International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and

Science (IJAERS)
Peer-Reviewed Journal
ISSN: 2349-6495(P) | 2456-1908(O)
Vol-12, Issue-6; Jun, 2025
Journal Home Page Available: https://ijaers.com/
Article DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijaers.126.4

Development of artificial aggregates by using sodium

silicate activated copper tailings and slag
Demagh Lotfi1, Hui Wang2, Samuel Aires Master Lazaro1, Lanping Qian2, Xiangyu Li2
1College of Civil Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, 030024, China
2Key Laboratory of Urban Security and Disaster Engineering of Ministry of Education, Beijing Key Laboratory of Earthquake Engineering
and Structural Retrofit, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100024, China.

Received: 03 May 2025, Abstract— This study investigated the development of artificial aggregates
Receive in revised form: 04 Jun 2025, using copper tailings activated by sodium silicate via granulation. Five
different mixes were prepared by incorporating varying amounts of ground
Accepted: 09 Jun 2025,
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and sodium silicate. The granulation
Available online: 13 Jun 2025 process was performed in a rotating disk granulator, with water sprayed onto
©2025 The Author(s). Published by AI the dry mixture to facilitate binding. The resulting aggregates, ranging from 5
Publication. This is an open-access article to 25 mm in diameter, were cured in a humid environment for 3, 7, and 28 d.
under the CC BY license The aggregates were then tested for size distribution, oven-dried density, water
absorption, crushing strength, and individual-granule strength.
Keywords— Granulation; Alkali
Microstructural analysis was conducted using scanning electron microscopy
activation, artificial aggregate, copper
(SEM) and X-ray computed tomography (XCT). The results showed that the
tailings, sodium silicate
addition of GGBS significantly improved the properties of the artificial
aggregates, resulting in a higher density, lower water absorption, and
increased strength.XCT images revealed a more refined pore structure with
smaller and more evenly distributed pores in the GGBS-containing samples.
The crushing strength and individual granule strength followed a Weibull
distribution, with the GGBS samples exhibiting higher strength values. SEM
analysis confirmed the formation of N-A-S-H gel in the GGBS samples, which
acted as a binding phase and improved the microstructure. These findings
demonstrate the potential of using copper tailings and GGBS to produce
sustainable artificial aggregates with enhanced properties for construction
applications.

I. INTRODUCTION is imperative for mitigating environmental impacts and

Copper tailings, a substantial byproduct of copper mining, advancing sustainable industrial practices.
are a significant source of industrial waste, particularly in Simultaneously, the global demand for natural aggregates,
regions with high copper production, such as China. For such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone, continues to rise
every ton of copper produced, approximately 300 tons of steadily, driven by rapid economic development and
tailings are generated, with provinces such as Jiangxi, population growth. These aggregates play a vital role in
Hubei, and Yunnan serving as key contributors to this construction, providing essential properties such as
waste stream [1,2].These tailings are primarily stored in strength, durability, and stability to materials such as
dams or impoundments, posing critical environmental concrete, asphalt, and building foundations [3]. However,
challenges because of their large volumes and potential for the growing demand has led to resource depletion,
heavy metal leaching [1].Addressing these issues through environmental degradation, and increased carbon
the effective management and utilisation of copper tailings footprints. Consequently, stricter regulations on natural

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Lotfi et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 12(6)-2025

aggregate sourcing have created an urgent need to develop ideal particle size distribution and moisture content for
sustainable alternatives. Recycling industrial byproducts, granulation, and its fine particles readily bind together
such as copper tailings, into artificial aggregates offers a during rolling [20].This method requires minimal
promising solution for waste management and the growing equipment compared with alternatives such as extrusion or
demand for construction materials [4]. pressing, making it cost-effective and easy to implement at
The use of waste materials such as fly ash, blast furnace mining sites. It also minimizes environmental impact
slag, red mud, steel slag, and recycled concrete to produce through lower energy consumption and dust emission
artificial aggregates has gained significant attention in control.
research because of its potential to mitigate environmental Alkali activation offers another viable approach for
impact and provide sustainable construction materials [5]. recycling copper tailings into artificial aggregates. This
These materials, derived from industrial and construction method uses alkaline solutions, such as sodium hydroxide
waste streams, offer a promising solution for aggregate and sodium silicate, to chemically bind raw materials, such
production using various methods, each with unique as copper tailings, into strong, durable aggregates [21].The
characteristics and benefits [6]. properties of alkali-activated materials can be tailored by
Research has revealed the compelling properties of various adjusting parameters such as alkali concentration, curing
alternative aggregates in different construction temperature, and activator type, thereby optimizing their
applications. Fly ash aggregates serve as excellent thermal performance for various construction applications [22,
insulators [7] while significantly reducing the concrete 23].However, challenges arise when using copper tailings
structure weight by up to 30% compared to traditional for alkali activation, including variability in tailing
options [8].Steel slag is known for its mechanical composition and concerns about long-term environmental
performance, with its high density and angular shape safety, particularly the potential leaching of heavy metals
producing concrete that is 15-25% stronger in compression [24].
than conventional alternatives [9].Recycled concrete Building on existing research, this study aimed to develop
aggregates (RCA) have also shown promising results, novel alkali-activated artificial aggregates incorporating
achieving strength levels close to those of natural copper tailings. To address challenges such as
aggregates [10].Although they tend to absorb more water, compositional variability and strength reduction, a
this property can benefit internal curing processes [11]. granulation process was proposed to produce consistent,
Through careful mix design optimization, RCA concrete high-quality aggregates. By combining granulation with
can reach 90-95% of conventional concrete's strength, alkali activation, this study seeks to advance sustainable
demonstrating its viability as a sustainable alternative [12]. solutions for waste utilization in construction and promote
However, using waste materials for artificial aggregates the industrial application of copper tailing-based artificial
faces issues with inconsistent material properties and aggregates.
quality control, making it difficult to achieve reliable
structural performance [13].The processing and treatment II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
requirements to remove contaminants and ensure safety
2.1. Raw Materials
add significant costs to production [5].Meeting strict
construction standards and building codes remains In this study, artificial aggregates were developed using
challenging because of the variability in waste material alkali-activated CT with or without GGBS. Solid sodium
composition [14]. Market acceptance is limited by silicate was used as the alkali activator. The copper tailings
concerns about long-term durability and environmental were sourced from Zhongtiaoshan Non-ferrous Metals
impact, despite the sustainability benefits [15, 16]. Group, Shanxi, China. The as-received copper tailings
were washed three times with tap water to avoid the
Granulation is the most effective method for producing
possible influence of admixtures used during their
artificial aggregates from copper tailings because of its
production. After washing, the copper tailings were oven-
ability to efficiently handle fine-grained materials through
dried for future use. GGBS was collected from Henan
rolling and tumbling motions, creating irregular or quasi-
Guyou Engineering Testing Co.,Ltd. Fig.1 shows the
spherical rather than perfect spherical granules with good
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of CT and
mechanical properties [17], improving the strength and
GGBS. Both GGBS and CT particles exhibited angular
durability of the resulting aggregates for construction
and irregular shapes.
applications [18, 19].This process is particularly suitable
for copper tailings because this material typically has an

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Fig.1: Morphology of CT and GGBS

Fig. 2 shows both the differential and cumulative particle was comparable to that of CT. The most frequent particle
size distributions of the copper tailings, measured using a size of SS is 260 μm and most of them are smaller than
laser particle size analyser (LS-POP(9), OMEC). 600 μm.
According to Fig. 2a, nearly all CT particles are smaller Table. 1 shows the chemical compositions of the copper
than 300 μm. The differential particle size distribution tailings and GGBS, as characterized by X-ray fluorescence
shows a bimodal profile with two peaks at 18 μm and 125 (XRF). For CT, elements Si, Al, and Fe account for 81.0%.
μm. But the most frequent particle size of CT is 125 μm. For GGBS, the major elements are Si, Ca, and Fe, which
Fig. 1b shows the particle size distribution of the GGBS. account for 85.8%. The alkali activator SS composed
The most frequent particle size of GGBS is approximately mainly of 50.23% sodium dioxide and 46.27% silicon
16 μm and nearly all particles are smaller than 50 μm. As dioxide in terms of chemical composition.
shown in Fig. 2c, the particle size of the solid SS particles

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a
Differential Distribution (%)

Particle Size Distribution (%)

Particle Size Distribution (%)
b
Differential Distribution (%)

Particle Size Distribution (%)

Differential Distribution (%)

Fig. 2: Particle size distributions of CT, GGBS, and SS

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Lotfi et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 12(6)-2025

Table.1: Chemical composition of copper tailing and GGBS

Oxides(%) CT(%) GGBS(%)
Si 58.301 34.20
Ca 4.575 34.00
Al 13.344 1.62
Fe 9.328 17.60
Mg 4.014 6.21
K 5.171 0.37
P 0.301 /
Cl 0.445 /
Ti 0.963 /
Mn 0.088 /
Cu 0.086 /
Rb 0.023 /
Sr 0.012 /
Zr 0.040 /

The X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was conducted by crystalline phases in the CT were quartz (SiO2),
using a Empyrean (Malvern analytical)and phase hedenbergite (CaFeSi2O6), calciumsulfate(CaSO4),
identification was performed using the X’pertHighScore calciumcarbonate(CaCO3), and anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8).
Plus software.Thediffraction patterns of CT and GGBS are However, GGBS contains amorphous SiO2 accordingtothe
presented in Fig. 3. According to the test results, the main broad lump between 20°and35°shown in the spectrum.
Intensity (a.u.)

2θ
Fig. 3: XRD patterns of GGBS and CT

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2.2. Sample preparations aiding in the formation of granules [26]. Both the rotating
The raw materials for preparing the artificial aggregates speed and disk angle were adjusted to optimize granule
are copper tailings, GGBS, and solid sodium silicate. The formation according to established granulation principles
copper tailings were first washed three times with tap [27]. As water was sprayed onto the mixture, the rotation
water, oven-dried for 5h, and then mixed with GGBS and speed was increased to 30 rpm. After 2 mins rotation, the
sodium silicate following the mixing proportions shown in speed was increased to 40 rpm and maintained for another
Table 2. Five different mixes were prepared, as shown in 3 mins. The disk was inclined at a 45° angle, which was
the Table2, with various GGBS contents (10%, 20%, and found to be optimal for granule production. The
30%). The five mixes were denoted as CTS1, CTS2, granulation process took approximately 7 min in current
CTBS10, CTBS20, and CTBS30. Previous research has study. Fig. 4a shows the dry mixing of raw materials,
shown that the incorporation of GGBS enhances the while Fig. 4b and 4c show the granulation process with
mechanical properties [25]. The dry materials were placed solid particles bound together to form fresh artificial
in a rotating disk granulator with speed of 20 rpm for 2 aggregates.
mins to ensure they can be mixed thoroughly. Then, the Once granulation was completed, the aggregates were
granulation process started as water was gradually and placed immediately in a sealed plastic container for curing.
evenly sprayed onto the dry mixture using a watering The curing process was conducted under temperature of 22
bottle. Water addition, which is essential for proper ± 1°C and relative humidity of 50 ± 5%. No thermal
moisture distribution, facilitates the binding process, treatment was applied during the curing stage.

a b c
Fig. 4: Granulation process for artificial aggregates

Table 2: Mix proportions of artificial aggregate samples

Mixes CT(g) SS(g) GGBS(g) Water(g) Water/binder Water/SS
CTS1 1000 100 0 180 0.180 1.80
CTS2 1000 150 0 185 0.185 1.23
CTBS10 1000 100 100 195 0.177 1.95
CTBS20 1000 100 200 200 0.167 2.00
CTBS30 1000 100 300 210 0.162 2.10

2.3. Testing methods the size distribution tests were performed after the
2.3.1. Sieve analysis aggregates had undergone a 28-day curing period under
The particle size distribution of the artificial aggregates controlled conditions, followed by 24 hours of air-drying
was determined using a series of standard sieves with to stabilize their moisture content [28]. This preparation
mesh openings of 5 mm, 10 mm, 14 mm, 20 mm, and 25 minimized potential influences of residual moisture on the
mm. This sieve analysis was conducted to quantify the sieving process, enhancing the reliability of the
range and proportion of aggregate sizes within each batch. measurements.
The cumulative size distribution was calculated for each 2.3.2. Oven dried density and water absorption
batch to provide a comprehensive profile of particle size measurement
variation. To ensure accurate and representative results,

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2.8×𝐹
Following a 28-day curing period under ambient 𝜎= (3)
𝜋×𝑑 2
conditions, the oven-dried density and water absorption
properties of the synthetic aggregates were evaluated in where the individual strength (σ) is defined as the ratio of
accordance with established standards [29]. This the peak load (F) recorded at the crushing failure of the
assessment was conducted on approximately 500 g of aggregate to the distance (d) between the two connection
aggregates with particle sizes ranging from 5 mm to 25 points of the aggregates with the load cell and the
mm to ensure a representative sample. supporting base (where the aggregate rests on the
supporting base).
The aggregates were submerged in water for 24 hours to
achieve full saturation. After immersion, they were 2.3.4. SEM observations
removed and dried to a saturated surface dry (SSD) A ZEISS Gemini 300 scanning electron microscope
condition using a dry cloth, and their mass was recorded as (SEM) was used for microstructure observations in the
m1. The SSD aggregates were then placed in a 1 liter present work. The samples for SEM were collected from
graduated cylinder, and water was incrementally added crushed artificial aggregates after mechanical tests. Before
until the total volume reached 1 liter, following the SEM observation, the SEM samples were dried in a
procedure outlined in [30]. The combined mass of the vacuum oven for 8h.
aggregates, water, and cylinder was recorded as m2. 2.3.5. XCT observations
Subsequently, the aggregates were transferred to an oven
A dual-tube micro-focus X-ray computed tomography
set at 105°C and dried until a constant mass was achieved,
(XCT) system (Phoenix V|tome|x S 240) was employed to
indicating complete moisture removal. This oven-dried
analyze the pore distribution within the aggregates after 28
mass was recorded as m3.
d curing. The XCT testing parameters were set to an X-ray
The oven-dried particle density, ρ (in kg/m³), was tube voltage of 140 kV, current of 45 μA, and spatial
calculated using Equation 1: resolution of 10 μm. Further details on the system and
𝑚3
𝜌= × 1000 methodology are provided in the following sections.
𝑚1−(𝑚2−𝑚4)
(1)
Here, m4 represents the mass of the graduated cylinder III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
filled with 1000 ml of water, serving as a reference for the 3.1. Size distribution of artificial aggregates
volume displacement calculation.
The typical size distribution of artificial aggregates can
Additionally, the water absorption capacity (Sw, expressed vary depending on the production method and material
as a percentage) of the aggregates was determined using type, and particle sizes have ranged from as small as 4 mm
Equation 2, though the specific equation was not provided to as large as 20 mm [17]. From previous research studies,
in the original text. For completeness, it is typically artificial aggregates produced through different methods
calculated as: using waste materials typically range from 4 mm to 20 mm
𝑚1−𝑚3 in size [21, 34, 35]. The most commonly reported size
𝑆𝑤 = × 100
𝑚3 range is 5–16 mm. Some studies have successfully
(2)
produced smaller aggregates of approximately 2.36–4.75
2.3.3. Crushing strength of individual artificial mm [35], whereas others have achieved larger sizes of up
aggregate to 25 mm. Based on the sieve analysis, the artificial
The compressive strength of the artificial aggregates aggregates produced in current study showed varying size
was assessed following the methodology outlined in prior distributions across different samples. The most dominant
research [32]. Testing was conducted after curing periods size was 10.0 mm, comprising 51.17%–59.37% of the total
of 3, 7, and 28 days to evaluate strength development over distribution. The samples also contained 5.0 mm
time. A 600 kN universal testing machine (SHT4605, aggregates, particularly notable in CTBS1 and CTBS30
MTS) was employed, and a minimum of 20 aggregates with proportions of 30.88% and 36.09%, respectively. A
from each sample type were tested to ensure statistical distinct characteristic was observed in CTS2, which
reliability. contained 14.0 mm aggregates, accounting for 22.34% of
its composition.TheCTBS10 sample demonstrated a more
The aggregates were subjected to a controlled loading rate
uniform distribution between 5.0 mm and 10.0 mm sizes
of 0.6 mm/min to achieve consistent and reproducible
(42.13% and 51.17%), while CTBS20 showed a broader
results. The compressive strength of individual aggregates,
range, including some 20.0 mm aggregates at 3.6%.Small
denoted as σ(in MPa), was calculated using the equation 3
amounts of 2.5 mm aggregates were also present,
provided in [33]:

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indicating some variation in the process. These findings construction applications. The presence of both very fine
align with previous research on artificial aggregates from (2.5 mm) and larger (20 mm) particles suggests some
waste materials such as fly ash and slag, which typically variability in the granulation process control, similar to the
show size distributions ranging from 4.75 to 20 mm [36], observations in previous studies using materials such as
with a preference for sizes of approximately 10 mm for steel slag and recycled concrete aggregates.
Table.3: Size distribution of artificial aggregate samples.
Mix ID 2.5mm 5.0mm 10.0mm 14.0mm 20.0mm 25.0mm

CTS1 4.41% 30.88% 59.37% 5.32% 0% 0%

CTS2 0.55% 20.61% 56.53% 22.34% 0% 0%

CTBS10 1.82% 42.13% 51.17% 4.87% 0% 0%

CTBS20 3.01% 33.93% 51.24% 8.2% 3.6% 0%

CTBS30 2.77% 36.09% 57.4% 3.73% 0% 0%

3.2. Oven-dried density of artificial aggregates densities of CT, GGBS, SS, and water were assumed to be
The oven-dried density of the different artificial aggregates, 2500 kg/m³, 2900 kg/m3, 1440 kg/m³, 1.0 kg/m³,
as shown in Fig. 5, reveals variations in density resulting respectively. Following the principle of additive volumes,
from different mix proportions.BothCTS1 and CTS2 if perfect packing is assumed, the estimated theoretical
showed lower oven-dried densities than CTBS10, CTBS20, density for each sample can be calculated. The theoretical
and CTBS30. The oven-dried particle density of CTS1 was densities of CTS1 and CTS2 were 1970 kg/m3 and 1940
750 kg/m³, while CTS2 showed a slightly lower density kg/m3, respectively. The theoretical densities of CTBS10,
of683 kg/m³. For the samples with GGBS, the densities of CTBS20, and CTBS30 were 1995 kg/m 3, 2030 kg/m3, and
CTBS10 and CTBS20 were 1287.07 and 1295 kg/m 3, 2060 kg/m3, respectively. Theoretically, there is no
respectively. The sample CTBS30 had the highest oven- significant difference in density between the two types of
dried density of 1328.65 kg/m3.Therefore, according to the samples. However, the experimentally measured oven-
results, the addition of GGBS can increase the density of dried densities for the samples were significantly lower
artificial aggregates developed using the granulation than the theoretical values, and the changing trend for the
process. This can be attributed to the finer particle size of samples was consistent with the theoretical calculations.
GGBS, which improved the compactness of the artificial This discrepancy arises primarily due to the presence of
aggregate during granulation. Based on previous research, porosity and void spaces within the granulated artificial
artificial aggregates produced from various waste materials aggregates, with estimated porosities of approximately 62%
have shown diverse density values depending on the and 64.7% for CTS1 and CTS2, respectively, and
production method and raw materials used. Cold-bonded approximately 35-36% for CTBS10, CTBS20, and
artificial aggregates typically exhibit densities ranging CTBS30.Additional factors contributing to the lower
from 1600 to 2200 kg/m³[37, 38], particularly when measured densities include incomplete granulation, lower
produced from materials such as fly ash and slag [39]. packing efficiency, uneven binder distribution, and
Aggregates produced using the pelletization method potential hydration reactions during granulation, which
commonly show densities ranging from 1800 to 2400 introduce extra voids. These differences highlight the need
kg/m³[40, 41].It was found that the density of artificial to optimize the granulation process to minimize porosity
aggregates prepared by using granulation are lower and enhance packing density, thereby improving the
compared to other methods. alignment between theoretical predictions and
experimental measurements.
The theoretical density of an artificial aggregate can be
calculated using the real density of each constituent. The

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Fig. 5: Oven-dried density of the artificial aggregates

3.3. Water absorption enable greater water infiltration through larger void spaces.
The water absorption of aggregates is a key indicator of The elevated water absorption in CTS1 and CTS2
their internal pore structure, with higher absorption corresponds to their lower oven-dried densities (750 kg/m³
typically reflecting greater porosity, which can and 683 kg/m³, respectively), indicating a higher volume
compromise aggregate performance [42]. Fig. 6 presents of connected meso and macropores. Conversely, the CTBS
the water absorption results for the CTS and CTBS series, with higher oven-dried densities (1287–1328 kg/m³)
aggregate samples, ranging from 10.22% to 12.61%. These and lower water absorption, reflects reduced porosity,
values compare favorably to those reported in previous likely due to improved particle packing and pore-filling
studies using similar methods (10–30% for sintered and effects from GGBS incorporation.
cold-bonded artificial aggregates [43,44] and 8–25% for The observed inverse relationship between water
pelletized artificial aggregates [45,46], indicating absorption and oven-dried density in the CTBS series
relatively lower porosity in the tested samples aligns with established literature, which indicates that
[37,46].Among the samples, CTS1 and CTS2 exhibited the denser aggregates exhibit lower porosity and, consequently,
highest water absorption at 12.30% and 12.61%, reduced water absorption [18,47,48]. This correlation
respectively. In contrast, the CTBS series showed a underscores the influence of mixture composition and
progressive decrease in water absorption with increasing granulation processes on pore structure. Specifically, the
ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) content: incremental addition of GGBS in the CTBS series appears
CTBS10 at 10.65%, CTBS20 at 10.44%, and CTBS30 at to minimize capillary pore volume, enhancing structural
10.22%. This trend suggests that GGBS enhances integrity and reducing water uptake.
hydration and pozzolanic reactions, promoting a denser These findings highlight the potential to tailor aggregate
microstructure with reduced porosity [18]. properties by optimizing GGBS and binder proportions,
Water absorption in aggregates is primarily governed by enabling the design of artificial aggregates with controlled
the presence of mesopores (2–50 nm) and macropores porosity for specific applications. Further investigation
(>50 nm), which facilitate capillary action and bulk water into the interplay between pore size distribution, density,
uptake, respectively. Mesopores contribute to water and mechanical performance could enhance the
retention due to their high surface area, while macropores understanding of these relationships.

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Fig. 6: Water absorption of the artificial aggregate samples

3.4. Crushing strength lower strength than CTS1 despite higher sodium silicate
Previous studies indicate that the crushing strength of (SS) content, suggesting that increased SS does not
artificial aggregates (AAs) typically falls below 10 MPa consistently enhance strength. In contrast, the CTBS
[48], with sintered AAs ranging from 3 to 25 MPa and samples demonstrated superior strength at both early and
cold-bonded or pelletized AAs from 0.4 to 22.7 MPa later curing stages. The incorporation of ground granulated
[36,43,49,50]. Fig. 7 illustrates the strength development blast-furnace slag (GGBS) markedly improved
of the tested AA samples over curing periods of 3, 7, and performance, with CTBS10, CTBS20, and CTBS30
28 days. At 3 days, the average crushing strength ranged achieving 28-day strengths of 4.0 MPa, 5.0 MPa, and 5.8
from 1.2 to 3.0 MPa; at 7 days, from 2.5 to 4.7 MPa; and MPa, respectively. This trend indicates that higher GGBS
at 28 days, from 3.7 to 5.8 MPa. These results compare content enhances strength development, likely due to
favorably to prior studies using similar methods [34,46]. reduced porosity, as observed in prior analyses. The lower
porosity of the CTBS series, compared to the CTS series,
All samples exhibited progressive strength gains with
correlates strongly with their enhanced mechanical
curing time, with distinct differences between the CTS and
properties. Thus, the combination of GGBS with copper
CTBS series. The CTS samples (CTS1 and CTS2) showed
tailings and sodium silicate significantly improves the
moderate strength increases, reaching 3.5 MPa and 1.7
crushing strength and structural integrity of these artificial
MPa at 28 days, respectively. Notably, CTS2 exhibited
aggregates.

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Fig. 7: The crushing strength of the artificial aggregate samples

3.5. Individual artificial aggregate strength (GGBS) in the CTBS series significantly enhanced granule
To assess the variability in individual granule strength of strength, as evidenced by a rightward shift in the
artificial aggregates after 28 days, which exhibited distribution curves. CTBS10 displayed strengths primarily
significant scattering, the Weibull distribution was applied between 4 and 5 MPa, while CTBS20 and CTBS30, with
using Equation 4 [27]: higher GGBS contents, achieved strengths of 6–8 MPa.

𝜎 𝑘
The curve shapes provide further insight into strength
𝐹(𝜎) = 1 − [− ( ) ] uniformity. CTS2’s steep curve reflects consistent but low
𝜆
(4) strength, indicating uniform but weak granules. The CTBS
where F(σ) is the cumulative distribution function of series exhibited more gradual curves, suggesting greater
individual granule strength, σ is the granule strength, λ is strength variability, particularly for CTBS10. However,
the Weibull scale parameter (characteristic strength), and k CTBS20 and CTBS30 maintained similar distribution
is the Weibull shape parameter (indicating strength shapes with progressively higher strengths, indicating that
uniformity). The fitting results are presented in Table 4, increased GGBS content enhances strength without
with the corresponding Weibull cumulative distribution sacrificing uniformity. Notably, CTBS10, CTBS20, and
curves for the five mixes (CTS1, CTS2, CTBS10, CTBS20, CTBS30 showed larger scattering in strength values
CTBS30) shown in Fig 8. compared to CTS1 and CTS2, potentially due to GGBS
incorporation, though this hypothesis requires further
Table 4 indicates coefficients of determination exceeding
investigation.
0.95 for all mixes, confirming excellent fits of the Weibull
model to the granule strength data. The distribution curves These findings demonstrate that excessive sodium silicate
(Fig. 8) reveal distinct patterns among the mixes. CTS2, (CTS2) compromises granule strength, whereas increasing
with 150 g sodium silicate, exhibited the lowest strength, GGBS content systematically improves strength, with
with most granules failing below 2 MPa. In contrast, CTS1 CTBS30 achieving the highest values. The Weibull
(100 g sodium silicate) showed improved performance, analysis underscores the role of mix composition in
with failures concentrated around 4 MPa. The controlling both strength and its variability, offering
incorporation of ground granulated blast-furnace slag valuable insights for optimizing artificial aggregate design.

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Table.4: Size distribution of the artificial aggregates

Sample K Λ (MPa) R2
CTS1 7.42 4.06 0.962
CTS2 3.86 1.99 0.983
CTBS10 4.64 4.49 0.998
CTBS20 4.88 5.77 0.991
CTBS30 4.71 6.1 0.995

Fig. 8: The Weibull cumulative distribution curves of the individual granule strength of the aggregates

3.6. SEM with minimal Al, Na, or Ca, indicating low reactivity of
Figure 9 presents scanning electron microscopy (SEM) the CT material. In the CTS samples, CT primarily served
images of the artificial aggregate samples. The CTBS as a filler rather than anreactive component. In CTBS30
samples exhibited a denser and more compact (Fig. 10b), regions rich in Na, Si, and Al, but lacking Ca,
microstructure compared to the CTS samples at both low suggest the formation of sodium alumino silicate hydrate
and high magnifications. Cracks were more prevalent in (N-A-S-H) gel, driven by alkali activation of GGBS with
the CTS samples, suggesting poor bonding between phases. sodium silicate. Notably, calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H)
In contrast, the CTBS samples displayed a cohesive gel was not prominently observed in the CTBS samples.
microstructure with well-integrated phases, consistent with These findings indicate that the alkali-activated GGBS
their lower water absorption and reduced porosity relative products acted as a binding phase, enhancing the
to the CTS samples, as reported earlier. microstructural integrity of the CTBS samples, which
aligns with their improved mechanical properties and
Figure 10 shows energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) mapping
reduced porosity.
of Si, Al, Na, and Ca in CTS10 and CTBS30 samples. In
CTS10 (Fig. 10a), an unreacted copper tailing (CT)
particle is evident, characterized by a high Si concentration

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e
Fig. 9: SEM images of CTS1(a), CTS2 (b), CTBS10 (c), CTBS20 (d), and CTBS30 (e).

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Lotfi et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 12(6)-2025

Fig. 10: EDX images of CTS and CTBS sample

3.7. XCT analysis indicating a high degree of reaction of SS. In addition, as

The internal pore structure of the artificial aggregates was the GGBS content increased from CTBS10 to CTBS30,
studied using XCT. Fig. 11 shows the CT images of the the pore structure became more uniform, and the size and
CTS and CTBS samples. The XCT scans can only reveal frequency of large pores decreased. Especially the
pores larger than 1µm due to equipment resolution CTBS30, it exhibited the smallest and most uniformly
constraints. The visible pores in the images represent distributed pores, which is consistent with the crushing
either air voids created during granulation or cavities strength test results. The increased crushing strength of the
formed by the dissolution of sodium silicate.TheCTS1 and CTBS samples with higher GGBS content can be
CTS2 samples, which do not contain GGBS, exhibit a attributed to this refined pore structure, as observed in the
higher number of larger pores when observed visually. The XCT images.
big pores with irregular shape are voids formed by However, the granulation process can be further improved
dissolution of SS. In contrast, the CTBS samples with the to produce more compact artificial aggregates by adjusting
addition of GGBS showed a more refined pore structure the particle size distribution of the raw materials and
with smaller and more evenly distributed pores. There are improving the reactions between them.
fewer pores with irregular shapes and more spherical pores,

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Lotfi et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 12(6)-2025

CTS1 CTS2

CTBS10 CTBS20

CTBS30

Fig. 11: XCT images of the aggregate samples

IV. CONCLUSION Incorporating GGBS significantly enhances the aggregates’

The study demonstrates that copper tailings can be properties by increasing density, reducing water absorption,
recycled into sustainable artificial aggregates using a and improving crushing strength. The microstructural
granulation process activated by sodium silicate. analyses, including SEM and XCT, revealed that GGBS

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Lotfi et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 12(6)-2025

facilitates the formation of a denser and more uniformly Solutions, 8, 258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-023-
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materials, hardened using the hybrid method. Scientific
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Science and Engineering. Advance online publication.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-024-09187-z
The authors are grateful for the financial support from the
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National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. al (2024). Optimizing sustainable concrete mixes with
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