Explain the basics of Introduction to SQL (Structured Query Language) or

introduction to SQL

SQL(Structured Query Language) is a standardized programming language used to

manage and manipulate relational databases.

SQL is used to query, insert, update, and delete data stored in relational database
management systems (RDBMS) like MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server,
Oracle, and SQLite.

1. Database: A collection of data organized in a structured way, usually into

tables.
2. Table:A collection of rows and columns where data is stored .Each table
in a database represents a specific entity, such as customers, products, or
orders.
3. Row: Also known as are tuple, represents a single data entry in a table.
A row contains values corresponding to the columns of the table.
4. Column: Defines the type of data that will be stored in a table. Columns
are also referred to as fields or attributes.
5. Primary Key:A unique identifier for each row in a table. Not rows
can have the same primary key value.
6. Foreign Key :A column that creates a relationship between two tables by
referencing the primary key of another table.

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 Basic SQL Operations
 Data Querying
 Data Definition Language(DDL)
 Data Manipulation Language(DML)
 Data Control Language(DCL)

Data Querying (SELECT)

Retrieve data from the table using SELECT query.

Syntax

SELECT column1,
column2, ... FROM
table_name WHERE
condition;

Example 1
SELECT * FROM Employees;

Output

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Example 2 : Selecting Specific Columns

SELECT Name, Department FROM Employees;

Example 3: Filtering Data Using WHERE Clause

SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE Department = 'IT';

Data Definition Language (DDL)or Explain DDL commands with example

DDL (Data Definition Language) is used to define and manage the structure of database
objects like tables,

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It includes commands such as
 CREATE a table,
 ALTER a table,
 DROP a table,
 TRUNCATE a table,
 RENAME a table.

CREATE a table

Create a new database object (table)

Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
....);

Example 1

SQL>CREATE TABLE student ( ID NUMBER(6) , Name VARCHAR2(100), Address

NUMBER(10 );

Table created

Output

Table student

ID Name Address

Example 2

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SQL>CREATE TABLE employee ( empID NUMBER(6) , Name VARCHAR2(100),
Address NUMBER(10 );

Table created
Table employee

empID Name Address

Create a table with Primary Key

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a table.

Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values, and cannot contain NULL values.

It does not permit duplication.

Primary Key=Unique +Not null

Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name

( column1 datatype PRIMARY KEY, column2 datatype, ... );

Example 1
CREATE TABLE Products ( Product_ID NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY, Product_Name
VARCHAR2(200), Price NUMBER(8) );

OUTPUT
Table :Products
Product_ID Product_Name Price

Example 2 For primary key

CREATE TABLE student ( STUID NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY, stuName
VARCHAR2(200), address Varchar2(10));
OUTPUT
Table :student
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STUID stuName address

Create a table using foreign Key

A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table, that refers to
the PRIMARY KEY in another table.

Syntax
CREATE TABLE child_table ( column1 datatype, column2 datatype REFERENCES
parent_table (parent_column) );

Table1 : Students
CREATE TABLE Students ( StuID NUMBER(5) PRIMARY KEY, Name
VARCHAR2(50), Age NUMBER(2) );
output
StuID Name Age
1 raj 17
2 ravi 18
5 rakesh 19

Table 2 stumarks
CREATE TABLE stumarks (Course_Name VARCHAR2(50), StuID NUMBER(5)
REFERENCES Students (Stu_ID),

output
Course_Name StuID
BCA 1
BCOM 2
BCOM(CA) 5

Alter a table

The ALTER TABLE statement is used to modify an existing table by adding,

modifying, or deleting columns.

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Syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype;

Example 1: Adding a New Column

ALTER TABLE student ADD Email VARCHAR2(100);

output
ID Name Address Email

Example 2:ALTER TABLE - DROP COLUMN

Syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;

ALTER TABLE student DROP COLUMN Email;

Output

ID Name Address

Drop aTable

The DROP TABLE statement is used to drop an existing table in a database.

Syntax

DROP TABLE table_name;

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Example1
DROP TABLE Shippers;

Example2
DROP TABLE employee;

Example 3

DROP TABLE student;

SQL TRUNCATE TABLE

The TRUNCATE TABLE statement is used to delete the data inside a table, but not the
table itself.

Syntax
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example 1: Truncate the Students Table

TRUNCATE TABLE Students;

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Example 2: Truncate the Employees Table

TRUNCATE TABLE Employees;

Deletes all employee records but retains the table structure.

Rename

The RENAME statement is used to change the name of a table or a column in SQL.

Syntax

RENAME TABLE old_table_name TO new_table_name;

Example 1 old table name : Employees

RENAME TABLE Employees TO Staff;

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Example 2 old table name : students

RENAME Table Students TO Learners;

*********** Data Definition Language or DDL commands end************

Explain Data Manipulation Language(DML)or explain in detail about DML

commands with example

DML is used for managing and manipulating data within database objects (tables). It
includes the following commands:

1. INSERT – To add new records to a table.

2. UPDATE – To modify existing records in a table.
3. DELETE – To remove records from a table.
4. SELECT – To retrieve data from one or more tables.

Insert

The INSERT statement in SQL is used to add new records (rows) to a table. You can
insert data into specific columns or all columns in a table.

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Syntax
INSERT INTO <tablename> VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);
Example 1

SQL>INSERT INTO students values ( 1001, 'Alice', 20);

SQL> INSERT INTO students values ( 1002, 'BOb', 22);

Output

Example 2

SQL>INSERT INTO Employee VALUES (101, 'John', 'Doe', 30, 'Marketing');

SQL> NSERT INTO Employee VALUES (102, 'Jane', 'Smith', 25, 'Sales');
SQL> INSERT INTO Employee VALUES (103, 'David', 'Johnson', 35, 'HR');

Output

Example 3

SQL> CREATE TABLE library_books (

book_id number(5)PRIMARY KEY,
title VARCHAR(100),
author VARCHAR(100));

Table created

Inserting a Single Book

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INSERT INTO library_books VALUES(1, 'The Alchemist', 'Paulo Coelho');
INSERT INTO library_books VALUES(2, '1984', 'George Orwell');
INSERT INTO library_books VALUES( 3, 'The Great Gatsby', 'F. Scott Fitzgerald');
NSERT INTO library_books Values(4, 'The Hobbit', 'J.R.R. Tolkien');
Output

Update

The UPDATE statement in SQL is used to modify existing records in a table. It allows
you to change one or more columns for specific rows based on conditions.

Syntax

UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ... WHERE condition;

 UPDATE: Specifies the table to update.

 SET: Defines the columns and their new values.
 WHERE: Filters which rows to update. (If omitted, all rows will be updated!)

example 1

Example1 Using UPDATE

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UPDATE students SET grade = 'A+' WHERE name = 'Bob';

UPDATE students SET age = 18, grade = 'B' WHERE name = 'Charlie';

Output

Example2 Using UPDATE

Update a Single Column

UPDATE employees SET salary = 55000 WHERE name = 'John';
output

Update Multiple Columns

UPDATE employees SET department = 'IT', salary = 65000 WHERE name = 'Bob';

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DELETE

The DELETE statement in SQL is used to remove existing records from a table. You
can delete specific rows based on a WHERE condition or remove all records from a
table.

Syntax:

DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

DELETE FROM table_name — Specifies the table to delete data from.

WHERE — Filters which rows to delete. (Omitting this will delete all rows!)

Example 1

Delete a Specific Row

Remove the student Bob from the table.

DELETE FROM students WHERE name = 'Bob';

Output

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Delete Multiple Rows Based on Condition

DELETE FROM students WHERE grade = 'B';

Example 2

Delete a Specific Employee

Remove employee Bob from the table.

DELETE FROM employees WHERE name = 'Bob';

Output

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DELETE FROM employees WHERE department = 'IT';

Output

Select

The SELECT statement in SQL is used to retrieve data from one or more tables.

It allows you to choose specific columns, filter rows, and even perform calculations or
aggregations on the data.

Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table_name WHERE condition;

SELECT — Specifies which columns to retrieve.

FROM — Indicates the table to pull data from.
WHERE (optional) — Filters rows based on conditions.

Example 1

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Select All Columns

Retrieve all data from the employees table.

SELECT * FROM employees;

Select Specific Columns

Retrieve only employee names and their departments.

SELECT name, department FROM employees;

Select with Condition

Get details of employees with a salary greater than 60000.

SELECT name, salary FROM employees WHERE salary > 60000;

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Example2

Select All Columns

Retrieve all data from the students table.

SELECT * FROM students;

Select Specific Columns

SELECT name, grade FROM students;

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Select with Condition
Get details of students with grade 'B'.

SELECT name, age, city FROM students WHERE grade = 'B';

***** DML commands or( data Manipulation Language****

Data Control Language(DCL)

Data Control Language (DCL) is a subset of SQL commands that deals with rights,
permissions, and access control in a database. It is used to grant or revoke user
privileges and control how users interact with the database.

DCL Commands:

1. GRANT — Gives users access privileges to the database.

2. REVOKE — Removes previously granted permissions.

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Syntax

Example1

Grant SELECT Privilege

Allow user john to read data from the students table.

GRANT SELECT ON students TO john;

Example2

GRANT SELECT ON emplyees TO Raj;

Grant Multiple Privileges

Allow user John to read and insert data into the employees table.

GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON students TO john;

Example 1

REVOKE INSERT ON employees FROM john;

Example 2

REVOKE SELECT ON students FROM john;

Example3

Revoke SELECT ON employees from Raj;

***** Data control Language (or) DCL end ***********

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Explain Additional Select Query keywords and Queries

Example

Using DISTINCT example

Get a list of unique grades from the students table.

Query1

SELECT DISTINCT grade FROM students;

Output
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Using BETWEEN

Find students aged between 18 and 20.

Query

SELECT name, age FROM students WHERE age BETWEEN 18 AND 20;

Using IN
List students who live in either Chicago or Miami.

Query

SELECT name, city FROM students WHERE city IN ('Chicago', 'Miami');

Output

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Using LIKE for Pattern Matching

Find students whose names start with the letter 'A'.

Query

SELECT name FROM students WHERE name LIKE 'A%';

Order BY

Query

SELECT name, marks FROM students ORDER BY marks DESC LIMIT 3;

Group By

The GROUP BY clause groups rows that have the same values in specified columns and
is often used with aggregate functions like COUNT(), SUM(), AVG(), MIN(), or
MAX().

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Syntax:

SELECT column_name, AGGREGATE_FUNCTION(column_name) FROM

table_name GROUP BY column_name;

AGGREGATE_FUNCTION — Functions like COUNT(), SUM(), AVG(), etc.

GROUP BY — Groups rows that share the same value in one or more columns.

Example

Count Students by Grade

🔄 Find the number of students in each grade.

SELECT grade, COUNT(*) AS student_count FROM students GROUP BY grade;

Average Marks by Grade

Calculate the average marks for each grade.

SELECT grade, AVG(marks) AS average_marks FROM students GROUP BY grade;

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****** Additional Select Queries and Keywords end************

Explain in detail about Relational Set Operators

Relational Set Operators in SQL are used to combine the results of two or more SELECT
queries. These operators follow set theory principles (like in mathematics) and help manage data
across multiple tables.

 Union
 Union ALL
 Intersect
 Minus or Except

Union

The UNION operator in SQL is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT
statements into a single result set. It removes duplicate records by default.

Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table1

UNION

SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table2;

Both SELECT statements must have the same number of columns with similar data
types.

UNION removes duplicates;

Example

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SELECT name, course FROM students_science

UNION

SELECT name, course FROM students_arts;

Example 2 for Union

SELECT name, course FROM BCA

UNION

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SELECT name, course FROM Bcom(CA);

Sample table 1: BCA

Sno name address

1 Raj KJ steet
2 Ravi TJ Nagar
3 kamal Jj Nagar

Sample table 2: BCOM(CA)

Sno name address

1 Raj KJ steet
2 Ravi TJ Nagar
4 sekar KK nagar

Output

Sno name address

1 Raj KJ steet
2 Ravi TJ Nagar
3 kamal Jj Nagar
4 sekar KK nagar

Union ALL

The UNION ALL operator is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT
statements including duplicates.

Combine both tables and include duplicates.

Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table1

UNION ALL

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SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table2;

Example for Union ALL

SELECT name, course FROM BCA

UNION ALL

SELECT name, course FROM Bcom(CA);

Sample table 1: BCA

Sno name address

1 Raj KJ steet
2 Ravi TJ Nagar
3 kamal Jj Nagar

Sample table 2: BCOM(CA)

Sno name address

1 Raj KJ steet
2 Ravi TJ Nagar
4 sekar KK nagar

Output

Sno name address

1 Raj KJ steet
2 Ravi TJ Nagar
3 kamal Jj Nagar
1 Raj KJ steet
2 Ravi TJ Nagar
4 sekar KK nagar

Example 2 for union All

SELECT name, course FROM students_science

UNION ALL

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SELECT name, course FROM students_arts;

Output

Intersect

The INTERSECT operator returns common rows from two or more SELECT queries.

Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table1

INTERSECT

SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table2;

Both SELECT statements must have the same number of columns with compatible
data types.

Duplicates are automatically removed in the final result.

Example 1 for Intersect

SELECT name, city FROM employees_sales

INTERSECT

SELECT name, city FROM employees_marketing;

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Output

Example 2 for intersect

Sample table 1: BCA

Sno name address

1 Raj KJ steet
2 Ravi TJ Nagar
3 kamal Jj Nagar

Sample table 2: BCOM(CA)

Sno name address

1 Raj KJ steet
2 Ravi TJ Nagar
4 sekar KK nagar

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Output

Sno name address

1 Raj KJ steet
2 Ravi TJ Nagar

Minus or except

The EXCEPT (or MINUS )operator returns rows from the first SELECT query that are
not present in the second SELECT query.

Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table1

EXCEPT

SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table2;

 Both SELECT statements must have the same number of columns with
compatible data types.
 Duplicates are automatically removed from the final result.

Sample Tables:

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Find Math Students Not Enrolled in Science

🔄 List students who are enrolled in Math but not in Science.

SELECT name FROM students_math

EXCEPT

SELECT name FROM students_science;

Output

Example 2

Sample table 1: BCA

Sno name address

1 Raj KJ steet
2 Ravi TJ Nagar
3 kamal Jj Nagar

Sample table 2: BCOM(CA)

Sno name address

1 Raj KJ steet
2 Ravi TJ Nagar
4 sekar KK nagar

Output

Sno name address

3 kamal Jj Nagar

***** relational Set Operators end ***************

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Explain Additional Data Definition Commmands

Data Definition Language (DDL) commands are used to define, modify, and manage
database structures like tables, schemas, and indexes.

RENAME — Rename a Table or Column

🔄 Used to rename existing tables or columns.

Syntax

RENAME TABLE students TO student_records;

Example 2: Rename Column

ALTER TABLE student_records RENAME COLUMN name TO full_name;

COMMENT — Add Comments to Database Objects

🔄 Used to describe tables, columns, or other objects.

COMMENT ON TABLE student_records IS 'This table stores student details';

COMMENT ON COLUMN student_records.full_name IS 'Full name of the student';

[In addition to that Refer data definition Language with example ]

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TRUNCATE — Remove All Data but Keep Table Structure

Deletes all rows in a table but retains the table structure.

TRUNCATE TABLE student_records;

CREATE INDEX — Improve Query Performance

Creates an index to speed up query searches.

CREATE INDEX idx_student_name ON student_records(full_name);

******Unit IV Completed *******

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