B.

Tech 7th Semester Depth Elective-4 Date: 28-10-2024

MME711

Fatigue, Creep and Fracture

Dr. Bijay Kumar Show

Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering

National Institute of Technology Durgapur
LECTURE-27

 Cumulative fatigue damage rule

 Effect of metallurgical variables on fatigue
 Corrosion Fatigue
The design stress of the tail section of a prototype military aircraft is such that it never exceeds a
stress corresponding to one-third of the yield strength, and the cyclic service loading is expected
to vary from a minimum stress (σmin) of one-twelfth of the yield strength to a maximum stress
(σmax) of one-third of the yield strength (i.e. R = 0.25). The tail section is inspected with an
ultrasonic non-destructive testing method, with a resolution limit of 0.01 in.
Assuming that
(a) the stress intensity factor for any defects present in the tail section is given by:
K=σ(πa)1/2 where ‘σ’ is the far-field applied stress and ‘a’ is the crack length, and
(b) the growth of fatigue cracks is governed by the Paris law
da/dN=C(ΔK)m
where da/dN is the fatigue crack growth rate per cycle, ΔK is the stress intensity factor range, and
C and m are material constants, derive expressions for
(i) the critical crack length in the tail section.
(ii) the lifetime of the tail section in terms of the material properties (i.e. the yield strength, C, m,
plane strain fracture toughness, etc.)
Factors influencing fatigue properties

 Stress concentration
 Size effect
 Surface effects
 Cumulative fatigue damage and
sequence effects
 Metallurgical variables
 Corrosion
 Temperature
Palmgren-Miner’s Cumulative fatigue damage rule

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 The conventional fatigue test subjects a specimen to a fixed stress amplitude until the specimen
fails.

 However, there are many practical applications where the cyclic stress does not remain constant,
but instead there are periods when the stress is either above or below some average design stress
level.

 Overstressing is the process of testing a virgin specimen for some number of cycles less than that
required for failure, at a stress above the fatigue limit, and then subsequently running the
specimen to failure at another stress.

 The ratio of the number of cycles of overstress at the prestress to the mean virgin fatigue life at
this same stress is called the cycle ratio.

 If a specimen is tested below the fatigue limit, so that it remains unbroken after a long number of
cycles, and if then it is tested at a higher stress, the specimen is said to have been understressed.
Under stressing frequently results in either an increase in the fatigue limit or an increase in the
number of cycles of stress to fracture over what would be expected for virgin specimens.
 If a specimen is tested without failure for a large number of cycles below the fatigue limit and the
stress is increased in small increments after allowing a large number of cycles to occur at each
stress level, it is found that the resulting fatigue limit may be as much as 50 per cent greater than
the initial fatigue limit. This procedure is known as coaxing.

 An extensive investigation of coaxing showed a direct correlation between a strong coaxing effect
and the ability for the material to undergo strain aging.

 Thus, mild steel and ingot iron show a strong coaxing effect, while brass, aluminum alloys, and
heat-treated low-alloy steels show little improvement in properties from coaxing.
Problem
The S-N curve for an elastic material is characterized by the Basquin relationship, σa= C.Nbf , where C
is a material constant, σa is the stress amplitude, Nf is the number of fully reversed stress cycles to failure,
and b is the Basquin exponent approximately equal to –0.09. When the stress amplitude is equal to the
ultimate tensile strength of the material in this alloy, the fatigue life is ¼ cycle. If a specimen spends 70%
of its life subject to alternating stress levels equal to its fatigue endurance limit σe, 20% at 1.1σe, and 10%
at 1.2σe, estimate its fatigue life using the Palmgren-Miner linear damage rule. Nf = 107 at fatigue limit (σe)
 Effect of overloading on Miner’s rule

Smooth specimen: The fatigue strength of smooth specimen is reduced more than would be predicted
by Miner’s rule if a few cycles of high stress are applied before testing at lower stress.

Notched specimen: The effect of overloading is pronounced in case of notched specimen. The effect is
due to the residual stresses produced at the notch by overload stresses in the plastic region.

 Tensile overload: Even a small tensile overload can produce a plastic zone at the tip of the crack,
which upon unloading forms Compressive residual stresses that retard the growth of a crack.
 Compressive overload: When compressive overloads are very high to cause yielding at the crack tip,
tensile residual stresses are produced and these accelerate crack growth.

Therefore, infrequent tensile overloads produce crack arrest, while compressive overloads large enough
to produce yielding can accelerate crack growth.
Crack propagation under cyclic compression

Landing gear and wing root sections of aircraft

Coil springs
Rails and railroad applications

Reproduced from reference 2

 Tensile residual stress may not generate because of
Long sharp fatigue crack (instead of notch): the complete closure of the crack during the
compressive loading and unloading

Sharp non-closing notch: subjected to zero-compression-zero Tensile residual stresses develop

fatigue cycle
As the length of the crack The faces of the crack tend to
increases the fraction of remain partially of fully closed Fatigue cracks may
loading cycles during which the during some portion of the nucleate
crack remains open loading cycle.
progressively diminishes

The increasing closure causes the crack

To arrest completely after growth over a
distance As shown in the figure
Assume a large plate with an initially non-closing notch is subjected to cyclic compression loading. How do the stress
cycles below affect the crack length vs. number of cycles (a vs. N) curve?

https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-
engineering/3-35-fracture-and-fatigue-fall-2003/assignments/
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-
engineering/3-35-fracture-and-fatigue-fall-2003/assignments/
 Effect of metallurgical variables on fatigue

 The fatigue properties of metals appear to be quite structure-sensitive. However, at the present
time there are only a limited number of ways in which the fatigue properties can be improved by
metallurgical means.

 By far the greatest improvements in fatigue performance result from design changes which
reduce stress concentrations and from the intelligent use of beneficial compressive residual stress,
rather than from a change in material.
 Tensile properties

 Fatigue properties are frequently correlated with tensile properties.

 In general, the fatigue limit of cast and wrought steels is approximately 50 per cent of the ultimate
tensile strength.

 The ratio of the fatigue limit (or the fatigue strength at 108 cycles) to the tensile strength is called
the fatigue ratio.

 Several nonferrous metals such as nickel, copper, and magnesium have a fatigue ratio of about 0.35.

 For notched fatigue specimens the fatigue ratio for steel will be around 0.20 to 0.30.
 Tensile properties

 Several parallels can be drawn between the effect of certain metallurgical variables on fatigue
properties and the effect of these same variables on tensile properties.

 The effect of solid-solution alloying additions on the fatigue properties of iron and aluminum
parallels nearly exactly their effect on the tensile properties.

 However, the greater structure sensitivity of fatigue properties, compared with tensile properties, is
shown in tests comparing the fatigue limit of a plain-carbon eutectoid steel heat-treated to coarse pearlite
and to spheroidite of the same tensile strength. Even though the steel in the two structural conditions had
the same tensile strength, the pearlitic structure resulted in a significantly lower fatigue limit due to the
higher notch effects of the carbide lamellae in pearlite.
 Slip homogenization

 As we have observed localization of slip is a key feature of fatigue crack nucleation. This implies
that if slip can be ‘spread out’ more uniformly (homogenization of slip) then fatigue life will
improve.

 Fatigue strength is proportional to the difficulty of dislocation cross slip.

Grain Size

 Further, in low SFE materials, the grain size plays an important role in determining the fatigue life.

 In high SFE materials, dislocation cell structures form on deformation and these play a more
important role in stage-I cracking as compared to grain size.
The presence of interstitial and substitutional alloying elements play an important role in determining
the S-N curve (fatigue life). Interstitial solutes, which contribute to strain aging give rise to a fatigue
limit in the S-N curve. Substitutional elements increase fatigue life without introducing a fatigue limit.

Enhanced strain aging effect (due to increased solute

content or aging time) gives tolerance to higher stress
values, for a given fatigue life

Interstitial solute elements (like C in steel)

introduce fatigue limit due to strain aging

For a given stress, more number of cycles to failure.

 Corrosion Fatigue

 The simultaneous action of cyclic stress and chemical attack is known as corrosion fatigue.
 Corrosive attack without superimposed stress often produces pitting of metal surfaces. The pits act
as notches and produce a reduction in fatigue strength.
 However, when corrosive attack occurs simultaneously with fatigue loading, a very pronounced
reduction in fatigue properties results which is greater than that produced by prior corrosion of the
surface.
 When corrosion and fatigue occur simultaneously, the chemical attack greatly accelerates the rate at
which fatigue cracks propagate.
 Materials which show a definite fatigue limit when tested in air at room temperature show no
indication of a fatigue limit when the test is carried out in a corrosive environment.
 While ordinary fatigue tests in air are not affected by the speed of testing, over a range from about
1,000 to 12,000 cycles/min, when tests are made in a corrosive environment there is a definite
dependence on testing speed.
 Since corrosive attack is a time-dependent phenomenon, the higher the testing speed, the smaller
the damage due to corrosion.
Corrosion-fatigue and its general effect on the behavior of
steel
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 Corrosion Fatigue

 Corrosion-fatigue tests may be carried out in two ways. In the usual method the specimen is
continuously subjected to the combined influences of corrosion and cyclic stress until failure
occurs.
 In the two-stage test the corrosion fatigue test is interrupted after a certain period and the damage
which was produced is evaluated by determining the remaining life in air.
 Tests of the last type have helped to establish the mechanism of corrosion fatigue.
 The action of the cyclic stress causes localized disruption of the surface oxide film so that
corrosion pits can be produced.
 Many more small pits occur in corrosion fatigue than in corrosive attack in the absence of stress.
 The cyclic stress will also tend to remove or dislodge any corrosion products which might
otherwise stifle the corrosion.
 The bottoms of the pits are more anodic than the rest of the metal so that corrosion proceeds
inward, aided by the disruption of the oxide film by cyclic strain.
 Cracking will occur when the pit becomes sharp enough to produce a high stress concentration.
 Ways to Minimize Corrosion Fatigue

 A number of methods are available for minimizing corrosion-fatigue damage.

 In general, the choice of a material for this type of service should be based on its corrosion-resistant
properties rather than the conventional fatigue properties.
 Thus, stainless steel, bronze, or beryllium copper would probably give better service than heat-treated
steel.
 Protection of the metal from contact with the corrosive environment by metallic or nonmetallic
coatings is successful provided that the coating does not become ruptured from the cyclic strain.
 Zinc and cadmium coatings on steel are successful for many corrosion-fatigue applications, even
though these coatings may cause a reduction in fatigue strength when tests are con- ducted in air.
 The formation of surface compressive residual stresses tends to keep surface notches from opening up
and giving ready access to the corrosive medium. Nitriding is particularly effective in combating
corrosion fatigue, and shot peening has been used with success under certain conditions.
 Finally, the elimination of stress concentrators by careful design is very important when corrosion
fatigue must be considered.