MOBILE COMPUTING

Theory- 5
5th Semester CSE/IT

Lecture Notes

By
Nishita Kindo, Lecturer (CSE)
Bhubanananda Odisha School of Engineering, Cuttack
 Chapter- 1
INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS NETWORKS & MOBILE
COMPUTING
SYLLABUS
1.1 Networks
1.2 Wireless Networks
1.3 Mobile Computing
1.4 Mobile Computing Characteristics
1.5 Application of Mobile Computing

1.1 Networks
A network is two or more computers (or other electronic devices) that are connected together,
usually by cables or Wi-Fi. Some computer networks will have a server. A server is a powerful
computer that often acts as a central hub for services in a network e.g. e-mails, internet access
and file storage.

An example of networking is sharing and acquiring information between different divisions of the
same company to share information and solve business problems. An example of networking is
linking the entire network of computers to a print server to allow each workstation to have the
ability to print documents.

A Controller Area Network (CAN bus) is a robust vehicle bus standard designed to allow
microcontrollers and devices to communicate with each other's applications without a host
computer.

Types of Networks
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four types:

o LAN (Local Area Network)

o PAN (Personal Area Network)
o MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN (Wide Area Network)
1.2 Wireless Networks
In recent years, however, wireless technologies have grown and become much more popular.
Wi-Fi and other wireless technologies have become the favourite option for building computer
networks. One of the reasons for this is that wireless networks can easily support different types
of wireless gadgets that have become popular over the years, such as smartphones and tablets.
Mobile networking is now an important thing to consider because it's not going to go away anytime
soon.

A wireless network is a computer network that uses wireless data connections between network
nodes.

Wireless networking is a method by which homes, telecommunications networks and business

installations avoid the costly process of introducing cables into a building, or as a connection
between various equipment locations. Telecommunications networks are generally implemented
and administered using radio communication. This implementation takes place at the physical
level (layer) of the OSI model network structure.

Examples of wireless networks include cell phone networks, wireless local area networks
(WLANs), wireless sensor networks, satellite communication networks, and terrestrial microwave
networks.
 Table 7.5. 802.11 Wireless Standards

IEEE Frequency/ Speed Topology Transmission Access Spread

Standard Range Method Spectrum
Medium

802.11 2.4GHz RF 1 to 2Mbps Ad hoc infrastructure 20 feet indoors. CSMA/CA DSSS/FHSS

802.11a 5GHz Up to Ad hoc infrastructure 25 to 75 feet CSMA/CA OFDM

54Mbps indoors; range
can be affected
by building
materials.

802.11b 2.4GHz Up to Ad hoc infrastructure Up to 150 feet CSMA/CA DSSS

11Mbps indoors; range
can be affected
by building
materials.

802.11g 2.4GHz Up to Ad hoc infrastructure Up to 150 feet CSMA/CA DSSS

54Mbps indoors; range
can be affected
by building
materials.

802.11n 2.4GHz/5GHz Up to Ad hoc infrastructure 175+ feet indoors; CSMA/CA OFDM

600Mbps range can be
affected by
building materials.
1.3 Introduction to Mobile Computing
The rapidly expanding technology of cellular communication, wireless LANs, and satellite services
will make information accessible anywhere and at any time. Regardless of size, most mobile
computers will be equipped with a wireless connection to the fixed part of the network, and,
perhaps, to other mobile computers. The resulting computing environment, which is often referred
to as mobile or nomadic computing, no longer requires users to maintain a fixed and universally
known position in the network and enables almost unrestricted mobility. Mobility and portability
will create an entire new class of applications and, possibly, new massive markets combining
personal computing and consumer electronics.

Mobile Computing is an umbrella term used to describe technologies that enable people to
access network services anyplace, anytime, and anywhere.
Mobile Computing
• A technology that is capable of providing an environment which enables users to
transmit data from one device to other device without the use of any physical
link/cables is known as Mobile Computing.
• It means, data transmission is done wireless-ly with the help of wireless devices
such as mobiles, laptops etc.
• Whenever any device is connected to a network without being connected physically
over a link or cable, data transmission such as messages, voice recording, videos
etc. can be done be done by using the concept of mobile computing.
• Mobile Computing technology helps users to access and transmit data from any
remote locations without being present there physically.
• Thus, having such a big coverage diameter, it is one of the fastest and most reliable
sectors of computing technology field.

Mobile computing is used in different contexts with different names. The most common names
are:
▪ Mobile Computing
▪ Nomadic Computing
▪ Ubiquitous Computing
▪ Pervasive Computing
▪ Invisible Computing
–Mobile Computing:
• The computing environment is mobile and moves along with the user.
• This is similar to the telephone number of a GSM (Global System for Mobile communication)
phone, which moves with the phone.
• The offline (local) and real-time (remote) computing environment will move with the user.
• In real-time mode user will be able to use all his remote data and services online.
– Ubiquitous Computing:
This is the generic definition of ubiquity, where the information is available anywhere, all the time.
– Virtual Home Environment:
(VHE) is defined as an environment in a foreign network such that the mobile users can
experience the same computing experience as they have in their home or corporate computing
environment.
• For example, one would like to put one’s room heater on when one is about 15 minutes away
from home.
– Nomadic Computing:
The computing environment is nomadic and moves along with the mobile user.
• This is true for both local and remote services.
– Pervasive Computing:
A computing environment, which is pervasive in nature and can be made available in any
environment.
– Invisible Computing:
A disappearing (nobody will notice its presence) everyplace computing environment. User will be
able to use both local and remote services.
Mobile Communication
• Mobile Communication is the framework that is responsible behind the working of
mobile computing technology.
• It ensures the consistency and reliability of communication process through this
framework.
• Mobile communication framework includes communication devices such as
mobiles, laptops, as rules of conduct, fitness etc. They are responsible for
delivering of smooth communication process.
• Mobile communication can be of one of the following forms as mentioned below.
1.4 Characteristics of Mobile Computing
A communication device can exhibit any one of the following characteristics:
➢ Fixed and wired: This configuration describes the typical desktop computer in an office.
Neither weight nor power consumption of the devices allow for mobile usage. The devices
use fixed networks for performance reasons.

➢ Mobile and wired: Many of today’s laptops fall into this category; users carry the laptop
from one hotel to the next, reconnecting to the company’s network via the telephone
network and a modem.

➢ Fixed and wireless: This mode is used for installing networks, e.g., in historical buildings
to avoid damage by installing wires, or at trade shows to ensure fast network setup.

➢ Mobile and wireless: This is the most interesting case. No cable restricts the user, who
can roam between different wireless networks. Most technologies discussed in this book
deal with this type of device and the networks supporting them. Today’s most successful
example for this category is GSM with more than 800 million users.
Or
Ubiquity - Ability of a user to perform computations from anywhere and at any time.
Location Awareness- Can provide information about the current location of a user to a tracking
station.
Adaptation- GPS Implies the ability of a system to adjust bandwidth fluctuation without
inconveniencing the user.
Broadcast- Efficient delivery of data can be made simultaneously to hand reads of mobile users.
Personalization- Services in a mobile environment can be easily personalized according to a
user’s profile.

Functions of Mobile Computing

We can define a computing environment as mobile if it supports one or more of the following
characteristics:
User Mobility:
– User should be able to move from one physical location to another location and use the same
service.
– The service could be in the home network or a remote network.
– Example could be a user moves from London to New York and uses Internet to access the
corporate application the same way the user uses in the home office.
Network Mobility:
– User should be able to move from one network to another network and use the same service.
– Example could be a user moves from Hong Kong to New Delhi and uses the same GSM phone
to access the corporate application through WAP (Wireless Application Protocol). In home
network he uses this service over GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) whereas in Delhi he
accesses it over the GSM network.
Bearer Mobility:
– User should be able to move from one bearer to another and use the same service.
– Example could be a user was using a service through WAP bearer in his home network in
Bangalore. He moves to Coimbatore, where WAP is not supported, he switches over to voice or
SMS (Short Message Service) bearer to access the same application.
Device Mobility:
– User should be able to move from one device to another and use the same service.
–Example could be sales representatives using their desktop computer in home office. During the
day while they are on the streets, they would like to use their Palmtop to access the application.
Session Mobility:
– A user session should be able to move from one user-agent environment to another.
– Example could be a user was using his service through a CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
IX network. The user entered into the basement to park the car and got disconnected from his
CDMA network. User goes to home office and starts using the desktop. The unfinished session
in the CDMA device moves from the mobile device to the desktop computer.
Service Mobility:
– User should be able to move from one service to another.
– Example could be a user is writing a mail. To complete the mail user needs to refer to some
other information. In a desktop PC, user simply opens another service (browser) and moves
between them using the task bar. User should be able to switch amongst services in small
footprint wireless devices like in the desktop.
Host Mobility:
–The user device can be either a client or server.
–When it is a server or host, some of the complexities change.
– In case of host mobility, the mobility of IP needs to be taken care of.

1.5 Applications of Mobile Computing

• Some of the major field in which mobile computing can be applied are:
o Web or Internet access.
o Global Positioning System (GPS).
o Emergency services.
o Entertainment services
o Educational services.
Limitations of Mobile Computing
▪ Resource constraints: Battery

▪ Interference: Radio transmission cannot be protected against interference using

shielding and result in higher loss rates for transmitted data or higher bit error rates
respectively.

▪ Bandwidth: Although they are continuously increasing, transmission rates are still very
low for wireless devices compared to desktop systems. Researchers look for more
efficient communication protocols with low overhead.

▪ Dynamic changes in communication environment: variations in signal power within a

region, thus link delays and connection losses

▪ Network Issues: discovery of the connection-service to destination and connection

stability

▪ Interoperability issues: the varying protocol standards

▪ Security constraints: Not only can portable devices be stolen more easily, but the radio
interface is also prone to the dangers of eavesdropping. Wireless access must always
include encryption, authentication, and other security mechanisms that must be efficient
and simple to use.

Assignment Questions:
1. What is WLAN? Explain briefly.
2. Elaborate the applications of mobile computing.
 Chapter- 2
INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE DEVELOPMENT
FRAMEWORK
2.1 C/S architecture
2.2 n-tier architecture
2.3 n-tier architecture and www
2.4 Peer-to Peer architecture
2.5 Mobile agent architecture

2.0 What is mobile development framework?

A mobile development framework is a software framework that is designed to support mobile app
development. It is a software library that provides a fundamental structure to support the development
of applications for a specific environment.
Frameworks can be in three categories: native frameworks for platform-specific development, mobile
web app frameworks, and hybrid apps, which combine the features of both native and mobile web app
frameworks.

2.1 CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE

The Client-server architecture is a distributed application structure that partitions task or workload
between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters called clients. In
the client-server architecture, when the client computer sends a request for data to the server through
the internet, the server accepts the requested process and deliver the data packets requested back to
the client. Clients do not share any of their resources. Examples of Client-Server Architecture are Email,
World Wide Web, etc.

How the Client-Server Architecture works? In this article we are going to take a dive into the Client-
Server architecture and have a look at how the Internet works via, web browsers. This article will help
us in having a solid foundation of the WEB and help in working with WEB technologies with ease.

• Client: When we talk the word Client, it means to talk of a person or an organization using a
particular service. Similarly, in the digital world a Client is a computer (Host) i.e. capable of
receiving information or using a particular service from the service providers (Servers).

• Servers: Similarly, when we talk the word Servers, It mean a person or medium that serves
something. Similarly, in this digital world a Server is a remote computer which provides
information (data) or access to particular services.

So, it is basically the Client requesting something and the Server serving it as long as its present in the
database.

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How the browser interacts with the servers? There are few steps to follow to interacts with the servers
a client.

• User enters the URL(Uniform Resource Locator) of the website or file. The Browser then requests
the DNS(DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM) Server.
• DNS Server lookup for the address of the WEB Server.
• DNS Server responds with the IP address of the WEB Server.
• Browser sends over an HTTP/HTTPS request to WEB Server’s IP (provided by DNS server).
• Server sends over the necessary files of the website.
• Browser then renders the files and the website is displayed. This rendering is done with the help
of DOM (Document Object Architecture) interpreter, CSS interpreter and JS Engine collectively
known as the JIT or (Just in Time) Compilers.

Advantages of Client-Server architecture:

• Centralized system with all data in a single place.

• Cost efficient requires less maintenance cost and Data recovery is possible.
• The capacity of the Client and Servers can be changed separately.

Disadvantages of Client-Server architecture:

• Clients are prone to viruses, Trojans and worms if present in the Server or uploaded into the Server.
• Server are prone to Denial of Service (DOS) attacks.
• Data packets may be spoofed or modified during transmission.
• Phishing or capturing login credentials or other useful information of the user are common and
MITM (Man in the Middle) attacks are common.

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2.2 N-TIER ARCHITECTURE
What is N-Tier?

An N-Tier Application program is one that is distributed among three or more separate computers in a
distributed network.

The most common form of n-tier is the 3-tier Application, and it is classified into three categories.

• User interface programming in the user's computer/presentation layer

• Application logic in a more centralized computer, and/application layer
• Required data in a computer that manages a database. /database layer

This architecture model provides Software Developers to create Reusable application/systems with
maximum flexibility.

In N-tier, "N" refers to a number of tiers or layers are being used like – 2-tier, 3-tier or 4-tier, etc. It is
also called “Multi-Tier Architecture”.

The n-tier architecture is an industry-proven software architecture model. It is suitable to support

enterprise level client-server applications by providing solutions to scalability, security, fault tolerance,
reusability, and maintainability. It helps developers to create flexible and reusable applications.

N-Tier Architecture

A diagrammatic representation of an n-tier system depicts here – presentation, application, and

database layers.

N Tier Architecture Diagram

These three layers can be further subdivided into different sub-layers depending on the requirements.

Some of the popular sites who have applied this architecture are:

• MakeMyTrip.com
• Sales Force enterprise application
• Indian Railways – IRCTC
• Amazon.com, etc.

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Some common terms to remember, so as to understand the concept more clearly:

1. Distributed Network: It is a network architecture, where the components located at network

computers coordinate and communicate their actions only by-passing messages. It is a
collection of multiple systems situated at different nodes but appears to the user as a single
system.

It provides a single data communication network which can be managed separately by

different networks.

An example of Distributed Network – where different clients are connected within LAN
architecture on one side and on the other side they are connected to high-speed switches
along with a rack of servers containing service nodes.

2. Client-Server Architecture: It is an architecture model where the client (one program) requests
a service from a server (another program) i.e. It is a request-response service provided over the
internet or through an intranet.

In this model, Client will serve as one set of program/code which executes a set of
actions over the network. While Server, on the other hand, is a set of another program,
which sends the result sets to the client system as requested.

In this, client computer provides an interface to an end user to request a service or a

resource from a server and on the other hand server then processes the request and
displays the result to the end user.

An example of Client-Server Model– an ATM machine. A bank is the server for

processing the application within the large customer databases and ATM machine is the
client having a user interface with some simple application processing.

3. Platform: In computer science or software industry, a platform is a system on which applications

program can run. It consists of a combination of hardware and software that have a built-in
instruction for a processors/ microprocessor to perform specific operations.

In more simple words, the platform is a system or a base where any applications can run
and execute to obtain a specific task.

An example of Platform – A personal machine loaded with Windows 2000 or Mac OS X

as examples of 2 different platforms.

4. Database: It is a collection of information in an organized way so that it can be easily accessed,

managed and updated.

Examples of Database – MySQL, SQL Server, and Oracle Database are some common
Db's.

Types of N-Tier Architectures

There are different types of N-Tier Architectures, like 3-tier Architecture, 2-Tier Architecture and 1- Tier
Architecture.

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First, we will see 3-tier Architecture, which is very important.

3-Tier Architecture

By looking at the below diagram, you can easily identify that 3-tier architecture has three different
layers.

• Presentation layer
• Application Logic layer
• Database layer

3 Tier Architecture Diagram

User Interface Layer or Presentation Layer

Here we have taken a simple example of student form to understand all these three layers. It has
information about a student like – Name, Address, Email, and Picture.

Application Access Layer -

This is the function of the application layer which accepts the data from the presentation layer and
passes it to the data layer.

• Application logic acts as an interface between Client layer and Data Access Layer
• All application logic – like validation of data, calculations, data insertion/modification are written
under application logic layer.
• It makes communication faster and easier between the client and data layer
• Defines a proper workflow activity that is necessary to complete a task.

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Data Access Layer

This is the data layer function, which receives the data from the application layer and performs the
necessary operation into the database.

2-Tier Architecture:

It is like Client-Server architecture, where communication takes place between client and server.

In this type of software architecture, the presentation layer or user interface layer runs on the client side
while dataset layer gets executed and stored on server side.

There is no Application logic layer or immediate layer in between client and server.

Single Tier or 1-Tier Architecture:

It is the simplest one as it is equivalent to running the application on the personal computer. All of the
required components for an application to run are on a single application or server.

Presentation layer, Application logic layer, and data layer are all located on a single machine.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Multi-Tier Architectures

Advantages Disadvantages

• Scalability • Increase in Effort

• Data Integrity • Increase in Complexity

• Reusability

• Reduced Distribution

• Improved Security

• Improved Availability

Hence, it is a part of a program which encrypts real-world application problems and determines how
data can be updated, created, stored, or changed to get the complete task done.

Summary:

The N-tier architecture helps to manage all the components (application layer, presentation layer, and
database layer) of an application under one roof.

Applications that uses small numbers of users on a local area network can benefit from n-tier
architecture.

Such architectural design ascertains maintaining, scaling up and deploying an application on the Internet
efficiently.

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2.3 N-TIER ARCHITECTURE and www
WWW stands for World Wide Web. A technical definition of the World Wide Web is : all the resources
and users on the Internet that are using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

In simple terms, The World Wide Web is a way of exchanging information between computers on the
Internet, tying them together into a vast collection of interactive multimedia resources.

Internet and Web is not the same thing: Web uses internet to pass over the information.

Components of Web
There are 3 components of web:
1. Uniform Resource Locator (URL): serves as system for resources on web.
2. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): specifies communication of browser and server.
3. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): defines structure, organization and content of webpage

EVOLUTION
World Wide Web was created by Timothy Berners Lee in 1989 at CERN in Geneva. World Wide Web came
into existence as a proposal by him, to allow researchers to work together effectively and efficiently
at CERN. Eventually it became World Wide Web.

The following diagram briefly defines evolution of World Wide Web:

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The web is actually a client-server mechanism where the client and server communicate through
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol). The clients are the browsers which interpret the user
interface in HTML and other client side scripting languages for rendering user interface. The
servers are the Web Servers which servers the client request coming from HTTP with HTML
response.

One of the best examples of N-tier architecture in web applications is the popular shopping-cart web
application. The client tier interacts with the user through GUIs and with the application and the
application server. In web applications, this client tier is a web browser. In a shopping cart web
application, the presentation tier displays information related to such services as browsing,
purchasing, and shopping cart contents. It communicates with other tiers by outputting results to the
browser/client tier and all other tiers in the network. This layer calls custom tags throughout the
network and to other networks. It also calls database stored procedures and web services, all in the
goal of providing a more sophisticated response. This layer glues the whole application together and
allows different nodes to communicate with each other and be displayed to the user through the
browser. It is located in the application server.

In N-tier architecture, the business logic tier is pulled out from the presentation tier and, as its
own layer; it controls an application's functionality by performing detailed processing. For
example, in our shopping cart example, his tier completes credit card authorization and
calculates things like shipping Costs and sales tax. The tools used to encapsulate an application's
business logic into its own layer include web services, custom tags, and stored procedures.

WWW OPERATION
WWW works on client- server approach. Following steps explains how the web works:

1. User enters the URL (say, http://www.facebook.com) of the web page in the address bar of web
browser.

2. Then browser requests the Domain Name Server for the IP address corresponding to
www.facebook.com.

3. After receiving IP address, browser sends the request for web page to the web server using HTTP
protocol which specifies the way the browser and web server communicates.

4. Then web server receives request using HTTP protocol and checks its search for the requested
web page. If found it returns it back to the web browser and close the HTTP connection.

5. Now the web browser receives the web page, It interprets it and display the contents of web page
in web browser’s window.

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2.4 PEER-TO-PEER ARCHITECTURE
In the common client-server architecture, multiple clients will communicate with a central server. A peer-
to-peer (P2P) architecture consists of a decentralized network of peers - nodes that are both clients and
servers. P2P networks distribute the workload between peers, and all peers contribute and consume
resources within the network without the need for a centralized server. However, not all peers are
necessarily equal. Super peers may have more resources and can contribute more than they consume.
Edge peers do not contribute any resources, they only consume from the network. In its purest form, P2P
architecture is completely decentralized. However, in application, sometimes there is a central tracking
server layered on top of the P2P network to help peers find each other and manage the network.

Some uses of P2P architecture:

● File sharing
● Instant messaging
● Voice Communication
● Collaboration
● High Performance Computing

Some examples of P2P architecture:

● Napster - it was shut down in 2001 since they used a centralized tracking server
● BitTorrent - popular P2P file-sharing protocol, usually associated with piracy
● Skype - it used to use proprietary hybrid P2P protocol, now uses client-server model
after Microsoft’s acquisition
● Bitcoin - P2P cryptocurrency without a central monetary authority

2.5 MOBILE AGENT ARCHITECHTURE

Mobile (transportable) agents: An agent is “an independent software program, which runs on
behalf of a network user”. A mobile agent is a program that, once it is launched by a user,
can travel from node to node autonomously, and can continue to function even if the user is
disconnected from the network.
Mobile agent based software systems have a totally different architecture from client-server
and N-tier systems. Mobile agents have the following properties:
➢ They are the programs which hide data and code which are transported from client
machine to remote server for execution.
➢ They execute asynchronously.
➢ The term mobile agents have no relation with mobile user, mobile device or any other
aspects of mobility.
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 What is mobile agent ?
Program that can migrate and performs some processing at each host. Agent decides
when and where to move next.
-How it Moves:(in just 3 steps)
• Save state
• Transport
• Resume

Mobile Agent Architecture

An agent server process runs on each participating host. Participating hosts are networked
through links that can be low-bandwidth and unreliable. An agent is a serializable object
whose execution state can be frozen for transportation and reconstituted upon arrival at a
remote-site.

What’s in the Agent?

An agent is an object; hence it contains state data and methods. Among the instance
data is an itinerary of the sites to be visited, which may be dynamically constructed or
adjusted. Other data may include an agent ID or other authentication data. The agent’s
behavior at each stop can be pre- programmed and dynamically adjusted.

Events in Mobile Agent

● Creation: a brand new agent is born and its state is initialized.
● Cloning: atwinagentis born andthecurrent stateoftheoriginal isduplicated intheclone.
● Dispatch: an agent travels to a new host.
● Deactivation: an agent is put to sleep and its state is saved in persistent storage.
● Activation: a deactivated agent is brought back to life and its state is restored from persistent
storage.
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● Retraction: an agent is brought back from a remote host along with its state to the home
machine.
● Disposal: an agent is terminated and its state is lost forever.
● Communication: Notifies the agent to handle messages incoming from other agents,which is the
primary means of inter-agent correspondence.

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Why mobile agent ?
▪ They reduce the network load
▪ they overcome network latency
▪ they encapsulate protocols
▪ they adapt dynamically
▪ they execute asynchronously and autonomously
▪ they are natural heterogeneous
▪ they are fault tolerance

Mobile-agent applications
▪ Information retrieval
▪ Monitoring
▪ Virtual market-place/ meeting room
▪ Shareware
Example:
Mobile Agents in Java A mobile agent in Java is called an “Aglet” – Lightweight agent
Why use Java?
– Platform independence!
– Create once, go anywhere
– Price FREE TOOLKITS ( ASDK )
– Hosts can provide an environment for the aglet to execute within

Types of agent mobility

WEAK
-when moving a mobile agent Carrier (Code + Date State)
-global or instance variables
-on moving , execution starts from the beginning
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 STRONG
-when moving a mobile agent Carrier (Code + Date State + Execution State)
-global or instance variables
- Execution State :local variables and threads
-on moving : execution can be continued from the point it is stopped previously

Security in Mobile Agent Systems

• Security concern is the primary deterrent of deploying the mobile-agent technology.
• There are concerns for both the agent hosts and the mobile agents.
– Agent host concerns: Malicious/unauthorized agents can misuse/destroy system
resources (e.g., worms).
– Agent concerns: Malicious hosts can destroy or alter an agent’s logic, ( e.g., Mobile
agent’s route can be altered.)

Security in Mobile Agent Systems Measures:

Authentication – an agent must authenticate itself to the host, and an agent server must
authenticate itself to the agent.
Encryption – an agent encrypts its sensitive data.
Resource access – a host enforces strict access control to its resources.

Current Areas of Work

mobile agent theories: Pi-calculus extensions, Mobile Ambient, Agent Itineraries
mobile agent model: component-based, AI- based
mobile agent infrastructure: environment supporting mobile agents - security, naming, domain
crossing, etc
mobile agent programming: languages, toolkits, abstractions
mobile agent standards: OMG’s MASIF, FIP

Assignment Question:
1. Explain the architecture of WWW? Mention major components of web.
2. Explain the architecture of mobile agent? Mention its applications.

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 Chapter-3
WIRELESS TRANSMISSION
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Signals
3.3 Period, Frequency and Bandwidth.
3.4 Antennas
3.5 Signal Propagation
3.6 Multiplexing
3.7 Modulation
3.8 Spread Spectrum
3.9 Cellular System

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves
no physical link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly.
Wireless signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by
appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it
converts the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency
range. The receptor on the other end receives these signals and converts them back
to digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

A. RADIO TRANSMISSION
Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can
penetrate through walls and structures alike.Radio waves can have wavelength from
1 mm – 100,000 km and have frequency ranging from 3 Hz (Extremely Low
Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely High Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub-
divided into six bands.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can
travel in straight line and bounce back. The power of low frequency waves decreases
sharply as they cover long distance. High frequency radio waves have more power.
Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000km
over the earth’s surface.
Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other
obstacles. They use Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves
such as HF and VHF bands are spread upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they
are refracted back to the earth.

B. MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION
Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals
over them can be sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station.
Because Microwaves travels in straight lines, both sender and receiver must be
aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight.
Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequency
ranging from 300 MHz to 300 GHz.
Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture
above, multiple antennas can be aligned to reach further. Microwaves have higher
frequencies and do not penetrate wall like obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions, antenna size
and the frequency it is using.

C. INFRARED TRANSMISSION
Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has
wavelength of 700-nm to 1-mm and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz.
Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as
television and it’s remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by
nature. Because of high frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.

D. SATELLITE MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION

Microwave relay system transponders

E. LIGHT TRANSMISSION
Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for data transmission is
light or optical signaling. This is achieved by means of LASER.
Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line.Hence the
sender and receiver must be in the line-of-sight. Because laser transmission is
unidirectional, at both ends of communication the laser and the photo-detector needs
to be installed. Laser beam is generally 1mm wide hence it is a work of precision to
align two far receptors each pointing to lasers source.
Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors works as Rx (receiver).
Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally,
laser beam is distorted by wind, atmosphere temperature, or variation in temperature
in the path.
Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to tap 1mm wide laser without
interrupting the communication channel.

3.2 SIGNALS
• Signals are the physical representation of data.
• Users of a communication system can only exchange data through the
transmission of signals.
• Layer 1 of the ISO/OSI basic reference model is responsible for the conversion
of data, i.e., bits, into signals and vice versa.
• Signals are functions of time and location.
• Signal parameters represent the data values.
• The most interesting types of signals for radio transmission are periodic
signals, especially sine waves as carriers.
• The general function of a sine wave is, g( t ) = At sin ( 2 πft t + φt)
• Signal parameters are the amplitude A, the frequency f, time period t and the
phase shift φ.
• Signals are of 2 types:
o analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
o digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
Different representations of signals
Þ Amplitude (amplitude domain)
Þ Frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
Þ Phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase j in polar coordinates)

Þ Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier transformation

Þ Digital signals need
§ infinite frequencies for perfect transmission q
§ modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal)

3.3 PERIOD, FREQUENCY AND BANDWIDTH

A. PERIOD
• Period refers to the time that it takes to do something. When an event occurs
repeatedly, then we say that the event is periodic and refer to the time for the
event to repeat itself as the period.

• The period of a wave is the time for a particle on a medium to make one
complete vibrational cycle.

• A period (T) is the time required for one complete cycle of vibration to pass a
given point.

• Period equals the Total time divided by the Number of cycles.

NOTE: Frequency and Period are in reciprocal relationships

B. FREQUENCY
• The frequency is the number of complete vibrational cycles of a medium per
given amount of time.

• It is reasonable that the quantity frequency would have units of cycles/second,

waves/second, vibrations/second, or something/second.

• Unit for frequency is the Hertz (abbreviated Hz) where 1 Hz is equivalent to 1

cycle/second. If 2 vibrational cycles in one second, then the frequency is 2 Hz. If
8 vibrational cycles in 4 seconds, then the frequency is 2 Hz (8 cycles/4 s = 2
cycles/s).

Frequency and wave length:

𝑐
𝑙=
𝑓
wave length l, speed of light c= 3x108m/s, frequency f

VLF, LF, MF HF not used for wireless

o VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio
o simple, small antenna for cars
o deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections

SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication

o small antenna, beam forming
o large bandwidth available

Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF range

o some systems planned up to EHF
o limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules (resonance
frequencies)
§ weather dependent fading. E.g. signal loss caused by heavy rain
C. BANDWIDTH
Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data transmitted over an internet
connection in a given amount of time. Bandwidth measures how much data can be
transferred along a communications channel. The more frequencies available to
the communications channel, the more data that can be transferred at once.

Bandwidth is often mistaken for internet speed when it's actually the volume of
information that can be sent over a connection.
While bandwidth is officially measured as a frequency (Hz), it is more generally
reported in amount of time – calculated in megabits per second (Mbps).

3.4 ANTENNAS
Antenna is a device which can receive and radiate electromagnetic waves from one
station to another.
Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of wires to space for radio
transmission
In radio engineering, an antenna is the interface between radio waves propagating
through space and electric currents moving in metal conductors, used with
a transmitter or receiver.
In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an electric current to the antenna's
terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic
waves (radio waves).
In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of a radio wave in order to
produce an electric current at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified.
Antennas are essential components of all radio equipment.
Antenna is a metal rod or dish that catches radio waves and turns them into electrical
signals feeding into something like a radio or television or a telephone system.

ANTENNAS: ISOTROPIC RADIATOR

• Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional) - only a
theoretical reference antenna
• Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or horizontally)
• Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna

ideal isotropic antenna

ANTENNAS: SIMPLE DIPOLES
Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but simple dipoles are real antennas, e.g.,
dipoles with lengths l/4 on car roofs or l/2 as Hertzian dipole Ë shape of antenna
proportional to wavelength

Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

ANTENNAS: DIRECTED ANTENNA

These are the antenna having particular direction specified for receiving the signal.

ANTENNAS: SECTORIZED ANTENNA

Antenna is divided in sectors to receive the particular signal from 3 or 6 different
direction.

Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile phones (e.g.,
radio coverage of a valley)
ANTENNAS: DIVERSITY ANTENNA
• Grouping of 2 or more antennas together is known as diversity antenna.
• It increases the strength of the receiving signal
• Receiver can choose the largest output
• It can combine output power of antenna to produce gain.
• Co-phasing needed to avoid cancellation

3.5 SIGNAL PROPAGATION

Transmission range
• communication possible
• low error rate
Detection range
• detection of the signal possible
• no communication possible
Interference range
• signal may not be detected q
• signal adds to the background noise Signal propagation ranges
DELAY SPREAD- Signal travelling in diff. paths in diff lengths are received at diff times at
reciever end.

3.6 MULTIPLEXING
It is a technique where two or more signals are combined and use the same channel
for transmission.
Multiple access technique: application of multiplexing from user point to get data over a
channel. Eg. Wifi
3.7 MODULATION
Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a periodic waveform
called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal typically contains information to be
transmitted.

For digital modulation, digital data (0 and 1) is translated into an analog signal (
baseband signal ).
Digital modulation is required if digital data has to be transmitted over a medium that
only allows for analog transmission.
One example for wired networks is the old analog telephone system. – to connect a
computer to this system a modem is needed. The modem then performs the
translation of digital data into analog signals and vice versa.
Need for Modulation
Þ Reduction in the height of the antenna
Þ Avoids mixing of signals
Þ Makes multiplexing possible
Þ Increases the range of communication

In wireless networks, however, digital transmission cannot be used.

• Here, the binary bit-stream has to be translated into an analog signal first.
• The three basic methods for this translation are,
Þ amplitude shift keying (ASK)
Þ frequency shift keying (FSK) and
Þ phase shift keying (PSK)
• Apart from the translation of digital data into analog signals, wireless
transmission requires an additional modulation, an analog modulation.
• Analog modulation shifts the center frequency of the baseband signal
generated by the digital modulation up to the radio carrier.

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Modulation

• As the name suggests, in Amplitude Shift Key or ASKS Modulation, the
amplitude is represented by "1," and if the amplitude does not exist, it is
represented by "0".
• Using Amplitude Shift Key Modulation is very simple, and it requires a very low
bandwidth.
• Amplitude Shift Key Modulation is vulnerable to inference or deduction.

Frequency Shift Key (FSK) Modulation

• In Frequency Shift Key or FSK Modulation, different notations f1 and f2 are
used for different frequencies.
• Here, f1 is used to represent bit "1," and f2 represents bit "0".
• It is also a simple modulation technique but uses different frequencies for
different bits; bandwidth requirement becomes high.
Phase Shift Key (PSK) Modulation
• In Phase Shift Key or PSK Modulation, the phase difference is used to
differentiate between the "1" and "0" bits.
• If the bit is "1", a simple wave is drawn, and if the bit becomes "0", the phase of
the wave is shifted by "180 or π".
• PSK Modulation is more complicated than ASK and FSK Modulation, but it is
robust too.
3.8 SPREAD SPECTRUM
• A collective class of signaling techniques are employed before transmitting a
signal to provide a secure communication, known as the Spread Spectrum
Modulation.
• Spread spectrum technique is used for increasing the bandwidth of
baseband message signal (when compared to original signal) with the help of
pseudo random noise.
• The main advantage of spread spectrum communication technique is to
prevent “interference” whether it is intentional or unintentional.
• These spread spectrum signals transmit at low power density and has a wide
spread of signals.
• The signals modulated with these techniques are hard to interfere and cannot
be jammed. An intruder with no official access is never allowed to crack them.
Hence, these techniques are used for military purposes.

• A coded sequence of 1s and 0s with certain auto-correlation properties, called

as Pseudo-Noise coding sequence is used in spread spectrum techniques.
• It is a maximum-length sequence, which is a type of cyclic code(periodic) and
deterministic.
• Pseudo-Noise code generation is done by linear feedback shift register.
NARROW-BAND AND SPREAD-SPECTRUM SIGNALS
Both the Narrow band and Spread spectrum signals can be understood easily by
observing their frequency spectrum as shown in the following figures.

Narrow-band / Baseband Message Signals

The Narrow-band signals have the signal strength concentrated as shown in the
following frequency spectrum figure.

Following are some of its features −

• Band of signals occupy a narrow range of frequencies.

• Power density is high.
• Spread of energy is low and concentrated.
Though the features are good, these signals are prone to interference.

Spread Spectrum Signals

The spread spectrum signals have the signal strength distributed as shown in the
following frequency spectrum figure.
Following are some of its features −

• Band of signals occupy a wide range of frequencies.

• Power density is very low.
• Energy is wide spread.
With these features, the spread spectrum signals are highly resistant to interference
or jamming. Since multiple users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth
without interfering with one another, these can be called as multiple access
techniques.

FHSS and DSSS / CDMA

Spread spectrum multiple access techniques uses signals which have a transmission
bandwidth of a magnitude greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.
These are of two types.
• Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum FHSS

• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum DSSS

Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum FHSS
This is frequency hopping technique, where the users are made to change the
frequencies of usage, from one to another in a specified time interval, hence called
as frequency hopping. For example, a frequency was allotted to sender 1 for a
particular period of time. Now, after a while, sender 1 hops to the other frequency and
sender 2 uses the first frequency, which was previously used by sender 1. This is
called as frequency reuse.
The frequencies of the data are hopped from one to another in order to provide a
secure transmission. The amount of time spent on each frequency hop is called
as Dwell time.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum DSSS
Whenever a user wants to send data using this DSSS technique, each and every bit
of the user data is multiplied by a secret code, called as chipping code. This chipping
code is nothing but the spreading code which is multiplied with the original message
and transmitted. The receiver uses the same code to retrieve the original message.

Comparison between FHSS and DSSS/CDMA

Both the spread spectrum techniques are popular for their characteristics. To have a
clear understanding, let us take a look at their comparisons.
 FHSS DSSS / CDMA

Multiple frequencies are used Single frequency is used

Hard to find the user’s frequency at User frequency, once allotted is always
any instant of time the same

Frequency reuse is allowed Frequency reuse is not allowed

Sender has to wait if the spectrum is

Sender need not wait busy

Power strength of the signal is high Power strength of the signal is low

Stronger and penetrates through the

It is weaker compared to FHSS
obstacles

It is never affected by interference It can be affected by interference

It is cheaper It is expensive

This is the commonly used technique This technique is not frequently used

Advantages of Spread Spectrum

Following are the advantages of spread spectrum −

• Cross-talk elimination
• Better output with data integrity
• Reduced effect of multipath fading
• Better security
• Reduction in noise
• Co-existence with other systems
• Longer operative distances
• Hard to detect
• Not easy to demodulate/decode
• Difficult to jam the signals
Although spread spectrum techniques were originally designed for military uses, they
are now being used widely for commercial purpose.
3.9 CELLULAR SYSTEM
Cellular network is an underlying technology for mobile phones, personal
communication systems, wireless networking etc. The technology is developed for
mobile radio telephone to replace high power transmitter/receiver systems. Cellular
networks use lower power, shorter range and more transmitters for data transmission.

Features of Cellular Systems

Wireless Cellular Systems solves the problem of spectral congestion and increases
user capacity. The features of cellular systems are as follows −
• Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum.
• Reuse of radio channel in different cells.
• Enable a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number of users
by reusing the channel throughout the coverage region.
• Communication is always between mobile and base station (not directly
between mobiles).
• Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within a small
geographic area called a cell.
• Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.
• By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the channel
groups may be reused to cover different cells.
• Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
• Frequency reuse or frequency planning.
• Organization of Wireless Cellular Network.
Cellular network is organized into multiple low power transmitters each 100w or less.

Shape of Cells
The coverage area of cellular networks are divided into cells, each cell having its own
antenna for transmitting the signals. Each cell has its own frequencies. Data
communication in cellular networks is served by its base station transmitter, receiver
and its control unit.
The shape of cells can be either square or hexagon −

Square
A square cell has four neighbors at distance d and four at distance Root 2 d

• Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant

• Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna

Hexagon
A hexagon cell shape is highly recommended for its easy coverage and calculations.
It offers the following advantages −
 • Provides equidistant antennas
• Distance from center to vertex equals length of side

Frequency Reuse
Frequency reusing is the concept of using the same radio frequencies within a given
area, that are separated by considerable distance, with minimal interference, to
establish communication.

Frequency reuse offers the following benefits −

• Allows communications within cell on a given frequency

• Limits escaping power to adjacent cells
• Allows re-use of frequencies in nearby cells
• Uses same frequency for multiple conversations
• 10 to 50 frequencies per cell
For example, when N cells are using the same number of frequencies and K be the
total number of frequencies used in systems. Then each cell frequency is calculated
by using the formulae K/N.
In Advanced Mobile Phone Services (AMPS) when K = 395 and N = 7, then
frequencies per cell on an average will be 395/7 = 56. Here, cell frequency is 56.
 Chapter-4
MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Hidden/ Exposed Terminals
4.3 The basic Access Method
4.4 Near / Far Terminals
4.5 SDMA, FDMA,TDMA, CDMA

4.1 INTRODUCTION
A media access control is a network data transfer policy that determines how data
is transmitted between two computer terminals through a network cable.
Or

The medium access control (MAC) is a sublayer of the data link layer of the open
system interconnections (OSI) reference model for data transmission. It is responsible
for flow control and multiplexing for transmission medium. It controls the transmission
of data packets via remotely shared channels. It sends data over the network interface
card.
The following diagram depicts the position of the MAC layer −
Functions of MAC Layer
• It provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the LLC and upper layers of
the OSI network.
• It is responsible for encapsulating frames so that they are suitable for
transmission via the physical medium.
• It resolves the addressing of source station as well as the destination station,
or groups of destination stations.
• It performs multiple access resolutions when more than one data frame is to be
transmitted. It determines the channel access methods for transmission.
• It also performs collision resolution and initiating retransmission in case of
collisions.
• It generates the frame check sequences and thus contributes to protection
against transmission errors.

MAC Addresses
MAC address or media access control address is a unique identifier allotted to a
network interface controller (NIC) of a device. It is used as a network address for data
transmission within a network segment like Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.
MAC address is assigned to a network adapter at the time of manufacturing. It is
hardwired or hard-coded in the network interface card (NIC). A MAC address
comprises of six groups of two hexadecimal digits, separated by hyphens, colons, or
no separators. An example of a MAC address is 00:0A:89:5B:F0:11.

4.2 HIDDEN/ EXPOSED TERMINALS

HIDDEN TERMINALS
In wireless LANs ( wireless local area networks), the hidden terminal problem is a
transmission problem that arises when two or more stations who are out of range of
each other transmit simultaneously to a common recipient. This is prevalent in
decentralised systems where there aren’t any entity for controlling transmissions. This
occurs when a station is visible from a wireless access point (AP), but is hidden from
other stations that communicate with the AP.

Problem Illustration
Suppose that there are three stations labelled STA, STB, and STC, where STA and STC are
transmitting while STB is receiving. The stations are in a configuration such that the two
transmitters STA and STC are not in the radio range of each other. This is shown in the
following figure −
The above diagram shows that station STA starts transmitting to station STB. Since
station STC is out of radio range of STA, it perceives that the channel is free and starts
transmitting to STB. The frames received by STC are garbled and collision occurs.
This situation is known as the hidden terminal problem.

Solution
The exposed terminal problem is solved by the MAC (medium access control) layer
protocol IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS, with the condition that the stations are synchronized
and frame sizes and data speed are the same. RTS stands for Request to Send and
CTS stands for Clear to Send.
A transmitting station sends a RTS frame to the receiving station. The receiving station
replies by sending a CTS frame. On receipt of CTS frame, the transmitting station
begins transmission.
Any station hearing the RTS is close to the transmitting station and remains silent long
enough for the CTS. Any station hearing the CTS is close to the receiving station and
remains silent during the data transmission.
In the above example, station STC hears does not hear RTS from station STA, but
hears CTS frame from station STB. So, it understands that STB is busy defers its
transmission thus avoiding collision.
EXPOSED TERMINALS
In wireless LANs (wireless local area networks), the exposed terminal problem is a
transmission problem that arises when a transmitting station is prevented from
sending frames due to interference with another transmitting station. This is prevalent
in decentralised systems where there aren’t any entity for controlling transmissions.
This occurs when a station is visible from a wireless access point (AP), but not from
other stations that communicate with the AP.

Problem Illustration
Suppose that there are four stations labelled STA, STB, STC, and STD, where STB
and STC are transmitters while STA and STD are receivers at some slot of time. The
stations are in a configuration such that the two receivers STA and STD are out of
radio range of each other, but the two transmitters STB and STC are in radio range of
each other. This is shown in the following figure −

The above diagram shows that a transmission is going on from STB to STA. STC
falsely concludes that the above transmission will cause interference and so stops its
transmission attempts to STD. However, the interference would not have occurred
since the transmission from STC to STD is out of range of STB. This prevention of
transmission is called exposed terminal problem.

Solution
The exposed terminal problem is solved by the MAC (medium access control) layer
protocol IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS, with the condition that the stations are synchronized
and frame sizes and data speed are the same. RTS stands for Request to Send and
CTS stands for Clear to Send.
A transmitting station sends a RTS frame to the receiving station. The receiving station
replies by sending a CTS frame. On receipt of CTS frame, the transmitting station
begins transmission.
Any station hearing the RTS is close to the transmitting station and remains silent long
enough for the CTS. Any station hearing the CTS is close to the receiving station and
remains silent during the data transmission.
In the above example, station STC hears RTS from station STB, but does not hear
CTS from station STA. So, it is free to transmit to station STD.

4.4 NEAR AND FAR TERMINALS

The near–far problem or hearability problem is the effect of a strong signal from a
near signal source in making it hard for a receiver to hear a weaker signal from a
further source due to adjacent-channel interference, co-channel
interference, distortion, capture effect, dynamic range limitation,etc. Such a situation
is common in wireless communication systems, in particular CDMA.

Explanation: Consider the situation as, A & B are both sending with the same
transmission power. As the signal strength decreases proportionally to the square of
distance between them, B’s signal drowns A’s signal. As a result ,C cannot receive A
transmission.
Now think of C as being an arbiter for sending rights. In this case, terminal B would
already drown out terminal A on physical layer. C in return would have no chance of
applying a fair scheme as it would only hear B.
Then near/far effect is a server problem of wireless networks using CDMA. All signals
should arrive at receiver with more or less the same strength. Otherwise a person
standing closer to somebody could always speak louder than a person further away.
Even if the sender were separated by code, the closest one would simply drown out
others .Precise power control is needed to receive the senders with the strength as
that of receiver.
The CDMA near far problem arises because handsets may be anywhere within the
particular cell boundaries. Some handsets will be close to the base station, whereas
others will be much further away. In a free space scenario signals decay according an
inverse square law - in other words double the distance and the strength falls away to
! Where:
a quarter. Signal=
"! k = a constant
d = distance
4.5 SDMA, FDMA,TDMA, CDMA
SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (SDMA)
Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple access is a technique which
is MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) architecture and used mostly in wireless and
satellite communication. It has the following features.

• All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.
• SDMA is completely free from interference.
• A single satellite can communicate with more satellites receivers of the same
frequency.
• The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base station
in SDMA, can track a moving user.
• Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
• SDMA is always used in combination with other scheme and not individually.
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (FDMA)
FDMA is the basic technology for advanced mobile phone services. The features of
FDMA are as follows.

• FDMA allots a different sub-band of frequency to each different user to access

the network.
• If FDMA is not in use, the channel is left idle instead of allotting to the other
users.
• FDMA is implemented in Narrowband systems and it is less complex than
TDMA.
• Tight filtering is done here to reduce adjacent channel interference.
• The base station BS and mobile station MS, transmit and receive
simultaneously and continuously in FDMA.

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (TDMA)

In the cases where continuous transmission is not required, there TDMA is used
instead of FDMA. The features of TDMA include the following.
 • TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users where each users
makes use of non-overlapping time slots.
• Data transmission in TDMA is not continuous, but occurs in bursts. Hence
handsoff process is simpler.
• TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception thus duplexers
are not required.
• TDMA has an advantage that is possible to allocate different numbers of time
slots per frame to different users.
• Bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by concatenating or
reassigning time slot based on priority.
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)
Code division multiple access technique is an example of multiple access where
several transmitters use a single channel to send information simultaneously. Its
features are as follows.

• In CDMA every user uses the full available spectrum instead of getting
allotted by separate frequency.
• CDMA is much recommended for voice and data communications.
• While multiple codes occupy the same channel in CDMA, the users having
same code can communicate with each other.
• CDMA offers more air-space capacity than TDMA.
• The hands-off between base stations is very well handled by CDMA.
 Chapter-5
WIRELESS LANS
5.1 Wireless LAN and communication
5.2 Infrared
5.3 Radio Frequency
5.4 IR Advantages and Disadvantages
5.5 RF Advantages and Disadvantages
5.6 Wireless Network Architecture Logical
5.7 Types of WLAN
5.8 IEEE 802.11
5.9 MAC layer
5.10 Security
5.11 Synchronization
5.12 Power Management
5.13 Roaming
5.14 Bluetooth Overview

5.1 WIRELESS LAN AND COMMUNICATION

Wireless Communication is a method of transmitting information from one point to other, without using
any connection like wires, cables or any physical medium.

What is WLAN???

® A wireless local area network(LAN) is a flexible data communications system implemented as an

extension to, or as an alternative for, a wired LAN.
® Using radio frequency (RF) technology, wireless LANs transmit and receive data over the air,
minimizing the need for wired connections.
® Thus, combining data connectivity with user mobility.
Advantages of WLAN
® Productivity, convenience, and cost advantages
® Installation speed and simplicity.
® Installation flexibility.
® Reduced cost-of-ownership.
® Mobility.
® Scalability.

Disadvantages of WLAN
® Cost
® Wireless network cards cost 4 times more than wired network cards.
® The access points are more expensive than hubs and wires.
® Signal Bleed Over
® Access points pick up the signals of adjacent access points or overpower their signal.
® Environmental Conditions
® Susceptible to weather and solar activity.
® Constrained by buildings, trees, terrain.
® Less Capacity
 ® Slower bandwidth.
® Limit to how much data a carrier wave can transmit without lost packets impacting performance.

Wireless LAN Applications

® Medical Professionals
® Corporate
® Education
® Temporary Situations
® Airlines
® Security Staff
® Emergency Centers

5.2 INFRARED COMMUNICATION (IR)

This is one of the earliest types of optical communication and is still very much in use today. It is found in
remote controls for televisions, dvd players and most other entertainment devices.Dimmer lights and other
facilities can be also be controlled using infrared.

Infrared uses light that is invisible to us and is just above the red end of the colour spectrum.The key
component of an infrared system is an infrared LED (Light Emitting Diode) to emit the light and a photo-
diode in the television or equipment to receive the light.A digital code within the controller switches the light
on and off, this is then picked up as a digital code at the other end. The communication standard is called
'IrDA' short for Infrared Digital Association and it allows wire-less communication between Mouse,
keyboard, joysticks, gamepads etc and receiving equipment such as PC, Laptop, game console.Bandwidth
is normally quite modest, around 115.2 kbps (IrDA serial infrared standard). Although IrDA does define a
fast data transfer standard of up to 14 Mbps, this is rarely used.IR works only up to about 10 metres but that
is fine for the type of applications it is mainly used for. It will only work line-of-sight.Technologies such as
Bluetooth has largely supplanted infrared as a communication method for mobiles and computers.
5.4 IR ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages Disadvantages

Inexpensive compared to other technologies Only works line-of-sight

Works over a moderate bandwidth 115 kbps Short range - a few metres

Works well over a short distance Low bandwidth

5.3 RADIO FREQUENCY

RF is the short form of radio frequency. RF is used in wireless communications of every kind. The
medium of communication is popularly called as RF wave similar to cable for wired
communication.

It is all around us when we use cell phone, when we use Bluetooth device, when we use remote
control, when we watch TV, when we listen radio, when we USE microwave oven. It has many
applications and day by day it is increasing.

The unit of radio frequency is Hertz (Hz) i.e. no of oscillations or cycles per second. There is one
more term which is often used interchangeably to mention RF and is called 'wavelength'. The
relationship between wavelength and radio frequency is mentioned below.
Wavelength=C/Frequency,
Where C is the speed of light and is 3 x 10^8 meter/second.

Radio frequency is allocated and administered by FCC (Federal Communications Commission)

and many such frequencies will form electromagnetic spectrum. This spectrum is labeled with
different names as below.

Designation Frequency Range

Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) 3-30Hz

Super Low Frequency (SLF) 30-300Hz

Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) 300-3000Hz

Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3-30 KHz

Low Frequency (LF) 30-300 KHz

Medium Frequency (MF) 300KHz-3 MHz

High Frequency (HF) 3-30 MHz

Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 MHz-300 MHz

Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 MHz-3 GHz

Super High Frequency (SHF) 3-30 GHz

Extremely High Frequency (EHF) 30-300 GHz

Note:1000Hz= 1KHz, 1000KHz= 1MHz, 1000MHz= 1GHz

The device which receives and transmits this radio frequency (RF) is called as antenna which

everyone is familiar. There are different antennas designed to transmit and receive different RF

frequencies as mentioned in the table.

5.5 RF ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages of RF
Following are the advantages of RF:
➨It has different penetration through the walls of the buildings or houses based on the
frequency. Hence used for radio and television transmission and for cellular mobile phone
service.
➨Used in various medical applications. It is used in Diathermy instrument for surgery. It is used
in MRI for taking images of human body. It is also used for skin tightening.
➨It is used in radar for object detection.
➨It is used for satellite communication.
➨It is used in microwave line of sight communication system.
Disadvantages of RF
Following are the disadvantages of RF:
➨Uncontrolled radiation of RF affects pre-adolescent childrens, pregnant women, elderly
humans, patients with pace makers, small birds, flora and fauna, small insects etc.
➨The areas near RF cellular towers have been observed with more lightening compare to other
areas.
➨It also affects some of the fruits grown near the RF tower areas.
➨As RF waves are available both in LOS and non LOS regions of transmitter, it can be easily
intruded by the hackers and crucial personal/official data can be decoded for malicious motives.
In order to avoid this situation, radio frequency wave based transmission is used with highly
secured algorithms such as AES, WEP, WPA etc. RF signal can also be modulated either using
frequency hopping or spread spectrum techniques to avoid this kind of eavesdropping.

5.6 WIRELESS NETWORK ARCHITECTURE LOGICAL

IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows –
• Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that are connected
to the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types−
o Wireless Access Point (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are
generally wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
o Client. Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones,
etc.
• Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
• Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations communicating
at the physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon the mode of
operation−
o Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through
access points.
o Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in a peer-to-peer basis in
an ad hoc manner.
• Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
• Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.
• Portal- Logical entity where 802.11 network integrates with a non 802.11 network.
5.7 Types of WLAN
IEEE 802.11 Infrastructure
® 802.11 networks can be used in two modes: Infrastructure and Ad hoc Mode
® Infrastructure mode requires a central access point that all devices connect to.
® Ad-hoc mode is also known as “peer-to-peer” mode. Ad-hoc networks don't require a centralized access point.
Instead, devices on the wireless network connect directly to each other.

WLAN Topology Ad-Hoc Network and WLAN Topology Infrastructure

® In infrastructure mode, each station computer (STA for short) connects to an access point via a wireless
link. The set-up formed by the access point and the stations located within its coverage area are called the
basic service set, or BSS for short. They form one cell.
Each BSS is identified by a BSSID, a 6-byte (48-bite) identifier. In infrastructure mode, the BSSID
corresponds to the access point's MAC address.
It is possible to link several access points together (or more precisely several BSS's) using a connection
called a distribution system (DS for short) in order to form an extended service set or ESS. The distribution
system can also be a wired network, a cable between two access points or even a wireless network.
An ESS is identified with an ESSID (Extended Service Set Identifier), a 32-character identifier (in ASCII
format) which acts as its name on the network. The ESSID, often shortened to SSID, shows the network's
name, and in a way acts a firstlevel security measure, since it is necessary for a station to know the SSIDin
order to connect to the extended network.
® In ad hoc mode, wireless client machines connect to one another in order to form a peer-to-peer network,
i.e. a network in which every machine acts as both a client and an access point at the same time.
The set-up formed by the stations is called the independent basic service set, or IBSS for short. An IBSS is
a wireless network which has at least two stations and uses no access point. The IBSS therefore forms a
temporary network which lets people in the same room exchange data. It is identified by an SSID, just like
an ESS in infrastructure mode. In an ad hoc network, the range of the independent BSS is determined by
each station's range. That means that if two of the stations on the network are outside each other's range,
they will not be able to communicate, even if they can "see" other stations. Unlike infrastructure mode, ad
hoc mode has no distribution system that can send data frames from one station to another. An IBSS, then,
is by definition a restricted wireless network.

5.8 IEEE 802.11

Wireless LAN Standard
In response to lacking standards, IEEE developed the first internationally recognized wireless LAN
standard – IEEE 802.11 .
IEEE published 802.11 in 1997, after seven years of work
Scope of IEEE 802.11 is limited to Physical and Data Link Layers.

IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and specifications of wireless
LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high frequency radio waves instead of cables for connecting the
devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can move around within the area of network coverage.

IEEE 802 LAN Standards Family

5.9 MAC layer

The 802.11 MAC sublayer provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the logical link control
sublayer and upper layers of the OSI network. It is responsible for encapsulating frames and
describing frame formats.

MAC Sublayer Frame Format of IEEE 802.11

The main fields of a frame of wireless LANs as laid down by IEEE 802.11 are −
• Frame Control − It is a 2 bytes starting field composed of 11 subfields. It contains control
information of the frame.
• Duration − It is a 2-byte field that specifies the time period for which the frame and its
acknowledgment occupy the channel.
• Address fields − There are three 6-byte address fields containing addresses of source,
immediate destination, and final endpoint respectively.
• Sequence − It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers.
• Data − This is a variable-sized field that carries the data from the upper layers. The maximum
size of the data field is 2312 bytes.
• Check Sequence − It is a 4-byte field containing error detection information.
Avoidance of Collisions by 802.11 MAC Sublayer
In wireless systems, the method of collision detection does not work. It uses a protocol called
carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).
The method of CSMA/CA is −

• When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is idle or
busy.
• If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
• If the channel is idle, the station waits for an Inter-frame gap (IFG) amount of time and
then sends the frame.
• After sending the frame, it sets a timer.
• The station then waits for acknowledgement from the receiver. If it receives the
acknowledgement before expiry of timer, it marks a successful transmission.
• Otherwise, it waits for a back-off time period and restarts the algorithm.
Co-ordination Functions in 802.11 MAC Sublayer
IEEE 802.11 MAC Sublayer uses two co-ordination functions for collision avoidance before
transmission −

• Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) −

o It is a mandatory function used in CSMA/CA.
o It is used in distributed contention-based channel access.
o It is deployed in both Infrastructure BSS (basic service set) as well as Independent
BSS.
• Point Coordination Function (PCF) −
o It is an optional function used by 802.11 MAC Sublayer.
o It is used in centralized contention-free channel access.
o It is deployed in Infrastructure BSS only.

IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and specifications of
wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high-frequency radio waves instead of cables for
connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can move around within the area of
network coverage.
 5.10 SECURITY
Wireless local area network security (WLAN security) is a security system designed to protect
networks from the security breaches(/leakage) to which wireless transmissions are susceptible.
This type of security is necessary because WLAN signals have no physical boundary limitations,
and are prone to illegitimate access over network resources, resulting in the vulnerability of private
and confidential data. Network operations and availability can also be compromised in case of a
WLAN security breach. To address these issues, various authentication, encryption, invisibility and
other administrative controlling techniques are used in WLANs. Bussiness and corporate WLANs
in particular require adequate security measures to detect, prevent and block piggybackers,
eavesdroppers and other intruders.
Security has remained a major concern in WLANs around the globe. While wireless networks
provide convenience and flexibility, they also increase network vulnerability. Security threats such
as unauthorized access, denial of service attacks, IP and MAC spoofing, session hijacking and
eavesdropping can all be problems for WLANs. To counter these threats, various standard
authentication and encryption techniques are combined with other access control mechanisms.
These protocols, devices and techniques collectively secure the WLAN a level that equals and
even exceeds wired LAN security.

Some of the technologies employed in WLAN security include:

• Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP): An old encryption standard used to overcome security
threats. WEP provides security to WLAN by encrypting the information transmitted over
the air so that only the receivers with the correct encryption key can decrypt the
information.
• WPA/WPA2 (WI-FI Protected Access): Improved on WEP by introducing Temporal Key
Integrity Protocol (TKIP). While still using RC4 encryption, TKIP uses a temporal
encryption key that is regularly renewed, making it more difficult to steal. In addition, data
integrity was improved through the use of a more robust hashing mechanism.
• Wireless Intrusion Prevention Systems/Intrusion Detection Systems: Intrusion
detection and prevention focuses on radio frequency (RF) levels. This involves radio
scanning to detect rogue access points or ad hoc networks to regulate network access.
Advanced implementations are able to visually represent the network area along with
potential threats, and have automatic classification capabilities so that threats can be
easily identified.

5.11 SYNCHRONIZATION
Timing synchronization function (TSF) is specified in IEEE 802.11 wireless local area network
(WLAN) standard to fulfill timing synchronization among users. A TSF keeps the timers for all stations in
the same basic service set (BSS) synchronized. All stations shall maintain a local TSF timer. Each
mobile host maintains a TSF timer with modulus 264 counting in increments of microseconds. The TSF
is based on a 1-MHz clock and "ticks" in microseconds. On a commercial level, industry vendors
assume the 802.11 TSF's synchronization to be within 25 microseconds.

Timing synchronization is achieved by stations periodically exchanging timing information through

beacon frames. In (infra) BSS, the AP sends the TSF information in the beacons. In Independent
Basic Service Set (IBSS, ad-hoc), each station competes to send the beacon.
Each station maintains a TSF timer counting in increments of microseconds (μs). Stations adopt a
received timing if it is later than the station’s own TSF timer.
5.12 POWER MANAGEMENT
1. Power management is the feature that turns off the power or switches the system to a low
power state when inactive.

2. The basic idea to save power in WLAN is to switch off the transceiver whenever it is not
needed.

Power management in infrastructure based network

1. In infrastructure based network, an access point is responsible for the power

management.
2. Access point buffers data packet for all sleeping station.
3. Access point transmits a Traffic Indication Map (TIM) with a beacon frame.
4. TIM consists of a list of destination of buffered data.
5. Additionally, the access point also maintains a Delivery Traffic Indication Map(DTIM)
interval.
6. DTIM is used for sending broadcast/multicast frames.
7. The DTIM interval is always a multiple of TIM interval.
8. All station wakes up prior to an expected TIM and DTIM.
9. Figure shows Power management in IEEE 802.11 infrastructure based
network.

Power management in Ad-hoc network

1. In ad-hoc network, each station buffers data packet that it wants to send to power saving
station.
2. There is no access point.
 3. In Ad-hoc network, all station announces a list of buffered frame during a period when they
are all awake.
4. All station announce destination for which packets are buffered using Ad-hoc Traffic
Indication Map (ATIM) during the ATM interval.
5. Figure shows Power Management in IEEE 802.11 Ad-hoc Network.

5.13 ROAMING
Roaming refers to the ability for a cellular customer to automatically make and receive voice calls,
send and receive data, or access other services, including home data services, when travelling
outside the geographical coverage area of the home network, by means of using a visited network.

When a roaming user goes from one BSS to another while moving within the ESS, his or her
machine's wireless network adapter is able to switch access points depending on the quality of the
signal it receives from different access points. Access points communicate with one another using
a distribution system in order to trade information about the stations and, if necessary, to transmit
data from mobile stations. This feature which lets stations move "transparently" from one access
point to another is called roaming.

5.14 BLUETOOTH OVERVIEW

Bluetooth technology is a short-range wireless communications technology to replace the
cables connecting electronic devices, allowing a person to have a phone conversation via a
headset, use a wireless mouse and synchronize information from a mobile phone to a PC, all
using the same core system.
Bluetooth wireless technology is a short range communications technology intended to replace
the cables connecting portable unit and maintaining high levels of security. Bluetooth technology
is based on Ad-hoc technology also known as Ad-hoc Pico nets, which is a local area network
with a very limited coverage.
History of Bluetooth
WLAN technology enables device connectivity to infrastructure based services through a wireless
carrier provider. The need for personal devices to communicate wirelessly with one another
without an established infrastructure has led to the emergence of Personal Area Networks
(PANs).
• Ericsson's Bluetooth project in 1994 defines the standard for PANs to enable communication
between mobile phones using low power and low cost radio interfaces.
• In May 1988, Companies such as IBM, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba joined Ericsson to form the
Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) whose aim was to develop a defacto standard for PANs.
• IEEE has approved a Bluetooth based standard named IEEE 802.15.1 for Wireless Personal Area
Networks (WPANs). IEEE standard covers MAC and Physical layer applications.
Bluetooth specification details the entire protocol stack. Bluetooth employs Radio Frequency (RF)
for communication. It makes use of frequency modulation to generate radio waves in the ISM band.

The usage of Bluetooth has widely increased for its special features.
• Bluetooth offers a uniform structure for a wide range of devices to connect and communicate with
each other.
• Bluetooth technology has achieved global acceptance such that any Bluetooth enabled device,
almost everywhere in the world, can be connected with Bluetooth enabled devices.
• Low power consumption of Bluetooth technology and an offered range of up to ten meters has
paved the way for several usage models.
• Bluetooth offers interactive conference by establishing an adhoc network of laptops.
• Bluetooth usage model includes cordless computer, intercom, cordless phone and mobile
phones.
Piconets and Scatternets
Bluetooth enabled electronic devices connect and communicate wirelessly through shortrange
devices known as Piconets. Bluetooth devices exist in small ad-hoc configurations with the ability
to act either as master or slave the specification allows a mechanism for master and slave to
switch their roles. Point to point configuration with one master and one slave is the simplest
configuration.
When more than two Bluetooth devices communicate with one another, this is called a PICONET.
A Piconet can contain up to seven slaves clustered around a single master. The device that
initializes establishment of the Piconet becomes the master.
The master is responsible for transmission control by dividing the network into a series of time
slots amongst the network members, as a part of time division multiplexing scheme which is
shown below.

The features of Piconets are as follows −

• Within a Piconet, the timing of various devices and the frequency hopping sequence of individual
devices is determined by the clock and unique 48-bit address of master.
• Each device can communicate simultaneously with up to seven other devices within a single
Piconet.
• Each device can communicate with several piconets simultaneously.
• Piconets are established dynamically and automatically as Bluetooth enabled devices enter and
leave piconets.
• There is no direct connection between the slaves and all the connections are essentially master-
to-slave or slave-to-master.
• Slaves are allowed to transmit once these have been polled by the master.
• Transmission starts in the slave-to-master time slot immediately following a polling packet from
the master.
 • A device can be a member of two or more piconets, jumping from one piconet to another by
adjusting the transmission regime-timing and frequency hopping sequence dictated by the master
device of the second piconet.
• It can be a slave in one piconet and master in another. It however cannot be a master in more
than once piconet.
• Devices resident in adjacent piconets provide a bridge to support inner-piconet connections,
allowing assemblies of linked piconets to form a physically extensible communication
infrastructure known as Scatternet.

Spectrum

Bluetooth technology operates in the unlicensed industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band at
2.4 to 2.485 GHZ, using a spread spectrum hopping, full-duplex signal at a nominal rate of 1600 hops/sec.
the 2.4 GHZ ISM band is available and unlicensed in most countries.

Range

Bluetooth operating range depends on the device Class 3 radios have a range of up to 1 meter or
3 feet Class 2 radios are most commonly found in mobile devices have a range of 10 meters or 30 feet
Class 1 radios are used primarily in industrial use cases have a range of 100 meters or 300 feet.

Data rate

Bluetooth supports 1Mbps data rate for version 1.2 and 3Mbps data rate for Version 2.0 combined
with Error Data Rate.
 The idea of "anywhere, anytime, by anything and anyone" (or 4As)
networking is at the core of a new emerging networking technology,
referred to as a "ubiquitous networking". The origin of the term
"ubiquitous" is Latin, meaning "being everywhere, especially at the
same time".
 Ubiquitous networking, also known as pervasive networking, is the
distribution of communications infrastructure and wireless
technologies throughout the environment to enable continuous
connectivity.
 Four main objectives of ubiquitous networking are as follows:
 • freed from networking constraints concerning capacity, location,
and different link ups
 • freed from the constraints of terminal limitation
 • freed from the constraints of limited service and contents
 • freed from the constraints of network risk
 The mobile industry has witnessed explosive growth in number of subscribers, particularly over the past
few years. However, while usage measured in terms of the number of wireless minutes is increasing, the
price per minute for these services is falling.
 This means that Average Revenue Per User (APRU) is shrinking. Running a profitable business with
stagnant or even declining ARPU is one of the fundamental challenges mobile carriers are facing
today.
 The industry is addressing this challenge in two ways:
 By adding new services or new user experiences for which mobile sub scribers are willing to pay.
 By reducing operating expenses (OPEX)

 There are two primary ecosystems in the wireless industry.

1. Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
2. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

 Today, voice still accounts for the majority of overall cellular traffic, with wireless data exceeding more
than 10 percent of mobile operator ARPU. Mobile operator ARPU is under pressure due to price and
technology competition from both wireline (for example, voice over IP) and emerging services (for
example, voice over WI-FI). Although mobile operator ARPU for voice services is declining, the ARPU for
data revenues is growing at a healthy rate.
 Third generation mobile phones, or “3G Internet” mobile phones,
is a set of standards for wireless mobile communication systems,
that promises to deliver quality multimedia services along with
high quality voice transmission.
 Features
• 3G systems comply with the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000
(IMT2000) specifications by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
• The first 3G services were available in 1998.
• It provides high speed transmission having data transfer rate more than
0.2Mbps.
• Global roaming services are available for both voice and data.
• It offers advanced multimedia access like playing music, viewing videos,
television services etc.
• It provides access to all advanced Internet services, for example surfing
webpages with audio and video.
• 3G has pushed the growth of mobile market in direction to increase
service, revenue, no. of users as well as QoS.
3G specifications are laid down by two groups, 3GPP
and 3GPP2.
 3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project) − These
specifications are based upon Global System for
Mobile (GSM) communications, and are known as
Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems (UMTS).
The technologies includes in it are −
o Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA)
o General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
o Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
 3GPP2 − These specifications are based upon Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA). Two main
specifications under this are −
o Wideband CDMA (WCDMA)
o CDMA2000
 The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is
a broadband, packet-based, 3G mobile cellular system
based upon GSM standards.
 The specifications of UMTS covers the entire network
system, including the radio access network, the core
network and user authentication.
 UMTS is a component of IMT-2000 standard of the
International Telecommunications Union (ITU), developed
by 3GPP.
 It uses wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA)
air interface.
 It gives a high data rate of 2Mbps. For High-Speed
Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) handsets, the data-rate
is as high as 7.2 Mbps in the downlink connection.
 The UMTS provides support for both voice and data services. The
following data rates are targets for UMTS:
144 kbps-Satellite and rural outdoor-
384 kbps-Urban outdoor
2048 kbps-Indoor and low range outdoor
 Data services provide different quality-of-service (QoS)
parameters for data transfer. UMTS network services
accommodate QoS classes for four types of traffic:
• Conversational class-Voice, video telephony, video
gaming
• Streaming class-Multimedia, video on demand, webcast
• Interactive class-Web browsing, network gaming,
database access
• Background class-E-mail, short message service (SMS), file
downloading.
 User Equipment
The MS has two elements.
 The Mobile Equipment (ME) refers to the physical device, which comprises of
transceiver, digital signal processors, and the antenna.
 The second element is the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). The SIM card is unique
to the GSM system.

 Node B
Physical layer Processing
 Error correcting coding
 Modulation (QPSK)
 Handling transmission and reception

 RNC
 In-charge of call setup
 Quality of service Handling
 Radio resource management
 Core Network:-
The UMTS core network may be split into two different areas:
 Circuit switched elements: Carry data in a circuit switched manner, i.e. a
permanent channel for the duration of the call.
 Packet switched elements: Carry packet data. This enables much higher network
usage as the capacity can be shared and data is carried as packets which are
routed according to their destination.
 Circuit switched elements:
The circuit switched elements of the UMTS core network architecture
include the following network entities:
 Mobile switching center (MSC): An exchange performing all the switching and
signaling functions
Functions:
–call management
–mobility management(handling attach and authentication)
–subscriber administration
–maintenance of charging data(for radio network usage)
–supplementary call services (call forwarding, etc.)
 Gateway MSC (GMSC) –Provides interconnection between the UMTS core network
and external PSTN/ISDN networks.
 Packet switched elements
The packet switched elements of the 3G UMTS core network
architecture include the following network entities:
 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)- The SGSN provides a
number of functions within the UMTS network architecture.
 Mobility management
 Session management
 Interaction with other areas of the network
 Billing
 Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)- Central element in
UMTS.
 It handles inter-working between the UMTS packet switched
network and external packet switched networks.
 Shared Elements:-
The shared elements of the 3G UMTS core network
architecture include the following network entities:
 Home location register (HLR): Contains all the
administrative information about each subscriber along
with their last known location
 Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR is the entity that
decides whether a given UE equipment may be allowed
onto the network or not on the basis of IMEI.
 Authentication centre (AuC) : The AuC is a protected
database that contains the secret key also contained in
the user's USIM card.
 VLR(Visitor location Register): It Stores temporary information
and is integrated with MSC. And works in co-ordination with
the HLR
Major Interface
There are four major new
interfaces defined in UMTS:
 Uu interface between UE
and NodeB
 Iub interface between
NodeB and RNC
 Iur interface between RNC
and RNC
 Iu-CS interface between
RNC and MSC
 Iu-PS interface between
RNC and SGSN
 Chapter 7
MOBILE IP
7.1 Overview
7.2 Working with mobile IP
7.3 Mobile IP Entities
7.4 Mobility Agents
7.5 Components of Mobile IP
7.6 Mobile IPv6 Features
7.7 Mobile IPv6 Address Types
7.8 Mobile IPv6 Address Scope
7.9 Mobile IP Operation

7.1 Overview of Mobile IP

This is an IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) standard communications protocol
designed to allow mobile devices' (such as laptop, PDA, mobile phone, etc.) users to
move from one network to another while maintaining their permanent IP (Internet
Protocol) address.

Defined in RFC (Request for Comments) 2002, mobile IP is an enhancement of the

internet protocol (IP) that adds mechanisms for forwarding internet traffic to mobile
devices (known as mobile nodes) when they are connecting through other than their
home network.

The following case shows how a datagram moves from one point to another within the
Mobile IP framework.

o First of all, the internet host sends a datagram to the mobile node using the
mobile node's home address (normal IP routing process).
 o If the mobile node (MN) is on its home network, the datagram is delivered
through the normal IP (Internet Protocol) process to the mobile node. Otherwise
the home agent picks up the datagram.
o If the mobile node (MN) is on foreign network, the home agent (HA) forwards the
datagram to the foreign agent.
o The foreign agent (FA) delivers the datagram to the mobile node.
o Datagrams from the MN to the Internet host are sent using normal IP routing
procedures. If the mobile node is on a foreign network, the packets are delivered
to the foreign agent. The FA forwards the datagram to the Internet host.

In the case of wireless communications, the above illustrations depict the use of wireless
transceivers to transmit the datagrams to the mobile node. Also, all datagrams between
the Internet host and the MN use the mobile node's home address regardless of whether
the mobile node is on a home or foreign network. The care-of address (COA) is used
only for communication with mobility agents and is never seen by the Internet host.

7.2 Working of Mobile IP

The mobile IP process has following three main phases, which are:

1. Agent Discovery
During the agent discovery phase the HA and FA advertise their services on the network
by using the ICMP router discovery protocol (IROP).

Mobile IP defines two methods: agent advertisement and agent solicitation which are in
fact router discovery methods plus extensions.

o Agent advertisement: For the first method, FA and HA advertise their presence
periodically using special agent advertisement messages. These messages
advertisement can be seen as a beacon broadcast into the subnet. For this
advertisement internet control message protocol (ICMP) messages according to
RFC 1256, are used with some mobility extensions.
o Agent solicitation: If no agent advertisements are present or the inter arrival
time is too high, and an MN has not received a COA, the mobile node must send
agent solicitations. These solicitations are again bases on RFC 1256 for router
solicitations.

2. Registration
The main purpose of the registration is to inform the home agent of the current location
for correct forwarding of packets.
Registration can be done in two ways depending on the location of the COA.
o If the COA is at the FA, the MN sends its registration request containing the
COA to the FA which is forwarding the request to the HA. The HA now set up
a mobility binding containing the mobile node's home IP address and the
current COA.

Additionally, the mobility biding contains the lifetime of the registration which is
negotiated during the registration process. Registration expires automatically after the
lifetime and is deleted; so a mobile node should register before expiration. After setting
up the mobility binding, the HA send a reply message back to the FA which forwards it to
the MN.

o If the COA is co-located, registration can be very simpler. The mobile node
may send the request directly to the HA and vice versa. This by the way is also
the registration procedure for MNs returning to their home network.

3. Tunneling

The Mobile Node sends packets using its home IP address, effectively maintaining the
appearance that it is always on its home network. Even while the Mobile Node is roaming on
foreign networks, its movements are transparent to correspondent nodes.

Data packets addressed to the Mobile Node are routed to its home network, where the Home
Agent now intercepts and tunnels them to the care-of address toward the Mobile Node.
Tunneling has two primary functions: encapsulation of the data packet to reach the tunnel
endpoint, and decapsulation when the packet is delivered at that endpoint. The default tunnel
mode is IP Encapsulation within IP Encapsulation. Optionally, GRE and minimal encapsulation
within IP may be used.

Typically, the Mobile Node sends packets to the Foreign Agent, which routes them to their final
destination, the Correspondent Node.
However, this data path is topologically incorrect because it does not reflect the true IP network
source for the data—rather, it reflects the home network of the Mobile Node. Because the
packets show the home network as their source inside a foreign network, an access control list
on routers in the network called ingress filtering drops the packets instead of forwarding them. A
feature called reverse tunneling solves this problem by having the Foreign Agent tunnel packets
back to the Home Agent when it receives them from the Mobile Node.
Reverse Tunnel

Tunnel MTU discovery is a mechanism for a tunnel encapsulator such as the Home Agent to
participate in path MTU discovery to avoid any packet fragmentation in the routing path between
a Correspondent Node and Mobile Node. For packets destined to the Mobile Node, the Home
Agent maintains the MTU of the tunnel to the care-of address and informs the Correspondent
Node of the reduced packet size. This improves routing efficiency by avoiding fragmentation and
reassembly at the tunnel endpoints to ensure that packets reach the Mobile Node.
7.3/7.5 Components of Mobile IP
The mobile IP has following three components as follows:

1. Mobile Node (MN)

The mobile node is an end system or device such as a cell phone, PDA (Personal Digital
assistant), or laptop whose software enables network roaming capabilities.

2. Home Agent (HA)

The home agent provides several services for the mobile node and is located in the home
network. The tunnel for packets towards the mobile node starts at home agent. The
home agent maintains a location registry, i.e. it is informed of the mobile node's location
by the current COA (care of address). Following alternatives for the implementation of an
HA exist.

o Home agent can be implemented on a router that is responsible for the home
network. This is obviously the best position, because without optimization to
mobile IP, all packets for the MN have to go through the router anyway.
o If changing the router's software is not possible, the home agent could also be
implemented on an arbitrary node in the subset. One biggest disadvantage of
this solution is the double crossing of the router by the packet if the MN is in a
foreign network. A packet for the mobile node comes in via the router; the HA
sends it through the tunnel which again crosses the router.

3. Foreign Agent (FA)

The foreign agent can provide several services to the mobile node during its visit to the
foreign network. The FA can have the COA (care or address) acting as a tunnel endpoint
and forwarding packets to the MN. The foreign agent can be the default router for the
MN.

Foreign agent can also provide security services because they belong to the foreign
network as opposed to the MN which is only visiting.

In short, FA is a router that may function as the point of attachment for the mobile node
when it roams to a foreign network delivers packets from the home agent to the mobile
node.

4. Care of Address (COA)

The Care- of- address defines the current location of the mobile node from an IP point of
view. All IP packets sent to the MN are delivered to the COA, not directly to the IP
address of the MN. Packet delivery toward the mobile node is done using a tunnel. To be
more precise, the COA marks the endpoint of the tunnel, i.e. the address where packets
exit the tunnel.
There are two different possibilities for the location of the care of address:

1. Foreign Agent COA: The COA could be located at the foreign agent, i.e. the COA
is an IP address of the foreign agent. The foreign agent is the tunnel endpoint
and forwards packets to the MN. Many MN using the FA can share this COA as
common COA.
2. Co-located COA: The COA is co-located if the MN temporarily acquired an
additional IP address which acts as a COA. This address is now topologically
correct, and the tunnel endpoint is at the mobile node. Co-located address can be
acquired using services such as DHCP. One problem associated with this approach
is need for additional addresses if MNs request a COA. This is not always a good
idea considering the scarcity of IPv4 addresses.

5. Correspondent Node (CN)

At least one partner is needed for communication. The correspondent node represents this
partner for the MN. The correspondent node can be a fixed or mobile node.

6. Home Network
The home network is the subset the MN belongs to with respect to its IP address. No
mobile IP support is needed within this network.

7. Foreign network
The foreign network is the current subset the MN visits and which is not the home network.

IPv6
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol
(IP), the communications protocol that provides an identification and location system for
computers on networks and routes traffic across the Internet.

Basis for IPv4 IPv6

differences
Size of IP address IPv4 is a 32-Bit IP Address. IPv6 is 128 Bit IP Address.
Addressing method IPv4 is a numeric address, and its bina IPv6 is an alphanumeric address whose bin
ry bits are separated by a dot (.) ary bits are separated by a colon (:). It also
contains hexadecimal.
Number of header fiel 12 8
ds
Length of header file 20 40
d
Checksum Has checksum fields Does not have checksum fields
Example 12.244.233.165 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:ff00:0042:7879
Type of Addresses Unicast, broadcast, and multicast. Unicast, multicast, and anycast.
Number of classes IPv4 offers five different classes of IP lPv6 allows storing an unlimited number of
Address. Class A to E. IP Address.

Configuration You have to configure a newly installe In IPv6, the configuration is optional, depe
d system before it can communicate nding upon on functions needed.
with other systems.

VLSM support IPv4 support VLSM (Virtual Length Su IPv6 does not offer support for VLSM.
bnet Mask).
Fragmentation Fragmentation is done by sending an Fragmentation is done by the sender.
d forwarding routes.
Routing Information RIP is a routing protocol supported by RIP does not support IPv6. It uses static rou
Protocol (RIP) the routed daemon. tes.

Network Configuratio Networks need to be configured eithe IPv6 support autoconfiguration capabilitie
n r manually or with DHCP. IPv4 had sev s.
eral overlays to handle Internet growt
h, which require more maintenance e
fforts.

Best feature Widespread use of NAT (Network addr It allows direct addressing because of vast
ess translation) devices which allows address Space.
single NAT address can mask thousan
ds of non-routable addresses, making
end-to-end integrity achievable.

Address Mask Use for the designated network from Not used.
host portion.
SNMP SNMP is a protocol used for system m SNMP does not support IPv6.
anagement.
Mobility & Interopera Relatively constrained network topol IPv6 provides interoperability and mobility
bility ogies to which move restrict mobility capabilities which are embedded in networ
and interoperability capabilities. k devices.

Security Security is dependent on applications IPSec(Internet Protocol Security) is built int

- IPv4 was not designed with security i o the IPv6 protocol, usable with a proper k
n mind. ey infrastructure.

Packet size Packet size 576 bytes required, fragm 1208 bytes required without fragmentation
entation optional
Packet fragmentation Allows from routers and sending host Sending hosts only

Packet header Does not identify packet flow for QoS Packet head contains Flow Label field that
handling which includes checksum o specifies packet flow for QoS handling
ptions.

DNS records Address (A) records, maps hostnames Address (AAAA) records, maps hostnames
 Address configuratio Manual or via DHCP Stateless address autoconfiguration using I
n nternet Control Message Protocol version 6
(ICMPv6) or DHCPv6

IP to MAC resolution Broadcast ARP Multicast Neighbour Solicitation

Local subnet Group Internet Group Management Protocol Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD)
management GMP)

Optional Fields Has Optional Fields Does not have optional fields. But Extensio
n headers are available.
IPSec Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) con Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) Concerni
cerning network security is optional ng network security is mandatory

Dynamic host configu Clients have approach DHCS (Dynami A Client does not have to approach any suc
ration Server c Host Configuration server) wheneve h server as they are given permanent addre
r they want to connect to a network. sses.

Mapping Uses ARP(Address Resolution Protoco Uses NDP(Neighbour Discovery Protocol) t

l) to map to MAC address o map to MAC address
Combability with mo IPv4 address uses the dot-decimal no IPv6 address is represented in hexadecima,
bile devices tation. That's why it is not suitable for colon- separated notation. IPv6 is better su
mobile networks. ited to mobile networks.

IPv4 and IPv6 cannot communicate with other but can exist together on the same network.
This is known as Dual Stack.
7.6 Mobile IPv6 Features
• Larger Address Space
In contrast to IPv4, IPv6 uses 4 times more bits to address a device on the
Internet. This much of extra bits can provide approximately 3.4×1038 different
combinations of addresses. This address can accumulate the aggressive
requirement of address allotment for almost everything in this world. According
to an estimate, 1564 addresses can be allocated to every square meter of this
earth.
• Simplified Header
IPv6’s header has been simplified by moving all unnecessary information and
options (which are present in IPv4 header) to the end of the IPv6 header. IPv6
header is only twice as bigger than IPv4 provided the fact that IPv6 address is
four times longer.
• End-to-end Connectivity
Every system now has unique IP address and can traverse through the
Internet without using NAT or other translating components. After IPv6 is fully
implemented, every host can directly reach other hosts on the Internet, with
some limitations involved like Firewall, organization policies, etc.
• Auto-configuration
IPv6 supports both stateful and stateless auto configuration mode of its host
devices. This way, absence of a DHCP server does not put a halt on inter
segment communication.
• Faster Forwarding/Routing
Simplified header puts all unnecessary information at the end of the header.
The information contained in the first part of the header is adequate for a
Router to take routing decisions, thus making routing decision as quickly as
looking at the mandatory header.
• IPSec
Initially it was decided that IPv6 must have IPSec security, making it more
secure than IPv4. This feature has now been made optional.
• No Broadcast
Though Ethernet/Token Ring are considered as broadcast network because
they support Broadcasting, IPv6 does not have any broadcast support any
more. It uses multicast to communicate with multiple hosts.
• Anycast Support
This is another characteristic of IPv6. IPv6 has introduced Anycast mode of
packet routing. In this mode, multiple interfaces over the Internet are assigned
same Anycast IP address. Routers, while routing, send the packet to the
nearest destination.
• Mobility
 IPv6 was designed keeping mobility in mind. This feature enables hosts (such
as mobile phone) to roam around in different geographical area and remain
connected with the same IP address. The mobility feature of IPv6 takes
advantage of auto IP configuration and Extension headers.
• Enhanced Priority Support
IPv4 used 6 bits DSCP (Differential Service Code Point) and 2 bits ECN
(Explicit Congestion Notification) to provide Quality of Service but it could only
be used if the end-to-end devices support it, that is, the source and destination
device and underlying network must support it.
In IPv6, Traffic class and Flow label are used to tell the underlying routers how
to efficiently process the packet and route it.
• Smooth Transition
Large IP address scheme in IPv6 enables to allocate devices with globally
unique IP addresses. This mechanism saves IP addresses and NAT is not
required. So devices can send/receive data among each other, for example,
VoIP and/or any streaming media can be used much efficiently.
Other fact is, the header is less loaded, so routers can take forwarding
decisions and forward them as quickly as they arrive.
• Extensibility
One of the major advantages of IPv6 header is that it is extensible to add more
information in the option part. IPv4 provides only 40-bytes for options, whereas
options in IPv6 can be as much as the size of IPv6 packet itself.

7.7 Mobile IPv6 Address Types

There are three major categories of IPv6 addresses:

• Unicast—For a single interface.

• Multicast—For a set of interfaces on the same physical medium. A packet is
sent to all interfaces associated with the address.
• Anycast—For a set of interfaces on different physical media. A packet is sent
to only one of the interfaces associated with this address, not to all the
interfaces.

Unicast Addresses
A unicast address identifies a single interface. When a network device sends a packet
to a unicast address, the packet goes only to the specific interface identified by that
address. Unicast addresses support a global address scope and two types of local
address scopes.

A unicast address consists of n bits for the prefix, and 128 – n bits for the interface ID.
In the IPv6 implementation for a subscriber access network, the following types of
unicast addresses can be used:

Global unicast address—A unique IPv6 address assigned to a host interface.

These addresses have a global scope and essentially the same purposes as
IPv4 public addresses. Global unicast addresses are routable on the Internet.

Link-local IPv6 address—An IPv6 address that allows communication

between neighboring hosts that reside on the same link. Link-local addresses
have a local scope, and cannot be used outside the link. They always have the
prefix FE80::/10.

Loopback IPv6 address—An IPv6 address used on a loopback interfaces.

The IPv6 loopback address is 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1, which can be notated as ::1/128.

Unspecified address—An IPv6 unspecified address is 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0, which

can be notated as ::/128.

Multicast Addresses
A multicast address identifies a set of interfaces that typically belong to different nodes.
When a network device sends a packet to a multicast address, the device broadcasts
the packet to all interfaces identified by that address. IPv6 does not support broadcast
addresses, but instead uses multicast addresses in this role.

Multicast addresses support 16 different types of address scope, including node, link,
site, organization, and global scope. A 4-bit field in the prefix identifies the address
scope.

The following types of multicast addresses can be used in an IPv6 subscriber access
network:

• Solicited-node multicast address—Neighbor Solicitation (NS) messages are

sent to this address.
• All-nodes multicast address—Router Advertisement (RA) messages are sent
to this address.
• All-routers multicast address—Router Solicitation (RS) messages are sent
to this address.
Multicast addresses use the prefix FF00::/8.

Anycast Addresses
An anycast address identifies a set of interfaces that typically belong to different
nodes. Anycast addresses are similar to multicast addresses, except that packets are
sent only to one interface, not to all interfaces. The routing protocol used in the network
usually determines which interface is physically closest within the set of anycast
addresses and routes the packet along the shortest path to its destination.

There is no difference between anycast addresses and unicast addresses except for
the subnet-router address. For an anycast subnet-router address, the low-order bits,
typically 64 or more, are zero. Anycast addresses are taken from the unicast address
space.

7.8 Mobile IPv6 Address Scope

Scope of IPv6 Unicast Addresses:

[Image: IPv6 Unicast Address Scope]

The scope of Link-local address is limited to the segment. Unique Local Address are
locally global, but are not routed over the Internet, limiting their scope to an
organization’s boundary. Global Unicast addresses are globally unique and
recognizable. They shall make the essence of Internet v2 addressing.

7.9 Mobile IP Operation

A MN listens for agent advertisement and then initiates registration
– If responding agent is the HA, then mobile IP is not necessary
• After receiving the registration request from a MN, the HA acknowledges and
registration is complete
– Registration happens as often as MN changes networks
• HA intercepts all packets destined for MN
– This is simple unless sending application is on or near the same network as the
MN
– HA masquerades as MN
– There is a specific lifetime for service before a MN must re-register
– There is also a de-registration process with HA if an MN returns home

Registration Process
• HA then encapsulates all packets addressed to MN and forwards them to FA
– IP tunneling
• FA decapsulates all packets addressed to MN and forwards them via hardware
address (learned as part of registration process)
• NOTE that the MN can perform FA functions if it acquires an IP address eg. via
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
• Bidirectional communications require tunneling in each direction

Mobile IP Tunneling

Tunneling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry
and an endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved
by a mechanism called encapsulation.
Security in Mobile IP

• Authentication can be performed by all parties

– Only authentication between MN and HA is required – Keyed MD5 is the default
• Replay protection
– Timestamps are mandatory
– Random numbers on request reply packets are optional
• HA and FA do not have to share any security information.

Mobility in IPv6

• Route Optimization is a fundamental part of Mobile IPv6

– Mobile IPv4 it is an optional set of extensions that may not be supported by all
nodes
• Foreign Agents are not needed in Mobile IPv6
– MNs can function in any location without the services of any special router in that
location
• Security
– Nodes are expected to employ strong authentication and encryption
NISHITA KINDO
LECTURER IN COMPUTER SCIENCE ENGG.
B.O.S.E CUTTACK
 Content
 GSM
 GPRS
 IS-95
 CDMA2000
 WCDMA
 Wireless sensor networks
GSM(Global System for Mobile)
 GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a 2G digital
cellular technology used for transmitting mobile voice services.

 GSM owns a market share of more than 80% of the world's digital cellular
subscribers.

 GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is

implemented globally.

 The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell
Laboratories in the early 1970s.

 GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a

common European mobile telephone standard by the Conference of
European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT).

 GSM didn't begin being used commercially until 1991, where it was built
using TDMA technology.

 Presently GSM supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more
than 210 countries throughout the world.
Technical Information About GSM
Features of GSM
 Improved spectrum efficiency

 International roaming

 Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)

 High-quality speech

 Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other

telephone company services

 Support for new services like phone call encryption, caller ID, call
forwarding, call waiting, SMS, and conferencing.

 This cell phone technology works in the 1900 MHz band in the US and the
900 MHz band in Europe and Asia. TDMA technology is used where data
is compressed and digitized, and then sent through a channel with two
other data streams, each using their own slot.
 SIM
ME

MS-Mobile Station BSS-Base Station Subsystem NSS-Network and Switching Subsystem

ME-Mobile Equipment BTS-Base Transceiver Station MSC-Mobile switch center
SIM-Subscriber Identity Module BSC-Base Station Controller HLR-Home location register
PSTN-Public switched telecommunicates Networks VLR-Visitor location Register
ISDN- Integrated Services Digital Network AuC-Authentications center
EIR-Equipment Identity Register
Functions of GSM Components
MS(Mobile Station)
The MS has two elements.
 The Mobile Equipment (ME) refers to the
physical device, which comprises of
transceiver, digital signal processors, and
the antenna.
 The second element is the Subscriber
Identity Module (SIM). The SIM card is
unique to the GSM system.

BTS(Base Transceiver Station)

 Signal processing & Control Equipment
 Providing FD communication to MS
 Handling radio link protocols

BSC(Base Station Controller)

 Allocates channel for the duration of call
 Maintains the call
 Monitors quality
 Controls the power transmitted by BTS or
MS
 Handoff management
Handoff/Handover- The process of transferring an
ongoing call on data session from one channel connected
to core network to another channel.

HARD Handoff SOFT Handoff

 Break before make  Make before break
 Disturbance observed  No Disturbance
 At a time only one  At a time only two
connection present connection present
 Less costly  More costly
Functions of GSM Components
MSC(Mobile switch center)
 Call setup and supervision
 Collection of billing information
 Call handling / routing
 Management of signaling protocol
 Record of VLR and HLR
HLR(Home location register)
 Stores permanent data about subscribers
(Profile, Location info. and activity status)
 Subscription information of the registered user is
stored.
VLR(Visitor location Register)
 Stores temporary information
 Integrated with MSC
 Works in co-ordination with the HLR
AuC(Authentications Center)
 Protected database for authentication and
encryption of MS
 Stores encryption key in both HLR & VLR
EIR(Equipment Identity Register)
 Database contains list of all valid & invalid MS on
a network.
 IMEI(International mobile Equipment Identity)
used to identify each MS.
(Stores info. about the manufacturer, country of
production, and device type).
Functions of GSM Components
Air/Um Interface
 Provides link between MS and BTS
 Transmits RF which uses TDMA
 Transmits & receives info./ traffic

Abis Interface
 Provides link between BTS and BSC
 Transmitt info. Traffic and signal between
BTS and BSC
 Link access protocol is used

A Interface
 Provides link between BSC and MSC
 BSS management
 Call Handling
 Mobility management
 Bandwidth at 2Mbps
GPRS
 GPRS means General Packet Radio Service is a enhancement of GSM, which
is packet oriented mobile data service on the 2G and 3G cellular communication
system.
 It exactly uses the same physical radio channel as GSM and only new logical
GPRS Radio Channel are defined.
 GPRS was originally standardized by European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ETSI) in response to the earlier CDPD & i-mode packet-switched
cellular technologies in 2000.
 It is a non-voice, high-speed and useful packet-switching technology intended
for GSM networks.
 According to a study on the history of GPRS development Bernhard Walke and
his student, Peter Decker, are the inventors of GPRS – the first system providing
universal mobile Internet access.

 Protocols supported:
• Internet Protocol (IP)
• Point-To-Point Protocol (PPP)
GPRS ARCHITECTURE
GPRS ARCHITECTURE
 Uses GSM architecture+ GSN (GPRS support nodes)
 SGSN (Servicing GSN) network nodes use to offer packet data service
 GGSN ( Gateway GSN) called GPRS support nodes
 Uses packet switching
 Faster than GSM and CDMA
 Enable simultaneous transmission of packets

Serving GPRS Support Node(SGSN)

• Routing the packet switched data to and from the MS
• Mobility & Location management
• Data Compression
• Authentication of GPRS user
• Registration of MS in the N/w (Stores the User’s location & profile information)

Gateway GPRS Support Node(GGSN)

• Provide a gateway b/w GPRS & PDN (Public Data Network)
• Convert data from SGSN to PDP format( packet data protocol)
• Store the current SGSN address
• Stores the location of user in its location register
• Perform authentication & charging functions
 IS-95
 Interim Standard 95 (IS-95) was the first ever CDMA-based digital cellular
technology.

 It is a 2G mobile telecommunications standard that uses CDMA, a multiple

access scheme for digital radio, to send voice, data and signaling data (such
as a dialed telephone number) between mobile telephones and cell sites.

 It was developed by Qualcomm and later adopted as a standard by

the Telecommunications Industry Association in TIA/EIA/IS-95 release
published in 1995.

 The brand name for IS-95 is cdmaOne.

 CDMA or "code division multiple access" is a digital radio system that

transmits streams of bits (PN codes). CDMA permits several radios to share
the same frequencies. Unlike TDMA "time division multiple access", a
competing system used in 2G GSM, all radios can be active all the time,
because network capacity does not directly limit the number of active radios.
Since larger numbers of phones can be served by smaller numbers of cell-
sites.
 IS-95 CDMA
Main Features Of IS-95(cdmaone)
• Modulation is performed using DSSS.
• Employs variable rate coders.
• Powerful low rate forward error-
correcting codes.
• Fast power control is employed to over
come the near-far problem.
• Soft handoff is employed.
• Uses IP based equipment.
• IS-95 network incorporates IP gateway
or Interworking Function (IWF), which
receives data from mobile phones in
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) format.
However, the IWF assigns a temporary
IP address for that session, which
provides flexibility to the IS-95 network
infrastructure because it can incorporate
any manufacturer's standard router into
the IWF.
CDMA2000
CDMA2000 is a code division multiple access (CDMA) version of IMT-2000
specifications developed by International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
It includes a group of standards for voice and data services −
Voice − CDMA2000 1xRTT, 1X Advanced
Data − CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (Evolution-Data Optimized)

There are three types of CMDA2000:

1xRTT doubles the capacity of cdmaOne and supports up to 144 kbps data speeds
1xEV-DO supports data rates up to 2.4 Mbps but needs to be deployed in a separate
spectrum. This standard doesn't support voice calls and needs to be combined with
1xRTT.
1xEV-DV supports data rates of around 3-5 Mbps and voice capabilities
CDMA2000
Features
 CDMA2000 is a family of technology for 3G mobile cellular communications for
transmission of voice, data and signals.

 It supports mobile communications at speeds between 144Kbps and 2Mbps.

 It has packet core network (PCN) for high speed secured delivery of data
packets.

 It applies multicarrier modulation techniques to 3G networks. This gives higher

data rate, greater bandwidth and better voice quality. It is also backward
compatible with older CDMA versions i.e. IS-95.

 It has multi-mode, multi-band roaming features.

 A 3G wireless technology, evolved from cdmaOne. Improvements over the old

standard include faster data rates, always-on data service, and improved voice
network capacity.
 CDMA2000
CDMA2000 PS Domain
• The SDU distributes the packet
switched traffic to PCF and then to the
PDSN.

• Interfaces A8 and A9 support packet

switched data and signaling between
PCF and SDU, respectively.

• Interfaces A10 and A11 (R-P interface)

support packet switched data and
signaling between PCF and PDSN.

• GRE tunnel is used for data routing in

A10 with standard IP QoS.

• MIP is used for signaling routing in A11.

• The R-P interface also supports PCF

handoff (inter or intra PDSN).
 CDMA2000
CDMA2000 CS Domain
• BSC connects to the core network
through the SDU.

• The SDU distributes the circuit switched

traffic (e.g., voice) to the MSC.

• A1 interface supports call control and

mobility management between MSC
and BSC.

• A2 and A5 interfaces support user traffic

and circuit switched data traffic between
MSC and BSC.
 WCDMA
 Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) is a third-generation
(3G) standard that employs the direct-sequence code division multiple
access (DS-CDMA) channel access method and the frequency-division
duplexing (FDD) method to provide high-speed and high-capacity service.
 WCDMA is the most commonly used variant of the Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS).
 It was developed by Japan’s NTT DoCoMo and formed the basis of its
Freedom of Multimedia Access (FOMA) 3G Network.
 Although WCDMA is designed to operate on evolved GSM core networks, it
uses code division multiple access (CDMA) for its air interface. In fact, the
majority of the 3G systems in operation employ CDMA, while the rest use
time division multiple access (TDMA). The TDD mode of WCDMA actually
employs a combination of TDMA and CDMA.
 WCDMA ARCHITECTURE
Node B
Physical layer Processing
 Error correcting coding
 Modulation (QPSK)
 Handling trasmission and reception

RNC
 Incharge of call setup
 Quality of service Handling
 Radio resource management
Wireless Sensor Network
 Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less wireless network
that is deployed in a large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner
that is used to monitor the system, physical or environmental conditions.
 Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages and
monitors the environment in a particular area. They are connected to the Base
Station which acts as a processing unit in the WSN System.
 Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet to share
data.
 WSN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.
 Wireless Sensor Network
Components of WSN:
Sensors:
Sensors in WSN are used to capture the environmental variables and which is
used for data acquisition. Sensor signals are converted into electrical signals.

Radio Nodes:
It is used to receive the data produced by the Sensors and sends it to the WLAN
access point. It consists of a microcontroller, transceiver, external memory, and
power source.

WLAN Access Point:

It receives the data which is sent by the Radio nodes wirelessly, generally through
the internet.

Evaluation Software:
The data received by the WLAN Acess Point is processed by a software called as
Evaluation Software for presenting the report to the users for further processing of
the data which can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the
data.
Wireless Sensor Network
Applications of WSN: Challenges of WSN:
 Surveillance and  Scalability to large scale
Monitoring for security, of deployment
threat detection  Quality of Service
 Environmental  Security Issue
temperature, humidity,  Energy Efficiency
and air pressure
 Network Throughput
 Noise Level of the
surrounding  Performance

 Medical applications like  Ability to cope with node

patient monitoring failure
 Agriculture  Cross layer optimisation

 Internet of Things (IOT)

Assignment Questions
1. Describe GSM. Describe various components of GSM.

2. What is CDMA2000? Explain the various attributes of CDMA200.

3. Define Wireless Sensor Networks. Write down some of the applications of WSN.

4. Explain various components of Wireless Sensor Networks.

5. Define GPRS. Explain the architecture of GPRS.

6. Describe WCDMA. Describe various components of WCDMA.

7. Differenciate between GSM and CDMA.

8. Define IS-95. Write its Features.

9. Give the Specification of GSM, GPRS, IS-95, CDMA2000 and WCDMA.

10. Differentiate hard handoff and soft handoff.

 Chapter 10

Messaging Services
10.1 Short Message Services (SMS)
10.2 Multimedia Message Services (Mms)
10.3 Multimedia transmission over wireless

10.1 SHORT MESSAGE SERVICES (SMS)

Short Message Service (SMS) is the most basic communications technology for
mobile data transfer and is characterized by the exchange of short alphanumeric text
messages between digital line and mobile devices. SMS messaging's key influential
factor is affordability.
SMS messages hold up to 140 bytes (1,120 bits) of data, which allows a 160-character
alphanumeric message in the default 7-bit alphabet or a 70-character message in a
non-Latin language, such as Chinese.
SMS is also known as text messaging.

Short Message Service (SMS)

SMS is supported by all Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) mobile
phones and is also available on third generation (3G) wireless networks.
SMS messages are also sent via Web-based browser applications, instant message
(IM) applications and Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) applications, such as Skype.
An SMS message is sent from a device to a Short Message Service Center (SMSC),
which, in turn, communicates with mobile networks to determine the subscriber's
location. Then, the message is forwarded as a small data packet to the destination
device. Subsequent messages sent by the original source device undergo the same
process, also known as store and forward.
SMS streamlines communication on many levels, as follows:

• Quick communication: Brief updates between family and friends

• Alerts: Voicemail, sales lead inquiries, appointments, meetings or deliveries
• Enhanced messaging service (EMS): Facilitates ring tone, image and simple
media transfer

SMS adoption continues to expand globally since the first SMS message was sent in
1992 via Vodafone's GSM network. Over 2.4 billion users, or nearly 75 percent of
mobile subscribers, use SMS.
The SMS boom generated sweeping commercial market success. According to the
International Telecommunications Union (ITU), the SMS industry achieved a global
worth of over $81 billion as of 2006. In 2008, approximately four trillion SMS messages
were transmitted worldwide.
10.2 MULTIMEDIA MESSAGE SERVICES (MMS)
MMS stands for Multimedia Messaging Service. It is the standard way to send
messages from one device to another through a network.
As the name Multimedia, we can suggest from here that it is not only for sending text
messages, we can also send multimedia like images, audio clips and video clips,
and many more things.
It is the extension used for SMS(Short Message Service) where we send and receive
text messages only with the limitation of only 160 characters in one SMS.
Most of the smartphones support MMS messaging nowadays. Basically it is the
advanced version of the text messaging with the additional feature of multimedia.
For Example:
If you type a text-only message it will deliver as an SMS but if you include images
and other media you want then it will be delivered as an MMS and vice-versa.
If your device is not capable of receiving MMS messaging then it will be shown to
you as a text-messages with a URL where you can view the media from the Web-
Browser.
History
MMS was developed in 1984. It is the advanced version of SMS(SHORT MESSAGE
SERVICE) where you can send only text messages. Earlier MMS services were not
easily used as it is used nowadays. The customers have to suffer multiple technical
issues. So, many companies have resolved this issue by methods like handset
detection, content optimization, and increased throughput.
China is the first country that introduced MMS service in a commercial way. In 2009,
the chairman and CEO of China Mobile said that MMS service in China is now a
mature service in place of the SMS service.
Norway is the most advanced MMS market in Europe. In 2008, Norwegian MMS
usage level passed 84% of all the mobile subscribers.
As the usage of smartphones increased in 2010-2013. In the same way, the usage
of MMS services is widely increased due to the increased usage of smartphones.
Modes of sending MMS
There are basically six modes which are as follows:
• Sending messages to an MMS mobile phone via an MMS mobile phone.
It can be sent in the same way as we send SMS messages, except that
MMS messages include multimedia contents.
• Sending messages to a non-MMS mobile phone via an MMS mobile
phone.
Since the non-MMS mobile phones can’t receive a multimedia message,
the MMS system automatically forwards the messages to the receiver’s
corresponding email box and then sends a notification to his mobile phone.
• Sending messages to email boxes via an MMS mobile phone Multimedia
messages can be sent via an MMS mobile phone to an email box, and the
receiver logs on the email box to read the messages. However, most email
boxes don’t support multimedia messages yet.
• Sending messages to an MMS mobile phone via an email box.
A user logs on to his email box, selects multimedia messages to sent,
inputs a receiver’s MMS mobile phone number, and send the messages
as an attachment.
 • Downloading multimedia messages from the internet to an MMS mobile
phone.
A user can customize and order multimedia messages on websites that
provide MMSs and then send MMS to an MMS mobile phone.
• Sending messages from an MMS mobile phone to personal e-albums.
A user can send MMS messages to his personal e-album via an MMS
mobile phone. User writes MMS messages in mobile phones, inputs the
album website number, and then sends the messages.
Advantages
• We can easily send and deliver MMS messages.
• The MMS messages which we received, we can store them (save them)
and also we can forward messages.
• Users are using these services as they are user-friendly.
• These services are interactive.
• Image, video, and other media-rich content allows for better branding.
Disadvantages
• MMS service is not available on all mobile phones. So, we cannot use this
service in all the phones.
• Some multimedia content has some resolution issues due to the varied
display sizes of different phones.
• As it a service provided to us but there are also extra charges associated
with it. If we have to use this service we have to pay extra charges for this
service.
• Users who have opted in to an MMS database don’t necessarily have an
MMS enabled phone. Sending bulk MMS messages is often only available
through a dedicated messaging platform rather than a network.

10.3 MULTIMEDIA TRANSMISSION OVER WIRELESS

In recent years, there has been a tremendous increase in demand for multimedia
delivered over wireless networks. The design and capabilities of the mobile devices
and the services being offered reflect the increase in multimedia usage in the
wireless setting. Applications that are in the process of becoming essential to users
include video telephony, gaming, or TV broadcasting. This trend creates great
opportunities for identifying new wireless multimedia applications, and for developing
advanced systems and algorithms to support these applications. Given the nature of
the channel and of the mobile devices, topics such as scalable multimedia coding,
error resilience, and energy-efficient operation are of great importance. The papers
in this issue focus on state-of-the-art research on several aspects of wireless
multimedia communications.
Multimedia Transmission Protocols
1. The goal of multimedia transmission protocols is to transmit multimedia signals
from one point to another point. These points are connected by communication
network employing specific protocols.
2. Generally, multimedia original signals are encoded to reduce the bit rate. When
the encoded stream is to be sent to another location in the network, the
transmission protocols are responsible for the packetization and the delivery of
that stream.
3. At the other side, the encoded multimedia stream is reconstructed from the
stream of delivered packets and then decoded to produce a useful multimedia
signal to be played back or stored for further use.
4. The Internet Protocol (IP) is a packet-based network protocol used to exchange
data over networks. It is the underlying network protocol, i.e. other protocols are
built over IP. The most used higher level protocol is the Transport Control
Protocol (TCP), which is a reliable transport protocol designed for data
transmission and extensively used in Internet services. TCP is not suitable for
real-time applications as the retransmissions can lead to high delay and cause
delay jitter, which significantly degrades the quality. In addition, it does not
support multicast. Also, congestion control mechanisms, namely slow start, are
not suitable for audio or video media transmission.
5. On the other hand the transport protocol that is generally used for real-time
multimedia transmission is the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). UDP does not
guarantee the arrival of the packet, it is up to the application or higher level
protocols to take care of the sent data. The most used, for real time applications,
protocol which is built over UDP is Real time Transport Protocols (RTP). The most
important variables governing the operation of RTP are the Time Stamp (TS) and
the Sequence Number (SN).
6. The TS is responsible for placing the incoming packets in correct timing order.
The initial value of the TS is selected randomly and independently for each RTP
stream. The TS value is increased by the time indicated by each packet. For
example, for the case of audio transmission with 20ms as packetization interval,
the TS may take the values 0, 20, 40, 60, ...for packet numbers 1, 2, 3, ...
respectively. The SN is used to detect packet loss occurrences. It is increased by
one for each packet in the stream. It should be mentioned that for a video frame
that is split into multiple RTP packets, these packets share the same value of TS
but use different SN.
7. There is a separate control protocol that is generally used with RTP, which is
named Real Time Control Protocol (RTCP). RTCP synchronizes across different
media streams by feedback messages (e.g. the sender report). It also provides
feedback on the quality of data transmission by using lost packet counts in the
Receiver Report. In addition, it identifies and keeps track of the participants.
RTCP reports are sent periodically (every 5 sec.) between participants with the
restriction that its traffic should not exceed 5% of the total data traffic. RTP
supports multicasting, payload type identification, time stamping, sequence
numbering, delivery monitoring. In addition, the underlying UDP protocol supports
multiplexing and checksum services.
8. Even if RTP is the most used protocol for real-time applications, it has some
problems. First, it does not support the timely delivery of data or any other QoS
guarantee. In-time delivery requires lower layers that have control over resources
in switches or routers (e.g. Resource Reservation Protocol, RSVP). Second, it
does not guarantee delivery, so packets may be delivered out of order or get lost.
In addition, there is no mechanism to recover from packet loss.
Challenges of Multimedia Transmission

Some of the challenges of carrying multimedia traffic over the Internet are: the lack
of guarantee in terms of the bandwidth, packet loss, delay, and jitter, which affect the
quality. In this Section, we discuss the major problems caused by the network.

Packet Loss - Packets are sent from the source to the destination across several
routers. Each router may get packet streams from many sources at the same time.
When the packet arrival process fills the buffer of any of the routers, some packets
are dropped. The network in this case is said to be congested. Packet loss may
produce great damage to the received multimedia signal. For example, for the
case of speech, each packet contains 40-80 ms of speech information to match
the duration of critical units of speech called phonemes. When a packet is lost, a
phonemes is lost in continuous speech. While the human brain is capable of
reconstructing a few lost phonemes in speech, too many packet losses make a
voice unintelligible. The same problem exists for video, some portions (blocks) of
the image can not be decoded and displayed. The result is severe degradation of
the reconstructed signal quality. The problem becomes more severe when the
signal is compressed too much. Natural signal contains in general too much
redundant information that can be interpolated by human brain when there is loss.
However, to reduce the bitrate, the signal is compressed to remove the
redundancy, and thus, packet loss becomes more annoying. There are two types
of techniques to mask the effects of packet loss: some focus on reducing packet
loss, others concentrate on repairing the damage caused by loss. To reduce
packet loss; Network upgrade (increasing the bandwidth, using ATM, SONET
[Synchronous Optical NETwork] for gigabits/s, Wavelength Division Multiplexing
[WDM] for terabit/s) is needed. This solution is very expensive and does always
available. We overview the other methods dealing with packet loss in the next
Subsection.

Packet Delay - To understand the effect of packet delay on multimedia quality,

we take the case of voice transmission. Timing is an important characteristics of
voice. Two syllables of a word are uttered with an interval. This interval is as much
a part of the voice as the uttered syllable. If additional delay is inserted between
syllables, the rhythm of voice is lost. Long delay may force conversation to be half-
duplex or introduce echo. Delay below 150 ms is acceptable. For long distance
communication delay between 150 and 400 ms is also acceptable. The end-to-
end delay typically consists of: codec delay, serialization delay (the time it takes
to place a packet in the transmission line), queuing delay (in routers, etc.),
propagation delay (time to travel from point to another). From that it is clear that
to reduce the delay effect we have several possibilities: (i) using codecs that can
run in real time without too much delay, (ii) reduce the serialization delay, (iii)
increase the routers speed to decrease the queuing delay or using some kind of
Differentiated Services, (iv) reduce the length of the physical material to reduce
the propagation delay (this can be done by selecting the shortest pass from the
source to the destination in the network layer). It should be mentioned that delay
effect is not relevant in the case of one-way sessions (video streaming, etc.).
However, the effect of delay play an important role in the case of interactive two-
way sessions.
Network Jitter - It is the variance of the inter-packet arrival time at the receiver.
Network jitter occurs due to the variability in queuing and propagation delays. To
alleviate from jitter, a jitter buffer is used. The receiver holds the first packet in the
buffer for a while before playing it out. The amount of the hold time is the measure
of the size of the jitter buffer. For example, a 50ms hold time means 50ms jitter
buffer. Jitter, on the other hand, plays an important role in both types of
applications (interactive or one-way), and its effects are similar to those of packet
loss. If a network jittering buffer is implemented, the effect of jitter is reduced, and
from the point of view of the application, the effect of jitter can be translated as
extra network losses. As packets that arrive after some expiration time are
considered lost. Finally, for interactive applications, the echo effect should also be
considered, and an echo suppression or cancellation mechanism should be
implemented.