Module III

Contents

3.1 Connected Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3.2 Connected Subspaces of the Real Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3 Components and Local Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1
3.1 Connected Spaces
Definition 1. Let X be a topological space. A separation of X is a pair U, V of disjoint
nonempty open subsets of X whose union is X. The topological space X is said to be connected
if there does not exist a separation of X.
Another way of formulating the definition of connectedness is the following:
A topological space X is connected if and only if the only subsets of X that are both open
and closed in X are the empty set and X itself.
Lemma 3.1. If Y is a subspace of X, a separation of Y is a pair of disjoint nonempty sets
A and B whose union Y , neither of which contains a limit point of the other. The space Y is
connected if there exists no separation of Y .
Proof. Assume that A and B form a separation of Y . Then A is both open and closed in Y . By
Theorem 2.4, the closure of A in Y is A ∩ Y . Since A is closed in Y , A = closure of A in Y =
A ∩ Y . So A ∩ B = A ∩ (B ∩ Y ) = (A ∩ Y ) ∩ B = A ∩ B = ∅. Since A contains all limit points of
A, B contains no limit points of A. A similar argument shows that A contains no limit points
of B.
Conversely, assume that A and B are disjoint nonempty sets whose union is Y , neither of
which contains the a limit point of the other. Then A ∩ B = ∅ and B ∩ A = ∅. Therefore
A ∩ Y = A ∩ (A ∪ B) = (A ∩ A) ∪ (A ∩ B) = (A ∩ A) ∪ ∅ = A and B ∩ Y = B. Thus both A
and B are closed in Y . Since A = Y − B and B = Y − A, they are open in Y . Thus A and B
form a separation of Y .
Example 3.1. Let X be an indiscrete space with more than one point. Then X has no
separation. So X is connected.
Example 3.2. Let X be a discrete space with more than one point. If a ∈ X, then {a} and
X − {a} is a separation X. So X is disconnected.
Example 3.3. Let Y denote the subspace [−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1] of the real line R. Since [−1, 0) and
(0, 1] are nonempty and open in Y (not open in R), they form a separation of Y . Note that
neither of these sets contains a limit point of the other.
Example 3.4. Let X = [−1, 1] be the subspace of R. Each of the sets [−1, 0) and (0, 1] are
disjoint and nonempty, but they do not form a separation of X, because the first set is not
open in X. Note that the first set contains the limit point of the second.
√
Example 3.5. The rationals Q are not connected, because the sets (−∞, 2) ∩ Q and
√
( 2, +∞) ∩ Q form a separation of Q. The only connected subspaces of Q are the one-
point sets: If Y is a subspace of Q containing two points p and q, then there exists a irrational
number a such that p < a < q. In this case (−∞, a) ∩ Y and (a, +∞) ∩ Y forms separation
of Y . So all connected subspaces of Q are singleton sets.
Example 3.6. Consider the following subset of the plane R2 :
X = {x × y | y = 0} ∪ {x × y | x > 0 and y = 1/x}.
Then X is not connected, because the sets {x × y | y = 0} and {x × y | x > 0 and y = 1/x}
forms a separation for X.
Example 3.7. An infinite set X with finite complement topology is connected, because there
is no disjoint, nonempty open sets.

Lemma 3.2. If the sets C and D form a separation of a topological space X, and if Y is a
connected subspace of X, then Y lies entirely within either C or D.

Proof. Since C and D are both open in X, then sets C ∩ Y and D ∩ Y are open in Y . These
two sets are disjoint and
Y = (C ∩ Y ) ∪ (D ∩ Y ).
If both the sets C ∩ Y and D ∩ Y are nonempty, then they form a separation of Y . Since Y
is connected, either C ∩ Y or D ∩ Y is empty. If C ∩ Y = ∅, then D ∩ Y = Y and so Y ⊂ D.
Similarly, if D ∩ Y = ∅, then Y ⊂ C.

Theorem 3.3. The union of a collection of connected subspaces of a topological space X that
have a point in common is connected.

Proof. Let {Aα } be a collection of connected subspaces of a topological space X and let
p ∈ ∩Aα . We prove that Y = ∪Aα is connected. Suppose that Y = C ∪ D is a separation
of Y . The point p belongs one of the sets C or D. Suppose that p ∈ C. Since Aα is connected,
it must lie entirely in either C or D, by Lemma 3.2. Since p ∈ C, Aα ⊂ C for every α. So
∪Aα ⊂ C. This contradicts the fact that D is nonempty. Thus Y is connected.

Theorem 3.4. Let A be a connected subspace of a topological space X. if A ⊂ B ⊂ A, then B

is also connected.

Proof. Let A be connected and let A ⊂ B ⊂ A. Assume that B = C ∪ D is a separation of

B. By Lemma 3.2, the set A must lie entirely in C or D. Suppose that A ⊂ C. Then A ⊂ C.
Since C and D are disjoint (Lemma 3.1), A ∩ D = ∅. So B ∩ D = ∅. This contradicts the fact
that D is a nonempty subset of B. Thus B is connected.

From the above theorem it follows that the closure of a connected set is connected. The
following example shows that the interior of a connected need not be connected.

Example 3.8. Let X = {x × y | x2 + y 2 ≤ 1} ∪ {x × 0 | 0 ≤ x ≤ 1} be a connected subspace

of R2 .

Its interior is
Int (X) = {x × y | x2 + y 2 < 1} ∪ {x × 0 | 0 < x < 1}
.
Since {x × y | x2 + y 2 < 1} and {x × 0 | 0 < x < 1} form a separation for Int (X), Int (X) is
not connected.

Theorem 3.5. The image of a connected space under a continuous map is connected.

Proof. Let X be a connected space, Y a topological space and f : X → Y be a continuous

map. We show that Z = f (X) is connected. Clearly f : X → Z is a surjective continuous map.
Assume that Z = A ∪ B is a separation for Z. Then f −1 (A) and f −1 (B) are disjoint sets whose
union is X. Since f : X → Z is continuous, f −1 (A) and f −1 (B) are open in X. As f : X → Z is
surjective, f −1 (A) and f −1 (B) are nonempty. Therefore, f −1 (A) and f −1 (B) form a separation
of X, contradicting the assumption that X is connected. Thus Z is connected.

Result 3.1. Connectedness is a topological property.

Proof. Let X and Y be topological spaces and let f : X → Y be a homeomorphism. If X is

connected, then, by Theorem 3.5, Y is connected. If Y is connected, then, by continuity of f −1
and by Theorem 3.5, X is connected.

Theorem 3.6. Finite Cartesian product of connected spaces is connected

Proof. Let X and Y be two connected spaces. We prove that X × Y is connected. Let
a × b ∈ X × Y . Since X × b is homeomorphic to X, X × b is connected. Similarly, x × Y is
connected for each x ∈ X. Let

Tx = (X × b) ∪ (x × Y ).
[
Since x×b is in X×b and x×Y , Tx is connected, by Theorem 3.3. Now consider the union Tx .
[ [ x∈X
Since a × b ∈ Tx for each x ∈ X, Tx is connected, by Theorem 3.3. As Tx = X × Y , it
x∈X x∈X
follows that X × Y is connected. Assume that product of n − 1 connected sets is connected. Let
X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn be a collection of n connected spaces. Then X1 × X2 × · · · × Xn−1 is connected.
Since
X1 × X2 × · · · × Xn−1 × Xn = (X1 × X2 × · · · × Xn−1 ) × Xn ,
X1 × X2 × · · · × Xn−1 × Xn is connected. By induction any finite product of connected spaces
is connected.

3.2 Connected Subspaces of the Real Line

Definition 2. A ordered set A is said to have least upper bound property if every nonempty
subset A0 of A that is bounded above has a least upper bound. A ordered set A is said to have
greatest lower bound property if every nonempty subset A0 of A that is bounded below has a
greatest lower bound.

Definition 3. A simply ordered set L having more than one element is called a Linear Con-
tinuum if the following hold:

(i) L has the least upper bound property.

 (ii) If x < y, there exists z such that x < z < y.

Example 3.9. R is a linear continuum. But Q is not a linear continuum, because Q does not
have least upper bound property.

A subspace Y of a linear continuum L is said to be convex if for every pair of points a, b ∈ Y

with a < b, then entire interval [a, b] of points of L lies in Y . R, intervals and rays in R are
convex.

Theorem 3.7. If L is a linear continuum in the order topology, then L is connected and so
are intervals and rays in L.

Proof. Let Y be a convex subspace of L. We prove Y is connected. If Y is not connected, then

Y is the union of two disjoint nonempty sets A and B, each of which is open in Y . Choose
a ∈ A and b ∈ B. Without loss of generality assume that a < b. The entire interval [a, b] of
points of L is contained in Y , because Y is convex. Hence [a, b] is the union of the disjoint sets

A0 = A ∩ [a, b] and B0 = B ∩ [a, b],

each of which is open in [a, b] in the subspace topology. The sets A0 and B0 are nonempty
because a ∈ A0 and b ∈ B0 . Thus A0 and B0 constitute a separation of [a, b].
Let c = sup A0 . We show that c belongs neither to A0 nor to B0 , which contradicts the fact
that [a, b] is the union of A0 and B0 .
Case 1. Suppose that c ∈ B0 . Then c ̸= a, so either c = b or a < c < b. In either case it follows
from the the fact that B0 is open in [a, b] that there is some interval of the form (d, c] contained
in B0 . If c = b, then d is a smaller upper bound on A0 than c. This gives a contradiction to the
fact that c = sup A0 . If c < b, then, since c is an upper bound of A0 , (c, b] does not intersect
A0 . Then
(d, b] = (d, c] ∪ (c, b]
does not intersect A0 . Again, d is a smaller upper bound on A0 than c, contrary to construction.
So c ̸∈ B0 .
Case 2. Suppose that c ∈ A0 . Then c ̸= b, so either c = a or a < c < b. Since A0 is open in
[a, b], there must be some interval of the form [c, e) contained in A0 . By order property (ii) of
the linear continuum L, there exists a point z ∈ L such that c < z < e. Then z ∈ A0 , contrary
to the fact that c is an upper bound for A0 . So c ̸∈ A0 .
From the above two cases it follows that [a, b] is not the union of A0 and B0 . Therefore A
and B is not a separation of Y . Thus Y is connected. Since L, intervals and rays in L are
convex, the result follows.

Corollary 3.8. The real line R is connected and so are intervals and rays in R.

Proof. Since R is a linear continuum in the order topology, R, intervals and rays in R are
connected, by Theorem 3.7.

Theorem 3.9 (Intermediate value theorem). Let f : X → Y be a continuous map, where X

is a connected space and Y is an ordered set in the order topology. If a and b are two points of
X and if r is a point of Y lying between f (a) and f (b), then there exists a point c of X such
that f (c) = r.
Proof. Let X be a connected space, Y be an ordered set in the order topology and f : X → Y
be a continuous map. Let a and b be two points of X and let r be a point of Y lying between
f (a) and f (b). Then the sets

A = f (X) ∩ (−∞, r) and B = f (X) ∩ (r, +∞)

are disjoint. Since f (a) ∈ A and f (b) ∈ B, A and B are nonempty. The sets A and B are open
in f (X), because they are intersections of an open ray in Y with f (X). If there were no point
c of X such that f (c) = r, then f (X) is the union of A and B. So A and B form a separation
of f (X), contradicting the fact that f (X) is connected. Thus there exists a point c of X such
that f (c) = r.

Definition 4. Given points x and y of the topological space, a path in X from x to y is

a continuous map f : [a, b] → X of some closed interval in the real line into X, such that
f (a) = x and f (b) = y. A topological space X is said to be path connected if every pair of
points of X can be joined by a path in X.

Result 3.2. Every path connected space is connected.

Proof. Let X be a path connected space. Assume that X = A ∪ B be a separation of X.

Let f : [a, b] → X be a path in X. Being the continuous image of a connected set, the set
f ([a, b]) is connected (by Theorem 3.5). So, by Lemma 3.2, f ([a, b]) lies entirely in either A or
B. Therefore, there is no path in X joining a point of A to a point of B. This contradicts the
fact X is path connected.

Example 3.10. Define the unit ball B n in Rn by the equation

B n = {x | ∥x∥ ≤ 1},

where

1/2
∥x∥ = ∥(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )∥ = x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n .
Let x, y ∈ B n . The the straight line path f : [0, 1] → Rn defined by

f (t) = (1 − t)x + ty

lies in B n . For if x, y ∈ B n and t ∈ [0, 1],

∥f (t)∥ ≤ (1 − t)∥x∥ + t∥y∥ ≤ (1 − t) + t = 1.

A similar argument shows that every open ball Bd (x, ϵ) and every closed ball B d (x, ϵ) in Rn is
path connected.

Example 3.11. Define the punctured Euclidean plane to be the space Rn − {0}, where 0 is
the origin in Rn . If n > 1, this space is path connected: Given x and y different from 0, we can
join x and y by a straight line path between them if that path does not go through the origin.
Otherwise, we can choose a point z not on the line joining x and y, and take the broken line
path from x to z, and then from z to y.
Example 3.12. Define the unit sphere S n−1 in Rn by the equation

S n−1 = {x | ∥x∥ = 1}.

If n > 1, it is path connected, because the map g : Rn − {0} → S n−1 defined by

x
g(x) =
∥x∥
is continuous and surjective.

Result 3.3. Continuous image of a path connected space is path connected.

Proof. Let X be a path connected space, Y a topological space and f : X → Y is a surjective

continuous map. We show that Y = f (X) is path connected. If y1 , y2 ∈ Y , then there exist
x1 , x2 ∈ X such f (x1 ) = y1 and f (x2 ) = y2 . Since X is path connected, there exists a path
h : [a, b] → X such that h(a) = x1 and h(b) = x2 . Then (f ◦ h)(a) = f (h(a)) = f (x1 ) = y1 and
(f ◦ h))(b) = y2 . Since f ◦ h : [a, b] → Y is continuous, f ◦ h defines a path from y1 to y2 . Hence
Y is path connected.

Example 3.13. Let S denote the following subset of the plane.

S = {x × sin(1/x) | 0 < x ≤ 1}.

Because S is the image of the connected set (0, 1] under a continuous map, S is connected.
Therefore, its closure S in R2 is also connected. The set S is called topologist’s sine curve. It
is illustrated in the following figure.

−1

It equals the union of S and the vertical interval 0 × [−1, 1]. We show that S is not path
connected.
Suppose there is a path f : [a, c] → S beginning at the origin and ending at a point of S.
The set {t | f (t) ∈ 0 × [−1, 1]} is closed. So it has a largest element b. Then f : [b, c] → S is a
path that maps b into the vertical interval 0 × [−1, 1] and maps other points of [b, c] to points
of S.
Replace [b, c] by [0, 1] for convenience. Let f (t) = (x(t), y(t)). Then x(0) = 0, while
x(t) > 0 and y(t) = sin(1/x(t)) for t > 0. Given n, choose u with 0 < u < x(1/n) such that
sin(1/u) = (−1)n . Then by intermediate value theorem to find tn with 0 < tn < 1/n such that
x(tn ) = u. So tn → 0 but y(tn ) = sin(1/u) = (−1)n . This contradicts the continuity of f . So
S is not path connected.

3.3 Components and Local Connectedness

Let X be a topological space. Define a relation ∼ on X as follows: For x, y ∈ X,

x ∼ y ⇐⇒ there exists a connected subspace of X containing x and y. (3.1)

Clearly ∼ is reflexive and symmetric. Suppose that x ∼ y and y ∼ z. Then there exist
subspaces A and B of X such that x, y ∈ A and y, z ∈ B. Then, by Theorem 3.3, A ∪ B is a
connected subspace containing x, z. So ∼ is transitive. Thus ∼ is an equivalence relation on
X.

Definition 5. Let X be a topological space and ∼ be the equivalence relation given in equation
(3.1). The equivalence classes of ∼ are called the components of X.

Theorem 3.10. Let X be a topological space. The components of X are connected disjoint
subspaces of X whose union is X, such that each nonempty connected subspace of X intersects
only one of them.

Proof. Being equivalence classes, the components of X are disjoint and their union is X. If a
connected subspace A of X intersects the components C1 and C2 of X in points x1 and x2 ,
then x1 ∼ x2 , by definition. So C1 = C2 . Thus every connected subspace of X intersects only
one of the components.
Let C be a component of X and let x0 ∈ C. If x ∈ C, then x0 ∼ x. So there is a connected
subspace Ax containing x0 and x. By the result just proved in the previous paragraph, Ax ⊂ C.
Therefore, [
C= Ax .
x∈C

Since the subspaces Ax are connected and have the point x0 in common, their union is connected.
Thus components of X are connected.

From Theorem 3.10, it follows that a component of a topological space X is a connected

subset C of X which is not a subset of any connected subset of X. If X is connected, then X
has only one component X.

Result 3.4. Components of a topological space X are closed sets.

Proof. Let C be a component of X. By Theorem 3.4, C is connected. Since C ⊂ C and C is

not a subset of any connected set, C = C. Thus C is connected.
 Define a relation ∼ on a topological space X as follows: For x, y ∈ X,

x ∼ y ⇐⇒ there exists a path in X from x to y. (3.2)

First note that if there exists a path f : [a, b] → X from x to y whose domain is [a, b], then
there is also a path g from x to y having the closed interval [c, d] as its domain. This follows
from the fact that any two closed and bounded intervals are homeomorphic. The fact that
x ∼ x for all x ∈ X follows from the existence of the constant path f : [a, b] → X defined by
the equation f (t) = x for all x ∈ X. Symmetry follows from the fact that if f : [a, b] → X is
a path from x to y, then the reverse path g : [0, 1] → X defined by g(t) = f (1 − t) is a path
from y to x. Suppose that x ∼ y and y ∼ z. Then there exists a path f : [0, 1] → X from x to
y and a path g : [1, 2] → X from y to z. Define a function h : [0, 2] → X by

f (x) if x ∈ [0, 1]
h(x) = .
g(x) if x ∈ [1, 2]

Then, since f (1) = y = g(0), h is continuous by the pasting lemma. Also h(0) = f (0) = x and
h(2) = g(2) = z. Thus h is path in X from x to z. So ∼ is transitive. Thus ∼ is a reflexive
relation on X.

Definition 6. Let X be a topological space and ∼ be the equivalence relation given equation
(3.2). The equivalence classes of ∼ are called the path components of X.

Theorem 3.11. Let X be a topological space. The path components of X are path connected
disjoint subspaces of X whose union is X, such that each nonempty path connected subspace of
X intersects only one of them.

Proof. Being equivalence classes, the path components of X are disjoint and their union is X.
If a path connected subspace A of X intersects the path components C1 and C2 of X in points
x1 and x2 , then x1 ∼ x2 , by definition. So C1 = C2 . Thus every path connected subspace of X
intersects only one of the components.
Let C be a path component of X and let x0 ∈ C. If x ∈ C, then x0 ∼ x. So there is a
path connected subspace Ax containing x0 and x. By the result just proved in the previous
paragraph, Ax ⊂ C. Therefore, [
C= Ax .
x∈C

Since the subspaces Ax are path connected and have the point x0 in common, their union is
path connected. Thus path components of X are path connected.

Example 3.14. If Q is the subspace of R consisting of the rational numbers, then each com-
ponents of Q consists of a single point. None of the components of Q is open in Q.

Definition 7. A topological space X is said to be locally connected at x if for every neighborhood

U of x, there is a connected neighborhood V of x contained in U . If X is locally connected at
each of its points, it is simply locally connected. Similarly, a topological space X is said to
be locally path connected at x if for every neighborhood U of x, there is a path connected
neighborhood V of x contained in U . If X is locally path connected at each of its points, it is
simply locally path connected.
Example 3.15. Each interval and each ray in the real line is both connected and locally
connected. The subspace [−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1] of R is not connected, but is is locally connected. The
topologist’s sine curve is connected but not locally connected. The rationals Q are neither
connected nor locally connected.

Theorem 3.12. A topological space X is locally connected if and only if for every open set U
of X, each component of U is open in X.

Proof. Assume that X is locally connected. Let U be an open set in X and let C be a component
of U . If x ∈ C, then there exists a connected neighborhood V of x such that V ⊂ U . Since V
is connected, V ⊂ C, by Lemma 3.2. Therefore, C is open in X.
Conversely, assume that components of open sets in X are open. Given a point x of X and
a neighborhood U of x. Let C be the component of U containing x. Now C is connected. Since
C is open in X by hypothesis, X is locally connected at x. As x is an arbitrary point of X, it
follows that X is locally connected.

Theorem 3.13. A topological space space X is locally path connected if and only for every
open set U of X, each path component of U is open in X.

Proof. Assume that X is locally path connected. Let U be an open set in X and let C be a
path component of U . If x ∈ C, then there exists a path connected neighborhood V of x such
that V ⊂ U . Since V is path connected, V ⊂ C. Therefore, C is open in X.
Conversely, assume that path components of open sets in X are open. Given a point x of
X and a neighborhood U of x. Let C be the path component of U containing x. Now C is
path connected. Since C is open in X by hypothesis, X is locally path connected at x. As x is
an arbitrary point of X, it follows that X is locally path connected.

Theorem 3.14. If X is a topological space, each path component of X lies in a component of

X. If X is locally path connected, then the components and the path components of X are the
same.

Proof. Let C be a component of X, x ∈ C and let P be the path component of X containing

x. Since P is connected, P ⊂ C. We wish to show that if X is locally path connected, then
P = C. Assume that P ⊊ C. Let Q denote the union of all path components of X that are
different from P and intersects C. Since each of these path components lies in C, we have

C = P ∪ Q.

Since X is locally path connected, each path component of X is open in X. Therefore P and
Q are open in X, so they constitute a separation of C. This contradicts the fact that C is
connected. Thus P = C.