Module 4

Image Segmentation and Compression – Introduction,

🔹 Image Segmentation and Compression – Introduction (30%)
🔸 Image Segmentation (Basics)
• Segmentation is the process of dividing an image into regions to find important parts
called Region of Interest (ROI).
• For example: In a medical scan, a tumor is an ROI; in a face scan, the iris may be an ROI.
• This step is essential before further processing like recognition or analysis.
• Segmentation methods work based on:
• Discontinuity (finding edges)
• Similarity (grouping similar pixels)

🔸 Image Compression (Basics)

• Image compression reduces the image file size by removing unnecessary data.
• It’s used to save storage, speed up transmission, and make image processing faster.
• Two main types:
• Lossy compression – loses some details (e.g., JPEG)
• Lossless compression – retains full detail (e.g., PNG)

🔸 Why Classify Segmentation Algorithms?

Not all images are the same. So, different situations need different segmentation methods.
Algorithms are classified to help choose the best one for a task.

🔸 Two Main Ways to Classify:

1. Based on User Interaction – How much help a human gives.
2. Based on Pixel Relationship – How pixels are grouped (similarity or edge).

🔹 70% – Detailed Explanation (Use this to write in your own

words)
🟡 1. Based on User Interaction
This tells how much a person needs to help in the process:

A. Manual Segmentation
• Done completely by a person using tools like drawing or tracing.
• Used by doctors or experts for critical tasks.
 • Pros: Very accurate.
• Cons: Time-consuming, tiring, and different people may get different results.

B. Semi-Automatic Segmentation
• A person gives a starting point, and the system does the rest.
• Example: You click on the tumor, and software grows the area around it.
• Known as "seed-based" methods (like region-growing).
• Combines human decision + computer speed.

C. Automatic Segmentation
• No human help needed.
• The software detects and segments everything.
• Great for large datasets or real-time apps like face recognition.

🟡 2. Based on Pixel Relationship

This looks at how pixels are grouped, either by similarity or discontinuity.

A. Contextual Algorithms (Region-Based / Global)

• Group pixels that are similar in color, texture, or intensity.
• Think of this as gathering friends who look alike.
• Example: Grouping sky pixels in a photo.
• Used in:
• Region growing
• Region splitting & merging

B. Non-Contextual Algorithms (Pixel-Based / Local)

• Look at each pixel individually, mainly at edges or changes.
• Think of it as spotting borders or outlines.
• Example: Edge detection (Sobel, Prewitt, etc.)
• Focuses on sudden intensity changes, not similarity.
Point detection
30% – Basic Introduction to Point Detection
🔸 What is Point Detection?
Point detection is used to find a single pixel in an image that is very different from its neighbors
in intensity (brightness).
🔸 Why is it Important?
It helps to identify special points like:
• Dots
• Stars in astronomy
• Tiny bright/dark spots in medical or satellite images

🔸 How Does it Work?

We slide a small 3×3 mask (also called a kernel) over the image and calculate a value at the
center.
If that value is higher than a threshold → it's marked as a "point".

🔹 70% – Detailed Explanation for Writing in Your Own

Words
🔸 1. Understanding the 3×3 Spatial Mask
• A mask is a 3×3 matrix (9 values) that’s moved across the image to perform calculations.
• A point detection mask is designed to react strongly when the center pixel is very
different from the surrounding 8 pixels.

✅ Example Mask:
diff
CopyEdit
-1 -1 -1
-1 8 -1
-1 -1 -1

This is known as the Laplacian-like mask for point detection.

🔸 2. How the Mask Works

• Multiply each value in the mask with the corresponding pixel under it.
• Add all the products.
• This gives a value called Response (R).
Formula:
R=∑i=13∑j=13wij⋅f(i,j)R = \sum_{i=1}^{3} \sum_{j=1}^{3} w_{ij} \cdot f(i,j)R=i=1∑3j=1∑3
wij⋅f(i,j)
Where:
• wijw_{ij}wij = mask weight
• f(i,j)f(i,j)f(i,j) = pixel value
🔸 3. Thresholding the Response
• After getting the result (R), we compare it to a threshold (T).
• If ∣R∣≥T|R| \geq T∣R∣≥T, then the center pixel is considered a point.
• Otherwise, it’s not.
This avoids detecting points due to small random noise.

🔸 4. Why Use This Method?

• It's fast and simple.
• Works well for isolated points.
• Can detect small bright or dark spots in a uniform background.

🔸 5. Limitations
• If the background is noisy, false points may be detected.
• Not suitable for complex textures.
Edge dedtection
🔹 30 % – Basic Introduction to Edge Detection
1. What Is an Edge?
An edge is simply a line (or curve) in an image where the pixel intensity changes abruptly.
In real‐world scenes, edges often correspond to object boundaries, changes in surface
orientation, or differences in material/lighting.
2. Why Detect Edges?
• Outlines & Shape: Edges give the “outline” of objects, making it easier to
recognize shapes.
• Data Reduction: By focusing on edges, you discard large swaths of nearly uniform
regions, keeping only important structural information.
• Preprocessing: Most high‐level tasks—like object recognition or segmentation—
begin by finding edges first.
3. Key Idea
• Edges are found where there’s a significant discontinuity (jump) in intensity.
• Mathematically, we look at the derivative of the image function:
• A first derivative (gradient) becomes large at an edge.
• A second derivative crosses zero at the location of an abrupt change (zero‐
crossing).
4. Edge Detection Pipeline (High‐Level)
 • Smoothing/Filtering (to reduce noise)
• Compute Derivative (find where intensity changes strongly)
• Threshold/Localize (decide which strong changes are actual edges)
• Post‐Processing (thin, link, and clean up edge pixels)
That’s the 30 percent core. Once you have this, you know “what” an edge is, “why” we want it, and
the four broad steps to find it. Now dive into the 70 percent for all the mechanics you’ll need to
write it out yourself.

🔹 70 % – In‐Depth Details for Edge Detection

1. Types of Edges You Might Encounter
• Step Edge: A nearly instantaneous jump from one intensity to another (e.g., a black object
on a white background).
• Ramp Edge: A more gradual transition (e.g., a shadow that softly fades).
• Spike Edge: A very narrow bright or dark line against the background (e.g., a hairline
crack).
• Roof Edge: Like a “tent” shape—intensity rises, peaks, then falls over a few pixels.

Why Care?
Different detectors respond differently to these. A step edge yields a strong peak in the first
derivative; a ramp edge produces a wider, lower‐magnitude peak; a spike shows up sharply in the
second derivative, and so on.
Thresholding
Here’s a 30:70 simple explanation of Thresholding from the Image Segmentation and
Compression chapter in your PDFs. 😊

🔹 30% – Basic Introduction to Thresholding

🔸 What is Thresholding?
Thresholding is a simple method of image segmentation. It converts a grayscale image into a
binary image (black and white) by comparing pixel values to a threshold (T).

🔸 Why Use Thresholding?

To separate objects from the background, like:
• Text vs paper (document scans)
• Tumor vs healthy tissue (medical)
• QR code vs background (scanner)
🔸 Basic Rule:
If pixel value > threshold → set to white (1)
If pixel value ≤ threshold → set to black (0)
This creates a clear binary image highlighting important areas.

🔹 70% – Detailed Explanation (Write this in your own

words)
🔸 1. How Thresholding Works
• Input: Grayscale image (pixel values from 0–255)
• Output: Binary image (only 0 and 1)
• Apply this logic:
g(x,y)={1,if f(x,y)>T0,otherwiseg(x, y) = \begin{cases} 1, & \text{if } f(x, y) > T \\ 0, & \
text{otherwise} \end{cases}
Where:
• f(x,y)f(x,y): input pixel intensity
• TT: chosen threshold
• g(x,y)g(x,y): output pixel value (0 or 1)

🔸 2. Types of Thresholding
A. Global Thresholding
• One fixed threshold TT for the entire image.
• Simple but may fail if lighting varies.
• Best for clear contrast images (like black text on white background).

B. Local (Adaptive) Thresholding

• Threshold changes based on local region (small sub-images).
• Good for images with uneven lighting.
• Each region gets its own TT.

C. Dynamic Thresholding
• Threshold depends on pixel coordinates (x, y) and local image properties.
• More advanced; adjusts dynamically.
🔸 3. Histogram-Based Thresholding
• A histogram shows how many pixels have each intensity level.
• If the histogram has two peaks (bimodal), the valley between them is a good threshold.

📌 Types:
• Unimodal histogram → hard to threshold.
• Bimodal histogram → ideal for segmentation.
• Overlapping peaks → more complex; may need adaptive methods.

🔸 4. Automatic Threshold Selection Algorithm

Example:
1. Start with an initial guess, say T=128T = 128
2. Divide pixels into two groups:
• Group 1: pixels ≤ T
• Group 2: pixels > T
3. Compute mean of each group: m1m_1, m2m_2
4. Set new threshold:
Tnew=m1+m22T_{\text{new}} = \frac{m_1 + m_2}{2}
5. Repeat until TT stops changing.
This method helps to automatically find an optimal threshold.

🔸 5. Multiple Thresholding
• Used when the image has more than two object classes.
• Instead of one threshold, use multiple thresholds T1,T2,...,TnT_1, T_2, ..., T_n
• Output: different values for different ranges
g(x,y)={g1,f(x,y)<T1g2,T1≤f(x,y)<T2…gn,f(x,y)≥Tng(x,y) = \begin{cases} g_1, & f(x,y)
< T_1 \\ g_2, & T_1 ≤ f(x,y) < T_2 \\ \dots \\ g_n, & f(x,y) ≥ T_n \end{cases}

🔸 6. Effect of Noise
• Noise can create false peaks in histogram.
• May mislead threshold selection.
• Use smoothing or averaging to remove noise from histogram before thresholding.
🔸 7. Peakiness Test (to check genuine peaks)
• Checks if a peak is sharp and deep enough.
• A "true" peak should be:
• Narrow (not spread out)
• Tall (clearly above valley)

📌 Peakiness Formula:
If a peak’s height is PP, width is WW, valley values are AA and BB, and total pixels = NN:
• Sharpness = P/NP / N
• Peakiness =
A+B2P×(1−sharpness)\frac{A + B}{2P} \times (1 - \text{sharpness})
If peakiness > threshold → accept as true peak.

✅ Summary Table
Type Description Best Use
Global Thresholding Same threshold for all pixels Simple, good for uniform lighting
Local Thresholding Threshold varies by region Uneven lighting (e.g., shadows)
Dynamic Thresholding Based on pixel + local properties Complex/real-world applications
Multiple Thresholding More than two classes (T₁, T₂…) Color or multi-object segmentation

✍️How You Can Write It Yourself:

Use the 30% to start your intro. Then:
• Add your own explanation of histogram peaks
• Show a threshold formula
• Mention adaptive vs global
• Add an example (e.g., dark text on white page)
• Explain how noise affects threshold
• Add a diagram or histogram sketch if possible
Would you like a 1-page handwritten-style notes PDF or summary card for this topic? 😊📄
Principle of Region Growing
Sure! Here's a 30:70 simple explanation of the "Principle of Region Growing" from the chapter
Image Segmentation and Compression based on your PDFs. This format will help you grasp the
concept easily and then write it in your own words with clarity. 😊🧠
🔹 30% – Basic Introduction to Region Growing
🔸 What is Region Growing?
Region Growing is an image segmentation method where you start with a seed pixel and expand
by including neighboring pixels that have similar properties (like intensity or color).

🔸 Why Use Region Growing?

• To segment connected areas that are visually similar.
• Useful in medical imaging, satellite imagery, and object tracking.

🔸 Key Idea:
Start with one pixel, then “grow” the region by checking neighboring pixels that are similar.
Continue until no more pixels match the region criteria.

🔹 70% – Detailed Explanation (You can write this in your

own words)
🔸 1. Seed Point Selection
• The process begins by choosing a seed point.
• This can be:
• Selected manually by the user (clicking on an object).
• Chosen automatically based on intensity statistics or features.

🧠 Example:
If you're segmenting a white flower, choose a pixel from the petal as the seed.

🔸 2. Region Growing Process

Once the seed is chosen, the region grows by checking its neighboring pixels using a certain
condition.

🧩 Conditions for Growing:

• Intensity similarity (e.g., difference in gray levels is below a threshold)
• Color similarity
• Texture similarity
• Distance from the seed
The most common condition:
∣f(x,y)−f(sx,sy)∣<T|f(x, y) - f(s_x, s_y)| < T
Where:
• f(x,y)f(x, y) is the current pixel
• f(sx,sy)f(s_x, s_y) is the seed pixel
• TT is the threshold
If true → include (x, y) in the region.

🔸 3. Connectivity
• Defines how neighbors are checked.
• 4-connectivity: Up, Down, Left, Right
• 8-connectivity: Also includes diagonals
Larger connectivity = more detailed region growth.

🔸 4. Stopping Criteria
Region growth stops when:
• No new similar pixels are found.
• A maximum region size is reached.
• A predefined number of iterations is completed.
This ensures the region doesn’t grow endlessly or include unwanted areas.

🔸 5. Advantages
• Very accurate for segmenting homogeneous regions.
• Can handle complex shapes as long as pixels are similar.
• Simple to implement and understand.

🔸 6. Disadvantages
• Sensitive to noise – a noisy pixel may break the region.
• Depends on initial seed – poor seed = poor segmentation.
• Computationally expensive for large images.
🔸 7. Improvements
• Use multiple seeds to segment multiple regions.
• Use region merging after growing to combine small similar regions.
• Combine with edge information for more accurate boundaries.

✅ Summary Table
Step Explanation
Select seed Choose starting pixel
Check neighbors Compare based on intensity, color, etc.
Add similar pixels Include if condition is met
Repeat Continue with newly added pixels
Stop When no more neighbors meet the criteria

✍️How to Write in Your Own Words:

• Start with a definition.
• Explain that it starts from a seed pixel and expands.
• Describe the similarity condition (intensity difference < T).
• Mention 4- or 8-connectivity.
• Explain advantages and limitations.
• Use diagrams if possible to show how the region grows.
Would you like a 1-page notes PDF or a diagram-based sketch showing region growing
visually? 😊🖼️
Split and Merge
Sure! Here's a 30:70 easy explanation of “Split and Merge”, based on your PDFs from the
chapter Image Segmentation and Compression. This approach is ideal for grasping the basics
first (30%) and then diving into more details (70%) so you can confidently write it in your own
words. 😊🧠

🔹 30% – Basic Introduction to Split and Merge

🔸 What is Split and Merge?
Split and Merge is an image segmentation method that works by dividing the image into smaller
regions (splitting) and then joining (merging) similar regions based on certain conditions.

🔸 Why Use It?

• Useful when regions in an image are not clearly separated or non-uniform.
 • It ensures that each region is:
• Homogeneous (all pixels similar)
• Not too small or too large

🔸 Key Idea:
• Split regions that are too varied (not uniform).
• Merge regions that are similar.
• Continue until all regions are uniform and no further splitting/merging is needed.

🔹 70% – Detailed Explanation (To help you write your own)

🔸 1. Initial Step
Start with the entire image as one region.
• Check if it is homogeneous:
• If yes, keep it as is.
• If not, split it into 4 equal square parts (quadtree).
This process is called recursive splitting.

🔸 2. Splitting – The “Divide” Part

• If a region is not homogeneous, it is divided into 4 quadrants.
• Each new quadrant is checked again:
• If it's still not homogeneous → split again.
• This continues recursively until:
• Regions are small enough, or
• They satisfy the uniformity condition.

🔍 Homogeneity Test (Example Condition):

• Check if intensity variation in a region is below a threshold:
Max Intensity−Min Intensity<T\text{Max Intensity} - \text{Min Intensity} < T
If not → split.

🔸 3. Merging – The “Combine” Part

• After splitting, check neighboring regions:
 • If two adjacent regions are similar, merge them into one.
• This is to avoid over-splitting and to group similar small regions.

🧠 Example:
Two regions with average intensities 125 and 128 (very close) → can be merged.

🔸 4. Quadtree Structure
• The image is represented using a tree structure where:
• The root = whole image
• Each node has 4 children = 4 sub-regions
• Splitting continues until leaf nodes meet the uniformity condition.
• Then, merging is applied from bottom-up.

🔸 5. Advantages
• Flexible: Works even if objects are irregular.
• Systematic: Combines top-down and bottom-up methods.
• No need for initial seed point like region growing.

🔸 6. Disadvantages
• Needs proper homogeneity condition; too strict = over-splitting.
• May result in blocky segmentation (due to square division).
• Computationally more expensive compared to simple thresholding.

🔸 7. Improvement Tips
• Use adaptive thresholding for better homogeneity checking.
• Combine with edge detection to prevent merging across boundaries.

✅ Summary Table
Process Description
Splitting Divide non-homogeneous regions into 4 equal parts
Merging Combine adjacent regions that are similar
Quadtree Tree structure to manage the recursive division
 Process Description
Homogeneity Test Checks if pixels in a region are similar enough

✍️How to Write It Yourself:

• Begin with what split and merge means.
• Mention how image is divided using quadtree.
• Explain splitting condition with a formula.
• Talk about merging adjacent similar regions.
• Highlight pros and cons.
• Add a simple diagram or tree example if possible.
Would you like a handwritten summary page or sketch diagram of the split and merge
process? 😊📝
Pyramid and Quadtree structures,
Here’s a 30:70 simplified explanation of Pyramid and Quadtree structures, based on the Image
Segmentation and Compression chapter in your provided PDFs. This format will help you quickly
understand the concept and then describe it confidently in your own words. 😊🌲

🔹 30% – Basic Introduction to Pyramid & Quadtree

🔸 What is a Pyramid in Image Processing?
A pyramid is a multi-resolution structure where an image is repeatedly reduced in size to form a
stack of images—each one smaller and more blurred than the one below.

🔸 What is a Quadtree?
A quadtree is a tree data structure used to divide an image into square regions. Each square is
split into 4 equal sub-squares (quad = four).

🔸 Why Are They Used?

• For efficient image segmentation, compression, and processing.
• Help in focusing on important areas and reducing storage or computation.

🔹 70% – Detailed Explanation (To write in your own words)

🔸 1. Pyramid Representation
A. How Pyramid Works
• Start with an original image (Level 0).
• Reduce the resolution by downsampling or blurring and subsampling.
• Continue this process to create multiple levels (Level 1, Level 2, …).

B. Types of Pyramids
1. Gaussian Pyramid:
• Each level is a smoothed and smaller version of the previous.
• Helps in image analysis at multiple resolutions.
2. Laplacian Pyramid:
• Formed by subtracting the Gaussian-blurred image from the original.
• Stores only the differences (details).
• Used in image compression and reconstruction.

C. Applications:
• Object detection at different sizes.
• Multi-resolution image blending.
• Image compression (e.g., JPEG uses a similar concept).

🔸 2. Quadtree Representation
A. How Quadtree Works
• Start with the full image as one large square node (root).
• Check if the region is homogeneous (all pixels similar).
• If yes, stop.
• If not, split into 4 equal parts.
• Repeat the process for each new region.
• Represented as a tree where each node has 4 children.

🧠 Example:
• An image region with mixed black and white pixels → not homogeneous → split into 4.
• If one quadrant is still mixed → split again.
• If another quadrant is all white → no need to split.
B. Homogeneity Check
A simple test:
max(pixel values)−min(pixel values)<T\text{max(pixel values)} - \text{min(pixel values)} < T
If false → split the region.

🔸 3. Combining Pyramid + Quadtree

• Both structures help manage image data at different scales.
• You can first downsample the image using pyramid and then apply quadtree
segmentation.
• This is useful in large image datasets, where full-resolution processing is expensive.

🔸 4. Advantages
Pyramid Quadtree
Handles multi-resolution Handles spatial segmentation
Used for blending, scaling Used for region-based analysis
Good for image compression Good for object localization

🔸 5. Disadvantages
• Pyramid:
• Loses fine detail in upper levels.
• Needs extra memory for all levels.
• Quadtree:
• Can result in blocky regions.
• Performance depends on threshold accuracy.

✅ Summary Table
Concept Purpose Structure
Pyramid Multi-resolution image representation Stack (bottom to top)
Quadtree Region-based segmentation Tree (top-down split)

✍️How to Write in Your Own Words:

• Start with what each structure does: Pyramid = resolution levels, Quadtree = space
divisions.
 • Describe how images are reduced in a pyramid.
• Explain how quadtree splits non-homogeneous areas.
• Show how both help in segmentation and compression.
• Add a small diagram or step-by-step example if possible.
Would you like a visual mind map or diagram sheet to help with revision? 😊📄
Image Compression – Fundamentals

Here’s a 30:70 simple explanation of Image Compression – Fundamentals, based on your PDFs
(Image Segmentation and Compression chapter). This structure will help you understand the core
quickly (30%) and then write deeper in your own words (70%). 😊📘

🔹 30% – Basic Introduction to Image Compression

🔸 What is Image Compression?
Image compression is the process of reducing the size of an image file without significantly
affecting its quality.

🔸 Why Compress Images?

• Save storage space
• Reduce transmission time (for web, email, etc.)
• Speed up processing

🔸 Main Goal:
Remove redundant or unnecessary data from the image.

🔹 70% – Detailed Explanation (To write on your own)

🔸 1. Types of Redundancy in Images

To compress an image, we remove redundant data. There are three types:

A. Coding Redundancy
• Some pixel values (like gray levels) occur more often than others.
• Use shorter codes for frequent values (e.g., Huffman coding).

B. Spatial Redundancy
• Neighboring pixels often have similar values.
• So we don’t need to store all pixel values individually—just the difference is enough.
C. Psycho-visual Redundancy
• Human eyes don’t notice small details or color differences.
• So we can remove data that the eye can’t detect (used in JPEG compression).

🔸 2. Types of Image Compression

A. Lossless Compression
• No data is lost; original image can be perfectly recovered.
• Used in medical, legal, and scientific images.
✅ Examples:
• Run-Length Encoding (RLE)
• Huffman Coding
• LZW (used in GIF)

B. Lossy Compression
• Some image data is permanently removed.
• Results in smaller file sizes, but cannot restore the original image fully.
✅ Examples:
• JPEG
• Transform coding (DCT)

🔸 3. Lossless Compression Techniques

A. Run-Length Encoding (RLE)
• Replaces long runs of the same pixel with a count and value.
• Example: BBBBBBWWWW → 6B4W

B. Huffman Coding
• Assigns shorter binary codes to frequent pixel values.
• Based on a binary tree where each leaf node represents a symbol.

C. Predictive Coding
• Predicts pixel values from neighbors and stores only the error.
• Good when pixels are highly similar (low contrast images).
🔸 4. Lossy Compression Techniques
A. Transform Coding
• Uses mathematical transforms like DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform) to convert image to
frequency components.
• High-frequency parts (fine details) are discarded.

B. Quantization
• Groups nearby pixel values into ranges and stores them with fewer bits.
• Reduces file size but introduces small errors.

C. JPEG Compression
• A standard lossy method.
• Steps:
1. Divide image into 8×8 blocks
2. Apply DCT
3. Quantize DCT coefficients
4. Encode remaining values using Huffman coding

🔸 5. Compression Metrics
A. Compression Ratio
Compression Ratio=Original SizeCompressed Size\text{Compression Ratio} = \frac{\text{Original
Size}}{\text{Compressed Size}}
Higher ratio = better compression.

B. Bit Rate
• Average bits per pixel.
• Lower bit rate = more compression.

C. PSNR (Peak Signal to Noise Ratio)

• Measures image quality after compression.
• Higher PSNR = better quality.

🔸 6. Trade-Off: Quality vs Size

• Lossless = perfect quality, larger size.
• Lossy = reduced size, some quality loss.
You must choose based on application need:
• Medical/technical: Use lossless
• Web/photos: Use lossy

✅ Summary Table
Compression Type Description Use Case
Lossless No data loss Medical, Legal
Lossy Some data discarded Photos, Web images
RLE Store repeated pixels as a pair Simple images
Huffman Short codes for common symbols Any data
DCT (Transform) Converts image to frequency domain JPEG compression

✍️How You Can Write This:

• Start with the definition and why it's needed.
• Mention redundancy types and how they’re reduced.
• Explain lossless vs lossy with examples.
• Choose 1–2 techniques (e.g., RLE and JPEG) and explain steps.
• Add a small table or figure if allowed.
Would you like a summary chart or visual diagram PDF for this topic? 😊📝
Compression Models

Sure! 😊 Here's a 30:70 easy-to-understand explanation of Compression Models based on your

PDFs (Image Segmentation and Compression chapter). This format helps you quickly understand
the concept (30%) and gives enough depth (70%) to confidently write your own detailed answer.

🔹 30% – Basic Introduction to Compression Models

🔸 What is a Compression Model?
A compression model is a structured approach or method used to reduce the amount of data
required to represent an image.

🔸 Why Use Compression Models?

They help in:
• Saving storage space
• Faster transmission
 • Efficient processing

🔸 Key Idea:
The model uses mathematical or logical techniques to remove redundant data and represent the
image more efficiently, either losslessly or lossily.

🔹 70% – Detailed Explanation (To help you write your own)

Compression models can be classified into four main types based on how they process image data:

🔸 1. Source Encoder and Decoder Model

🔹 Concept:
• Focuses on statistical redundancy.
• Converts the image into a compressed bit stream using entropy encoding like:
• Huffman Coding
• Arithmetic Coding

🔹 Process:
1. Source encoder converts pixel values into compact binary codes.
2. Source decoder reconstructs the exact pixel values from those codes (for lossless) or
approximate values (for lossy).
Used in both lossless (e.g., PNG) and lossy (e.g., JPEG with Huffman stage)
compression.

🔸 2. Channel Encoder and Decoder Model

🔹 Concept:
• This model is concerned with transmission errors.
• Adds extra bits (redundancy) for error detection and correction.

🔹 Process:
1. Channel encoder adds error-correcting codes.
2. Channel decoder detects and corrects errors during data transmission.
Common in satellite imaging, wireless communication, where bit errors may occur.
🔸 3. Linear Transform Model
🔹 Concept:
• Converts image from spatial domain (pixels) to frequency domain.
• High-frequency details are usually less important and can be discarded (in lossy
compression).

🔹 Techniques:
• DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform) – Used in JPEG
• DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform)
• DWT (Discrete Wavelet Transform) – Used in JPEG 2000

🔹 Steps:
1. Apply transform (e.g., DCT) to image blocks.
2. Remove or quantize small coefficients (lossy).
3. Store or transmit remaining data.
4. Apply inverse transform during decompression.
Best for lossy image compression.

🔸 4. Statistical Model
🔹 Concept:
• Uses probability theory to predict the occurrence of pixel values.
• Based on Markov models or context-based prediction.

🔹 Process:
1. Predict next pixel value based on previous ones.
2. Encode the difference between actual and predicted value.
3. Use statistical coding (e.g., Arithmetic Coding).
Works well in predictive coding and context modeling.

✅ Summary Table
Model Purpose Used In
Source Encoder/Decoder Minimize redundancy Huffman, Arithmetic, JPEG
Channel Encoder/Decoder Handle transmission errors Wireless/Satellite compression
Linear Transform Model Frequency-based compression JPEG, JPEG2000 (DCT, DWT)
 Model Purpose Used In
Predict pixel values & compress
Statistical Model Predictive coding, Context Model
diff.

✍️How to Write This in Your Own Words:

• Start by defining a compression model.
• Briefly explain why compression models are needed.
• Describe each model (source, channel, transform, statistical) in 3–4 lines:
• What it does
• Where it's used
• Example (like JPEG, DCT, Huffman)
• Use a comparison table if space permits.
Would you like a 1-page visual note or hand-drawn concept map for quick revision? 😊📄

Error-Free Compression (Lossless Compression)

Here's a 30:70 simple explanation of Error-Free Compression (Lossless Compression) from

your PDFs (Image Segmentation and Compression chapter). This format helps you grasp the core
ideas quickly (30%) and then dive deep (70%) so you can confidently write it in your own
words. 😊🧠

🔹 30% – Basic Introduction to Error-Free Compression

🔸 What is Error-Free Compression?
Also known as Lossless Compression, this method compresses image data without losing any
information.

🔸 Key Point:
After decompression, you get back the exact original image—no changes, no loss.

🔸 Why Use It?

• Important for medical images, legal documents, scientific data, and textual content
where accuracy is critical.
🔹 70% – Detailed Explanation (Write this in your own
words)
🔸 1. Goal of Error-Free Compression
• Eliminate redundancy while ensuring that the image can be reconstructed exactly after
compression.
• Focuses on reducing coding redundancy and spatial redundancy without throwing away
details.

🔸 2. Types of Redundancy Handled

A. Coding Redundancy
• Some pixel values appear more frequently than others.
• Use shorter codes for common values (like in Huffman coding).

B. Spatial Redundancy
• Neighboring pixels often have similar intensities.
• Instead of storing all pixels, store the difference between neighboring pixels (used in
predictive coding).

🔸 3. Common Error-Free Compression Methods

A. Run-Length Encoding (RLE)
• Works by replacing repeated values with a count.
• Example:
For a row of pixels like AAAAAABBB
RLE stores it as: 6A 3B

• Best for images with large areas of constant color, like scanned documents or icons.

B. Huffman Coding
• A form of entropy coding.
• Builds a binary tree where frequent symbols get short codes.
• Example:
• Symbol A (most common): 0

• Symbol Z (least common): 11110

• Used in PNG and also inside JPEG (after quantization step).

C. Arithmetic Coding
• Like Huffman, but instead of assigning bits to symbols, it encodes the entire message as a
single number.
• Offers better compression than Huffman in some cases.
• More complex and used in standards like JPEG 2000.

D. LZW (Lempel-Ziv-Welch)
• Builds a dictionary of patterns found in the image.
• If a pattern repeats, it stores a reference to the dictionary instead of the actual data.
• Used in GIF and TIFF formats.

E. Predictive Coding
• Predict the value of a pixel based on its neighbors.
• Store only the difference (error) between actual and predicted pixel values.
• If pixels are similar, the difference is small → fewer bits needed.

🔸 4. Steps in a Typical Error-Free Compression Process

1. Analyze the image for redundancy.
2. Choose method (RLE, Huffman, etc.) based on image type.
3. Encode image using selected method.
4. Store/transmit the compressed data.
5. Decode/decompress at the receiver end to get the exact original image.

🔸 5. Advantages
• No information is lost.
• Perfect for sensitive or critical images.
• Many techniques are fast and easy to implement.

🔸 6. Disadvantages
• Less compression ratio compared to lossy methods.
 • Not suitable for natural images like photographs (where pixel values vary a lot).

✅ Summary Table
Method How It Works Used In
RLE Stores runs of repeated values Fax, icons, simple scans
Huffman Coding Short codes for frequent values PNG, inside JPEG
Arithmetic Coding Encodes entire message as a single number JPEG 2000
LZW Uses dictionary-based pattern matching GIF, TIFF
Predictive Coding Stores difference between actual & predicted Compression engines

✍️How to Write in Your Own Words:

• Start with what lossless (error-free) compression is.
• Explain why it’s important (when exact recovery is needed).
• Pick 2–3 methods (like RLE and Huffman) and explain with simple examples.
• Compare their strengths and weaknesses.
• Finish with a use-case-based conclusion (e.g., "In medical imaging, Huffman is preferred
for accuracy").
Would you like a 1-page revision sheet or visual summary chart for this topic? 😊📄
variable length coding
Sure! Here's a very simple explanation of Variable Length Coding (VLC) following your
structure:

🔹 1. What is VLC and Why Do We Use It?

Variable Length Coding (VLC) is a method used in image compression where we give:
• Shorter codes to symbols (pixel values) that occur more often, and
• Longer codes to symbols that occur less often.
👉 Purpose: To reduce file size by removing coding redundancy—we don't waste bits storing
the same value again and again.

🔹 2. Why Do Shorter Codes = Smaller Files?

Imagine you’re writing a story, and one word comes 100 times.
Instead of writing it fully every time, you just write a small symbol for it.
This saves space.
Same idea with images: if a pixel value like “white” comes again and again, we give it a short
code like 0. Less frequent values get longer codes like 1101.

🔹 3. Huffman Coding – Simple Example

Let’s say you have 4 pixel values:
A A A A B B C D

Symbol Frequency Huffman Code

A 4 0
B 2 10
C 1 110
D 1 111
So, A A A A B B C D → 0 0 0 0 10 10 110 111
💡 Fewer bits used compared to giving all values the same length (like 2 or 3 bits).

🔹 4. Advantages and Use Cases

✅ No data is lost (lossless compression)
✅ Works well for text, grayscale images, and medical data
✅ Used in formats like PNG, JPEG (final stage), and ZIP files

🔹 5. Optional – What is Arithmetic Coding?

Arithmetic Coding is a more advanced version of VLC.
Instead of giving each symbol its own code, it compresses the entire message into one decimal
number between 0 and 1.
🔧 It saves even more space, but it's more complex and slower.

Jpeg mpeg
Here’s a 30:70 simplified explanation of Image Compression Standards – JPEG and MPEG,
based on the Image Segmentation and Compression chapter from your PDFs. This breakdown will
help you understand the basics fast (30%), and then write more details in your own words (70%).
😊📚

🔹 30% – Basic Introduction to JPEG and MPEG

🔸 What are JPEG and MPEG?
They are international standards for compressing images and videos.
 • JPEG: Stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group
→ Used for compressing still images (photos).
• MPEG: Stands for Moving Picture Experts Group
→ Used for compressing video (series of images + audio).

🔸 Why Use Them?

• To reduce file size for faster transmission and lower storage.
• Used in cameras, web, social media, video streaming, etc.

🔹 70% – Detailed Explanation (You can write in your own

words)

🔸 1. JPEG Compression – For Images

✅ Basic Steps:
1. Color Conversion (optional)
• Convert RGB to YCbCr (brightness + color)
• We compress color components more than brightness.
2. Divide into 8×8 Blocks
• Image is split into small 8×8 pixel blocks for processing.
3. DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform)
• Converts each block from spatial domain to frequency domain.
• Low-frequency values represent general shapes.
• High-frequency values represent fine details (often removed).
4. Quantization
• Reduces the precision of DCT coefficients.
• This is the lossy step – throws away small, unnoticeable details.
5. Zig-Zag Scanning
• Rearranges DCT values in a zig-zag pattern to group zeros together.
6. Entropy Coding (like Huffman)
• Compresses the final data using variable-length coding.

✅ Characteristics:
• High compression ratio.
 • Some quality loss (depends on compression level).
• Widely used in cameras, websites, WhatsApp, etc.

🔸 2. MPEG Compression – For Videos

✅ Basic Idea:
• A video = sequence of images (frames)
• MPEG compresses:
• Individual frames (like JPEG)
• And motion between frames

✅ Frame Types:
1. I-Frames (Intra-coded)
• Compressed like JPEG (self-contained)
2. P-Frames (Predictive-coded)
• Stores only changes from previous frame
3. B-Frames (Bi-directional)
• Stores changes using previous + next frame

✅ Compression Techniques:
• Temporal Compression: Removes redundancy between frames.
• Spatial Compression: Compresses within a frame (like JPEG).
• Motion Estimation: Tracks movement of objects across frames and stores the motion
vectors.

✅ MPEG Versions:
• MPEG-1: For VCD, MP3
• MPEG-2: For DVDs, TV broadcasting
• MPEG-4: For internet videos (YouTube, MP4 format)

🔸 3. Comparison Table
Feature JPEG MPEG
Type Still images Video (image + time)
Method DCT + quantization + VLC Frame-based + motion estimation
Output Format .jpg, .jpeg .mpg, .mp4, .avi, etc.
Compression Spatial Spatial + Temporal
 Feature JPEG MPEG
Lossy Yes Yes

🔸 4. Advantages
✅ JPEG
• Simple, fast, efficient
• Great for photos
• Adjustable quality (compression ratio)
✅ MPEG
• Excellent for video
• Reduces file size by removing repeated scenes
• Used in almost all video platforms

🔸 5. Limitations
❌ JPEG
• Not suitable for high-quality image editing (loses details)
• Artifacts (blurring, blockiness) at high compression
❌ MPEG
• Complex algorithms
• Loss of quality over repeated compression
• Needs synchronization between frames

✍️How You Can Write This in Exams:

• Start with what JPEG and MPEG stand for and what they are used for.
• Briefly describe JPEG steps: DCT → Quantization → VLC.
• For MPEG, explain I, P, B frames and motion compression.
• Add a comparison table and explain where each is used.
• Mention lossy nature and common formats like .jpg and .mp4.

Would you like a diagram or one-page summary chart of JPEG and MPEG differences? 😊🖼️