molecular formula of Q. (2marks)

1991/1/1
Concentrated sulphuric acid is 18M. Calculate the volume, in cm3 of the acid that would be
required to prepare 200cm3 of 2.0M sulphuric acid (3 marks)

1992/2/8
(b) Concentrated nitric acid is 70% (w/w) and has a density of 1.42gcm-3.
(c) 12.68 cm3 of the acid in (b) was dissolved in water and the solution made up to 250 cm3 with
distilled water. Calculate the volume that would react completely with 25.0cm3 of 0.2M sodium
carbonate (4 marks)

1994/1/15
1.55g of an acid CnH2n(COOH)2 was dissolved in water and the solution made up to 250cm3. 25.0cm3
of this solution required 23.5cm3 of 0.1M aqueous sodium hydroxide solution for complete
neutralization.
Calculate n (9 marks)
2003/2/8c
1.07g of a nitrogen containing compound was boiled with excess sodium hydroxide solution to produce
ammonia. The ammonia produced neutralized 200cm3 of a 0.1M monobasic acid. Calculate the
percentage by mass of nitrogen in the compound (3)
 28

Redox titration

Redox reaction is a reaction in which both reduction and oxidation take place simultaneously. A
reduction reaction is where there is addition of elections to an ion species;

e.g., Cu2+ (aq) + 2e Cu(aq)

whereas, oxidation is loss of electrons from a compound.

Zn(s) -2e Zn2+(aq)

The species which accepts electrons such as Cu2+ is reduced but is referred to as an oxidizing agent.
The species which donates electrons such as Zn2+ is oxidized but is referred to as a reducing agent
Oxidation Number
This is a number used to express the oxidation state of an element. Atoms of elements are given
oxidation number zero. Then when two elements are combined the atoms or ions of more
electronegative element are regarded as being in negative oxidation state, and those of a more
electropositive element in a positive state. If we arbitrary assume that the bonds between the atoms are
 29
all ionic, the oxidation number of an element is simply the number of electrons given up or received by
an atom of an element. In sodium chloride the oxidation number of sodium is 1, while that of chlorine
is -1. hydrogen in HCl has oxidation number 1 but in sodium hydride, NaH is -1. Some elements have
several oxidation states. Sulphur has oxidation number -2 in H2S, 4 in SO2 and VI inSO3. chlorine
shows a wide variety of oxidation number, e.g. -1 in HCl, 0 in Cl2, 1 in ClO-, 3 in ClF3, 4 in ClO2, 5 in
ClO3-, 6 in ClO3 and 7 in ClO4-.

An increase in oxidation number of an element during a reaction means that an element has been
oxidized. conversely, a decrease in oxidation number means that an element has been reduced.

Calculating oxidation number of ions of an element in complex ions.

Unless otherwise stated or implied in these calculations, the oxidation number of a metal is equal to
group number, e.g., Na is 1, Mg is 2 Al is 3. Oxidation number of O is -2 and that of any group 7
element is -1.

Example 34. calculate the oxidation number of manganese ion in KMnO4.

Here the oxidation number of K = 1 and that of oxygen is implied to be -2. if the oxidation number of
Mn is X
Then, 1 + X + -2 x 4 = 0 (overall charge ion the molecule)
X=7

Exercise VI
Calculate the oxidation numbers of the Bolden atoms in molecules or atoms below
1. (i) KIO3 (ii) SO42- (iii) Cr2O72-
(iv) H2O2 (v) KClO4 (vi) Na2S2O6

Half equations
These are balanced based on the number of electrons lost or accepted by a central atom.
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 30
Example, equation for reduction of manganate (VII) in acidic medium is written as follows:
MnO4-(aq) + 5e + 8H+ (aq) → Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O (l)
Five electrons are added because the oxidation number of Mn is reduced from 7 to 2.

Exercise VI I
Balance the following reduction equations
(i) Cr2O72-(aq) + e + H+(aq) → Cr3+(aq) + H2O(l)
(ii) IO3- (aq) + e + H+(aq) → I2(aq) + H2O(l)
(iii) H2O2 (aq) + e + H (aq) → H2O (l)

The following are common oxidation half equation reactions:

(i) Fe2+(aq) -e → F3+(aq)
(ii) H2O2(aq) -2e → 2H+(aq) + O2 (g)
(iii) I- (aq) – e → ½ I2 (aq)
(iv) C2O42- (aq) -2e → 2CO2 (g)

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 31
Overall equation
These are constructed from half equation in such a way that the number electron received by
an oxidizing agent is equal to the number of electron lost from a reducing agent.
For example a reaction between MnO4- and Fe2+ in acidic medium, the half equation of Fe2+ is
multiplied by 5 to provide the 5 electron necessary to reduce MnO4-.
That is,
MnO4-(aq) + 5e + 8H+ (aq) → Mn2+ (aq) + 4H2O (l)
Plus
5(Fe2+ (aq) -e → F3+ (aq))
Equals
MnO4-(aq) + 5Fe2+ (aq) + 8H+ (aq)
→ Mn2+ (aq) + 5F3+(aq) + 4H2O (l)
Exercise VI
1. Write overall equations between the following pairs of ions or compounds, assume acidic medium
where necessary
(a) MnO4- and I- (b) MnO4- and H2O2
(c) KIO3 and KI (d) MnO4- and C2O42-
(e) K2Cr2O7 and FeSO4
2. 0.9875g of an impure potassium manganate (VII) was dissolved in water to make 250cm3 of
solution. When 20.0cm3 of this solution was acidified with dilute sulphuric acid, warmed and
titrated against sodium ethanedioate (oxalate) solution, made by dissolving 1.675g of anhydrous
sodium ethanedioate to make 250 cm3, 24.40cm3 of sodium ethanedioate solution was used.
(Na2C2O4 =134 and KMnO4 = 158).
Calculate percentage purity of potassium permanganate (VII)
3. 10cm3 of concentrated hydrogen peroxide was diluted to 250cm3. 20cm3 of the dilute solution
required 28.30cm3 of 0.02M potassium manganate (VII) solution for complete reaction. Find the
volume strength of the concentrated hydrogen peroxide solution.

1990/1/5
Potassium permanganate is commonly used as a reagent in volumetric analysis. However it is not a
primary standard.
 32
(a) State two disadvantage of using potassium manganate (VII) as a reagent in volumetric analysis.
(b) Give two reasons why potassium manganate (VII) is not used as a primary standard
(c) Write a half equation for the reduction of manganate (VII) ions in
(i) acid solution
(ii) alkaline solution

1994/1/17
(a)In volumetric estimation of reducing agent, potassium dichromate (VI) is preferred to potassium
manganate (VII) as an oxidant
Explain why potassium dichromate (VI) is preferred as an oxidant. (2 marks)

(b)3.8g of solder containing tin was dissolved in excess hydrochloric acid. The solution was made up to
250cm3. 25.0cm3 of this solution required 23.5cm3 of a 0.01M potassium dichromate (VI) solution
for complete reaction.
Calculate the percentage, by mass, of tin in the solder.

(d) Explain why chlorine is more soluble in dilute sodium hydroxide than in water (4 marks)

1999/1/1
(a) Determine the oxidation number of
i. Nitrogen in HNO3
ii. Sulphur in S2O8 (1marks)
(b) Write half equation for the conversion of S2O82- to SO42- ions
(c) Complete the following and balance the equations
i. S2O82- + I- →
ii. Sn2+(aq) + S2O82- (aq) →

2001/1/14
Iron (II) sulphate is normally used to standardize a solution of potassium manganate (VII) acidified
with sulphuric acid.
(i) write equation for the reaction between potassium manganate (VII) and iron (II) sulphate
(ii) State why hydrochloric acid is not used to acidify potassium manganate (VII) solution
(b) 25 cm3 of acidified solution of 0.02M potassium manganate (II) reacted exactly with 24.95 cm3 of
sodium nitrite. Potassium manganate (VII) reacts with sodium nitrite according to the following
equation
2MnO4-(aq) + 5NO2-(aq) + 6H+(aq)
→ 2Mn2+(aq) + 5NO3-(aq) +3H2O(l)
Calculate the concentration of sodium nitrite in moles per litre.
 33
Iodometry 1 mole of NaOCl weighs (40 + 16+ 35.5)
Here a substance is reacted with excess potassium = 91.5g
iodide in redox equation to liberate iodine; the 0.0625 moles weigh = 91.5 x 0.0625
amount of iodine liberated is determined by = 5.7g/l
titration with sodium thiosulphate solution to
determine the concentration of the substance. Exercise VII

Example 35 1986/2/8e
Find concentration of NaOCl in gram per litre 6.53 g of impure copper was dissolved in excess
given that 20cm3 of NaOCl solution was reacted nitric acid. The solution obtained mad up to 250cm3
with excess potassium iodide, the liberated iodine of solution with water. To 25cm3 of this solution
required 25 cm3 of 0.1M sodium thiosulphate excess aqueous potassium iodide was added. The
solution. reaction that took place is given by the equation
2Cu2+(aq) + 4I-(aq) → Cu2I2 (s) + I2 (aq)
Solution
The iodine liberated reacted with 20cm3 of 0.5M
In acid medium, sodium chlorate reacts with iodide aqueous sodium thiosulphate according to the
ions to liberate iodine, which oxidizes thiosulphate equation
ions.
2S2O32-(aq) + I2 (aq) → S4O62- (aq) 2I-(aq)
The reactions take place according to the following
equations Calculate the percentage of by mass the purity of
copper in the sample (Cu =64) (6marks)
OCl- (aq) + 2I- (aq) + 2H+ (aq)
→ I2 (aq) + 2H2O (l) 1997/2/7c
2.0g of a mixture of potassium chloride and
I2 (aq) + 2S2O32- (aq) → 2I- (aq) + S4O62- (aq) potassium chlorate were dissolved in 250cm3 of
water. 10cm3 of the solution was mixed with excess
Moles of sodium thiosulphate that reacted potassium iodide. The iodine liberated required
100cm3 contain 0.1moles 8.0cm3 of a 0.2M sodium thiosulphate solution for
0.1 x 25 complete reaction. Potassium chlorate and
25cm3 contain 
1000 0.0025mols potassium chloride react according to the equation
Moles of iodine produced from equation 2
0.00 2 5
=  0.00125moles
2 ClO3- (aq) + 6H+ (aq) + 6I- (aq)
Moles NaOCl → 3I2(aq) + Cl-(aq) + 3H2O
(l) Calculate the percentage of potassium chlorate
From equation 1, moles of NaOCl is equal to the
in the
moles of iodine = 0.0015 moles
mixture (6marks)
Molarity of NaOCl
20cm3 of NaOCl solution contain 0.00125 moles
Question
0.0012 5x 100 0 During the determination of concentration of
= 0.0625M
1000cm3 contain
20
 g/dm3 of the peroxide, 12 cm3 of medical hydrogen peroxide was
hydrogen
medical diluted to 250cm3 with distilled water. 20cm3 of the
peroxide in
hydrogen
Concentration in grams per litre
 34 1000 cm3 contain 0.2 mole
dilute solution was acidified required and excess KI
added. The liberated iodine required 22cm3 of
sodium thiosulphate solution containing 9.3g
Na2S2O3.5H2O in 250cm3of solution.

In acid medium, hydrogen peroxide reacts with

iodide ions follows”

H2O2(aq) + 2I- (aq) + 2H+(aq) →I2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Calculate the volume strength of medical hydrogen

peroxide.

Double indicator titration.

Titration requiring use of two indicators is

employed to determine the concentrations and
proportions of any two of the following base in a
mixture, i.e. NaOH, Na2CO3 and NaHCO3.
Ideally, the two indicators referred to here are the
phenolphthalein and methyl orange indicator. The
basis of these titrations is that, NaOH, and Na2CO3
are titrated to complete neutralization with methyl
orange, whereas, NaHCO3 is acidic to
phenolphthalein indicator and thus Na2CO3 is only
half neutralized when titrated with an acid in
presence of phenolphthalein indicator.

Example 36. 7.15 g sodium carbonate

Na2CO3.nH2O
was dissolved in water to make 250 ml of solution.
25.0 cm3 of this solution required 12.50 cm3 of 0.2
M HCl using phenolphthalein indicator. Calculate
the value if n.

Equation
In presence of phenolphthalein indicator sodium
carbonate is only half neutralized as per the
equation

Na2CO3.nH2O (aq) + HCl (aq)

 NaHCO3 (aq) + (n+1) H2O (l)

Moles of the acid that reacted:

 Molarity

= 0.0025 mole 7.15 x 4

=
From the reaction equation, 1 mole of 0.1
Na2CO3.nH2O reacts with 1 mole of HCl. = 286
Thus, (23 x 2) + 12 + (16 x 3) + n (2+16) = 286
 0.0025 mole of the acid react with 0.0025 mole
of 106 + 18n = 286
Na2CO3.nH2O.
n = 10
Morality of Na2CO3.nH2O
 25,0 cm3 of Na2CO3.nH2O solution contain
Example 35. 25.0 cm3 of a solution containing a
0.0025 mole of Na2CO3.nH2O.
mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium hydrogen
carbonate require 15.0 cm3 of 0.1M HCl using
0.0025x 1000
1000 cm3 contain phenolphthalein indicator. 25.0 cm3 of the same
25 mixture required 28 cm3 of the acid using methyl
orange indicator. Calculate the proportion by mass
= 0.1M of the two bases in the mixture.
 Molarity of Na2CO3.nH2O solution is 0.1M
Equation for the reaction that took place using
Concentration g/l phenolphthalein
RMM of Na2CO3.nH2O =

0 . 2 x 1 2. 5 NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

12.5 cm3 contain
1000
 35
3
 15 cm of 0.1M HCl was required to neutralize 0.1 x 13
 13 cm3 contain = 0.0013 mole
NaOH is 25 cm3 of the mixture. 1000

Equations using methyl orange indicator

From the reaction ratio of 1:1,
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) 1mole of HCl reacts with 1 mole of the NaHCO3.
and
NaHCO3 (aq) + HCl (aq)
 NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)  moles of NaHCO3 in 25 cm3 = 0.0013 mole

 The difference between the volume (28 – 15 =13 0.0 0 13 x 1 0 0 0

cm3) of the acid was required to neutralize 1000 cm3 will contain
25
NaHCO3.

= 0.052 M
No. of moles of the acid that reacted with NaOH
Concentration of NaHCO3 in g/L = RMM x
1000 cm3 contain 0.1 mole
Molarity

= 84 x 0.052
0.1 x
 15 cm3 contain 15 = 0.0015 mole
= 4.368 g/dm3
1000

The ratio of masses of NaOH : NaHCO3 is 2.4 :

From the reaction ratio of 1:1, 1 mole of HCl reacts 4.368
with 1 mole of NaOH.
= 1 : 1.82
3
 moles of NaOH in 25 cm = 0.0015 mole Example 36. (1990/1/13) 25.0 cm3 of a solution
containing a mixture of sodium carbonate and
0.0 0 1 5 x 1 0 0 0 sodium hydroxide require 30.0 cm3 of 0.1M H2SO4
1000 cm3 will contain
25
No. of moles of the acid that reacted with NaHCO3.
= 0.06 M
1000 cm3 contain 0.1 mole

Concentration of NaOH in g/L = RMM x Molarity

= 40 x 0.06

= 2.4 g/dm3
using phenolphthalein indicator. Another 25.0 cm3
of
the same mixture required 48.0 cm3 of the acid
using methyl orange indicator. Calculate the molar
concentration of the mixture with respect to:
(i) Sodium carbonate (ii) sodium hydroxide.
(9Marks)

Reaction Equations.
1.Using phenolphthalein indicator.
2Na2CO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq)
 2NaHCO3 (aq) + Na2SO4 (l)
2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq)
 Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

2. Using methyl orange indicator.

Na2CO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq)
 Na2SO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
 36
2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) From the reaction ratio of 1:1, 1 mole of H2SO4
 Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l) reacts with 1 mole of the Na2CO3.

From the reactions above, the extra volume (48 - 30  moles of Na2CO3 in 25 cm3 = 0.0036 mole
= 18 cm3) of acid under methyl orange indicator is
used to half neutralization of Na2CO3. This also 0.0 0 3 6 x 1 0 0 0
1000 cm3 will contain = 0.144 M
is equal to the volume of the acid that converts 25
Na2CO3 to NaHCO3.
 the molarity of solution in respect to Na2CO3 is
 the volume of the acid that completely 0.144M
neutralized Example 37. 25.0 cm3 of a solution containing a
Na2CO3 in 25 cm3 of solution = 18 x 2 = 36 cm3. mixture of sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen
carbonate require 15.0 cm3 of 0.5M HCl using
And volume of the acid that reacted phenolphthalein indicator. Another 25.0 cm3 of the
with NaOH = 30 - 18 same mixture required 34.5 cm3 of the acid using
= 12 cm3. methyl orange indicator. Calculate the
concentration of the mixture with respect to: (i)
sodium carbonate (ii) sodium hydrogen carbonate
per dm3 of solution.
No. of moles of the acid that reacted with NaOH.
Reaction Equations.
1000 cm3 contain 0.1 mole 1.Using phenolphthalein indicator.
2Na2CO3 (aq) + HCl (aq)
0.1 x 1 2  2NaHCO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq)
 12 cm3 contain = 0.0012 mole
1000
2. Using methyl orange indicator.
From the reaction ratio of 1:2, 1 mole of H2SO4
reacts with 2 moles of NaOH. Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq)
 2NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
 moles of NaOH in 25 cm3 = 0.0012 x 2 mole NaHCO3 (aq) + HCl (aq)
 NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
1000 cm3 will contain 0.0012 x 2 x 1000
25 From the reactions above, 15.0 cm3 of the acid was
required for half neutralization of Na2CO3.
= 0.048 M
 the volume of the acid that completely
 Molarity of solution in respect to NaOH = neutralized
0.048M. Na2CO3 in 25 cm3 of solution = 15 x 2 = 30 cm3.

and volume of the acid that reacted with NaHCO3

3
No. of moles of the acid that reacted with Na2CO3. initially in 25.0 cm of the mixture = 34.5 - 30
= 4.5 cm3.
1000 cm3 contain 0.1 mole
 36 cm3 contain
 No. of moles
of the acid
0.1 x36
= that reacted
1000 0.0036 with Na2CO3.
mole
1000 cm3
contain
0.5 mole
 3
 30 cm3 contain 7 = 0.015 mole
0.5 x 30
1000

From the reaction ratio of 2:1, 2 mole of HCl react

with 1 mole of the Na2CO3

 moles of NaOH in 25 cm3

0.01 5
=  0.0075 moles
2
0.0 0 7 5 x 1 0 0 0
1000 cm3 will contain = = 0.3 M
25

Concentration of Na2CO3 in g/L = RMM x Molarity

= 106 x 0.3

= 31.8 g/dm3

No. of moles of the acid that reacted with NaHCO3

1000 cm3 contain 0.5 mole

0 .5 x 4 .5
 4.5 cm3 contain 0.5 = 0.00225 mole
1000

From the reaction ratio of 1:1, 1 mole of HCl

reacts with 1 mole of NaHCO3.

 moles of NaHCO3 in 25 cm3 = 0.00225 mole

0.0022 5x 100 0
1000 cm3 will contain
25

= 0.09 M

Concentration of NaHCO3 in g/L

= RMM x Molarity
= 84 x 0.09
= 7.56 g/dm3
 38

Answers
Exercise IV
1. 25.0 cm3 of a solution containing a mixture of Exercise I
sodium i. (a) 132, (b) 286, (c) 90 (d) 116
carbonate and sodium hydroxide require 27.2 cm 3 of ii. 63Cu =72.5%, 65Cu = 27.5%
0.05M H2SO4 using phenolphthalein indicator. Another
25.0 cm3 of the same mixture required 37.6 cm3 of the Exercise II
acid using methyl orange indicator. Calculate the mass 1. (i) 5L, (ii) 25L (ii) 0.1L.
of each base in 250 cm3 of the mixture. 2. (a) 1.2 x 1023 (b) 1.2 x 1022 (c) 3 x 1023 (d) 3 x 1023
3. 11; 4. 171; 5. 16 g of sulphur, 28 g of iron.
2. 25.0 cm3 of a solution containing a mixture of sodium
carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate require 11.2 Exercise III
cm3 of 0.1M HCl using phenolphthalein indicator and a 1. H = 6.7%, O = 53.3%; 2. PbO2; 3. 7; 4. FeCl3; 5.
further 28.6 cm3 of the acid using methyl orrange Mg3N2
indicator. Calculate the per centage (w/v) of sodium 6. C8H18, alkane; 7. C3H8O; 8. (i) H=0.03 g, C=0.18 g, O
carbonate in the mixture. = 0.08 g (ii) C3H6O; 9. C4H8O, C4H8O; 10. CH2O,
C6H12O6

1993/2/7c Exercise IV
1. 33.33 g; 2. 0.16 g Cu; 3. 1.44dm3 O2, 1.92 g oxygen
25.0cm3 of a solution containing a mixture of 4.26.5 g Na CO , 6 dm3 3

sodium 2 3 of CO2; 5. 0.2 g of H2, 24 dm of

carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate required H2.
15.00cm3 of 0.5M hydrochloric acid for complete 6. 64; 7. 8.125 g FeCl3, 1.8 dm3 of Cl2; 8. 1.536 g
reaction using phenolphthalein indicator. 9. 28 tonnes of iron, 33 g of CO2, 18 dm3 of CO2.
10. 23.8 g of NH4Cl, 8.96 dm3 of NH3 11. 100 litres of
25.0cm3 of solution of the mixture required C3H8
34.50cm3 of the acid using methyl orange indicator. 12. (i) 59.3 cm3, (ii) 45 cm3 at r.t.p; 13. C4H8 14. C4H8
Calculate the mass of sodium carbonate and sodium 15. (a) 0.6 mole of CO2, (b) 26.4 g of CO2 (c) 0.88 g of
hydrogen carbonate in the solution in grams per C3H8, (d) 0.125 mole of C3H8, (e) 66 g of CO2, (f) 0.75;
litre. (6marks) 16. 0.4

Exercise IV

1. 0.02M; 2. 50 cm3; 3. 0.2146M; 4. (a) 0.05, (b) 74, (c)

40
5. 0.2M; 6. (a) 0.2M, (b) 0.1M, (c) n=2; 7. (a) 2M, (b)
0.25M
8. (a) 0.005 mole, (b) 0.15 mole; 9. (a) 24.4 g, (b) 1.38 g
10. 50% of each; 11. 8.59 cm3; 12. 0.8M, 50.4 g/dm3, 13.
96.9%;
14. 18.1 per cent; 15. 200.
Exercise IV : 1. Na2CO3 , 4.41; NaOH,2.688 2. 0.445%
 39

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