Applied Mathematics (Math 1012) Lecture Notes

By Arbsie D. ([email protected])

3. Derivatives and its applications

3.1 Introduction

The concept of Derivative is at the core of Calculus and modern mathematics. The definition
of the derivative can be approached in two different ways: geometrically (as a slope of a
curve) and physically (as a rate of change). Historically, there was (and may still be) a debate
between mathematicians which of the two illustrates the concept of the derivative best and
which one is more useful. In the interest of time and for objective reasons, however, we will
only give cursory introduction of both concepts and emphasize on the use of the derivative as
a tool.
Increment: The increment of the variable x is the change in x as it increases
or decreases from one value to another value .

is ARC1 of f on .

Perhaps the most common way of introducing the derivative of a function f is to consider the
problem of finding the slope of the tangent line to graph of y=f(x) at a point P(a, f(a)). This is
usually accomplished by choosing a variable point Q(x, f(x)), computing the slope of
the secant PQ, and letting Q approach P.

3.2 Definition
Definition: The derivative of f(x) with respect to x, denoted , is defined as

, where .

Ways the Derivative Fails to exist at a point [c, f(c)]:

f(x) is not continuous at x=c the limit cannot be calculated without f(c).
The graph of f(x) has a vertical tangent at x=c the limit heads toward positive or
negative infinity.
The graph of f(x) has a corner at x=c the one-sided limits will be unequal.
The graph of f(x) has a cusp (special case of a corner) at x=c the slopes of the curve
on either side of the point approach positive infinity and negative infinity.

Notation:

Note: A function with continuous derivatives throughout an interval is said to be smooth

1
average rate of change
 function over the interval.

Examples: Find the derivative of A. B.

Solution:

A.

B.

3.3 Differentiable function

A real valued function f of one variable is differentiable at a if the derivative of f at a exists.

Informally a function is differentiable if it is possible to define the gradient of the graph y =
f(x) and hence define a tangent at the point.
The function f is differentiable
at x=a, if exists.
in an open interval if it is differentiable at every point in the interval;
on a closed interval [a, b], if it is differentiable in (a, b) and if both the right derivative
at a and the left derivative at b exist.
if it is differentiable at each number in its domain
Remark: Any differentiable function is continuous but the converse is not true.

A function is continuously differentiable if its derivative is continuous.

Theorem: If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a, i.e.; but
not the converse.
Note: Differentiability implies continuity, but not the converse.

Exercise: Suppose that f and g are functions such that f (a )  g (a ) , and assume that f ' ( a )
and g ' ( a ) exist. Does it follow that f ' (a )  g ' (a ) ? Explain.

3.4 Derivatives of differentiable function

Discussed in subsequent sections!

3.5 Derivatives of combination of Functions

Theorems: Let f(x) and g(x) be differentiable and c, be constants.

1. .

2. .

3.

4. Sum and Difference rule for differentiation:

..
5. Product rule for differentiation:

Note that the product rule can be extended to more than two functions. If f, g, h, w
are all differentiable, then
Remark: If the derivative is a product of functions, use the product rule for the
derivative rather than multiplying out first!

6. Quotient rule for differentiation: ( ) ( ) , provided

g(x) 0.

( ) ( ) , provided g(x) 0.

Examples: Differentiate

x 2 x5  x 2  5
A. f ( x)  B. h( x) 
x  x3
2
x2
1 2
C. y  8 x 3  5  x  23 D. h( x)  x  93 x 7 
3x 5
x2
7. Derivatives of Trigonometric functions

Recall the definitions of the trigonometric functions

sin x cos x 1 1
tan x  , cot x  , sec x  , csc x 
cos x sin x cos x sin x

d d du
A. (sin x)'  (sin x)  cos x and (sin u )  cos u
dx dx dx
d d du
B. (cos x)'  (cos x)   sin x and (cosu )   sin u
dx dx dx
d d du
C. (tan x)'  (tan x)  sec2 x and (tan u )  sec2 u
dx dx dx
d d du
D. (csc x)'  (csc x)   csc x cot x and (cscu )   csc u cot u
dx dx dx
d d du
E. (sec x)'  (sec x)  sec x tan x and (secu )  sec u tan u
dx dx dx
d d du
F. (cot x)'  (cot x)   csc2 x and (cot u )   csc2 u
dx dx dx
Example: Differentiate
 A. h( x)  3 sec x  10 cos x  4 csc x
B. h( x)  x 2 tan x  sin x cot x
x2  x sin x
C. g ( x)  8 x  4  
sin x 3  cos x
8. Derivatives of exponential functions

An exponential function is a function of the form f ( x)  a x where a is a positive constant.

In the special case where a=e, f ( x)  e x is called natural exponential function.

d x
(e )  e x
A. dx
d u du
(e )  e u
B. dx dx
d x
( a )  a x ln a
C. dx
Examples: Differentiate

A. f ( x)  4 x B. g ( x)  3x 3e 2 x  x 1
3
2x
C. h( x) 
3x  1
nx
9. Derivative of Logarithmic functions (Recall: loga x  , a > 0 and )
na

Recall: The exponential function and logarithm function are inverses of each other.

1 1 1 1
If f ( x)  e x and g ( x)  nx , then f ( x)  e x and g ' ( x)   g ( x )  nx 
f ' ( g ( x)) e e x

d 1 du
A. (nu) 
dx u dx
d 1 1 du
B. (oga u ) 
dx na u dx

Examples: Differentiate

A. f ( x)  nx B. f ( x)  loga x C. f ( x)  5 log9 x D. g ( x)  x 3nx

Solution:

d 1
C. (nx) 
dx x
 D.
d
loga x   1
dx xna

10. Derivative of the Hyperbolic functions

The hyperbolic functions are certain combinations of exponential functions that occur in
various applications, with properties similar to trigonometric functions. They are most
conveniently defined in terms of the exponential function.

Definitions of hyperbolic function:

Sine hyperbolic: ; Cosecant hyperbolic: =

Cosine hyperbolic: ; Secant hyperbolic: =

Tangent hyp.: ; Cotangent hyp.:

d
A. (sinh x)'  (sinh x)  cosh x
dx
d
B. (cosh x)'  (cosh x)  sinh x
dx
d
C. (tanh x)'  (tanh x)  sec h 2 x
dx
d
D. (csc hx)'  (csc hx)   csc hx coth x
dx
d
E. (sec hx)'  (sec hx)   sec hx tanh x
dx
d
F. (coth x)'  (coth x)   csc h 2 x
dx

Examples: Differentiate A. f ( x)  2 x 5 cosh x B. g ( x) 

sinh x
x 1

3.6 Chain rule

The chain rule is used to differentiate composite functions.

Chain Rule for differentiation:

.
 ( f ( g (h(r ( p ( x))))))' f ' ( g (h(r ( p ( x)))))g ' (h(r ( p ( x))))h' (r ( p ( x)))r ' ( p ( x)) p ' ( x)
dy dy du
If y=f(u) and u=g(x), then 
dx du dx
d u du
(a )  (na)a u
dx dx
d
dx
 f ( x) g ( x )  
d g ( x ) ln( f ( x ))
dx
(e )  e g ( x ) ln( f ( x ))
d
dx
( g ( x) ln f ( x))

d v d vnu d
(u )  (e )  e vnu (vnu)
dx dx dx
d f ( x) d
(e )  e f ( x ) f ( x)  e f ( x ) f ' ( x)
dx dx
d d
(a f ( x ) )  (na)a f ( x ) f ( x)  (na)a f ( x ) f ' ( x)
dx dx
d d d
( f ( x) g ( x ) )  (e g ( x ) nf ( x ) )  e g ( x ) nf ( x ) ( g ( x)nf ( x)
dx dx dx
 f ' ( x) 
 e g ( x ) nf ( x )  g ' ( x)nf ( x  g ( x)
 f ( x) 

Examples: Differentiate

A. f ( x)  sin(3x 2  1)
B. f ( x)  5x  8
C. f ( x)  csc(1  3x) 2  cos4 x  cos(x 4 )
xx
D. f ( x)  x x ; H int : x x  e nx
x
 e x nx
x x

E. g ( x)  2 x 3  cos x   e ( x
50 3 x 2  9 )
 n( x 4  x 4 )  sec(1  3x)
4

( x 3  4)5
F. h( x)  sin(3x 2  2)  tan( 2 x)3 1  3x 2 
(1  2 x 2 )3
 
G. q( x)  tan 3 3x 2  n(5 x 4 )  sin 3 (e1 x  3 sin 6 x)

3.7 Higher derivatives

The second, third, fourth, etc. derivatives are called higher order derivatives.

If p(x) is a polynomial of degree n, then p ( k ) ( x)  0 k  n  1

The nth derivative of a function at x=x0 can exist only when the function and all derivatives
of lower order are differentiable at x=x0.

Higher Derivative Formula for the Product: Leibniz Formula

dn
uv  D n uv  uDn v   Du D n1 v  ...   D k u D nk v  ...  vDn u 
n n
n
dx 1 k 
 n
where   are the binomial coefficients. For example, we have
k 

d2 d 2v d 2u
uv   D 2
uv   u  2
du dv
 v
dx 2 dx 2 dx dx dx 2

d3 d 3v du d 2 v d 2 u dv d 3u
uv   D 3
uv   u  3  3  v
dx 3 dx 3 dx dx 2 dx 2 dx dx 3

Examples:

1. Show that the (n+1)st derivative of any polynomial function of degree n is 0. What is
the (n+2)nd derivative of such a polynomial function?
2. Find the first four derivative of:
1
A. f ( x)  3x  8 x  e t
2 2

B. f ( x)  x cos x
C. f ( x )  x sin x
D. g ( x)  sec(2 x )
E. f ( x)  xe  x
F. t ( x)  e12 x
3

G. h( x)  sin(3x)  e 2 x  n(1  x 2 )
3. Find the nth derivative of:
A. f ( x)  cos x
B. f ( x)  sin x
C. f ( x)  e ax
D. f ( x)  1 / x
1
E. f ( x) 
1 x

3.8 Implicit differentiation

An equation f ( x, y )  0 is said to define y implicitly as a function of x. Thinking of y as a

function of x, differentiate the given equation with respect to x and solve for . This
differentiation process is known as implicit differentiation.

Examples: Find y ' for

A. x 2  y 2  9
B. x 3 y 5  3x  8 y 3  1
C. e 2 x 3 y  n( xy 3 )  x 2
D. y 4  4 y  3x 3 sin y  2 x  1
 E. x 2 tan y  y 10 sec x  2 x
F. xy 3  x 2 y 2  3x 2  6  1
G. 2e x y  x; (2,0)
2

H. x 2  3xy  2 y 2  6; (1,1)
 
I. sin x  cos y; ( , )
6 3
1 x
J. y2  y 
1 x

3.9 Applications of derivatives

3.9.1 Maximum & Minimum value

Definition: A function f(x) is said to have a local maximum (or minimum) at x  c if and
only if there exists an open interval I about c such that f (c)  f ( x) ( or f (c)  f ( x)) ,
respectively for all x  I .

If f (c)  f ( x) ( or f (c)  f ( x)) for all x in the domain of f , then we say that f (x ) has an
absolute or global maximum (or minimum) value at x  c . A local (or global) extreme value
is a local (or global) maximum (or minimum) value.

In the graph shown below we have relative maximums at x=b and x=d, relative minimum at
x=c, absolute minimum x=a, absolute maximum at x=d.

Definition: Let f (x ) be defined on an interval I and x  c be an interior point c of I. We say

x=c is a critical point of f (x ) if either of the following is true: f ' (c)  0 or f ' (c) does not
exist.

Note: We only want real values of x for critical points.

How to find extreme values of f(x) on [a,b]:

Compute the values of f at critical points on (a, b) and at the end points a and b.
The largest is the maximum and the smallest is the minimum value of f on [a,b].

Note:

1. All local extreme values occur at critical points but not the converse.
2. Let c be a critical point for f(x).

o f ' ( x)  0 for x  c and f ' ( x)  0 for x  c x close to c, c is a local maximum.

o f ' ( x)  0 for x  c and f ' ( x)  0 for x  c x close to c, c is a local minimum.

Example: Find the critical points of

A. f ( x)  3x 4  4 x 3  12x 2  1 C. f ( x)  x 4  8 x 2  3
B. g ( x)  x (2 x  1)
3 2

D. f ( x)  6 x 5  33x 4  30x 3  100 x2 1 F.

E. h( x)  2
x  x6
H. h( x)  10xe3 x f ( x)  x 2 n(3x)  6
G. f ( x)  xe
2 2
x
I.

Example: Find the critical points of

 x 2  x, if x  0 f ( x) | x 2  x |

f ( x)  x | x  3 | f ( x)   ( x 2  x), if 0  x  1 2
 x 2  x, if x  1 h( x )  2 x  x 3


f ( x)  x 
1 f ( x)  cos x
x

f ( x)  1  cos x f ( x )  n ( 2 x  e  x ) f ( x )  xnx

Solution:
10x  2 1
B. g ' ( x)  1
; g ' ( x)  0  x  and g ' ( x) does not exist  x  0
3
5
3x
3
D. f ' ( x)  30x 4  132x 3  90x 2  6 x 2 (5 x  3)( x  5)  0  x  0, x  5, x 
5
are the critical numbers.
2 x( x 2  x  6)  ( x 2  1)(2 x  1) x 2  14x  1
E h' ( x)   
( x 2  x  6) 2 ( x 2  x  6) 2
h' ( x)  0  x  7  5 2 and h' ( x) does not exist when x  3,2 .

However, these are not critical points since the function is not defined there.

Hence the only critical points are x  7  5 2 , x  7  5 2 .

  7 2n
1  18  3 , n  Z
F p' ( x)  6  12 sin(3x); p' ( x)  0  sin(3x)   x  
2 11  2n , n  Z
 18 3
G f ' ( x)  e x  xe x (2 x)  e x (1  2 x 2 ) . As can be seen the function will not have any
2 2 2

critical points.
1
H h' ( x)  10e 3 x  20x 2 e 3 x  10e 3 x (1  2 x 2 ); h' ( x)  0  x  
2 2 2

2
1
I f ' ( x)  2 xn(3 x)  x  x(2n(3x)  1); f ' ( x)  0  x 
3 e
 x  x, if x  0
2
2 x  1, if x  0
  1
f ( x)   ( x  x), if 0  x  1  f ' ( x)   2 x  1, if 0  x  1  f ' ( x)  0  x 
2

 x 2  x, if x  1 2 x  1, if x  1 2
 
1
Since f '(0) and f '(1) do not exist, the critical points are 0, , 1
2

3.9.2 Mean value theorem and its application

g

Theorem (Rolle’s Theorem): Let f be is continuous on the interval [a,b] and differentiable
on (a,b). If f(a)=f(b), then there is a number c in (a,b) such that f ' (c )  0

Theorem (Mean Value Theorem): Suppose that f (x ) be continuous on [a,b] and

differentiable on (a,b). Then there is a number c such that a < c < b and
f (b)  f (a )
f ' (c )   f (b)  f (a )  f ' (c)(b  a )
ba

Note that the Mean Value Theorem doesn’t tell us what c is. It only tells us that there is at
least one number c that will satisfy the conclusion of the theorem.

Theorem: Let f and g be continuous on an interval I.

1. If f ' ( x )  0 for each interior point of I, then f is a constant on I.

2. If f ' ( x)  0 for every x on some interval I, then f(x) is increasing on the interval.

3. If f ' ( x)  0 for every x on some interval I, then f(x) is decreasing on the interval.

4. If f ' ( x)  g ' ( x) for each interior point of I, then f(x)-g(x) is a constant on I.

Examples:

1. Determine all the numbers c which satisfy the conclusions of the Mean Value Theorem
for f ( x)  x 3  2 x 2  x on [1,2]
2. Suppose that we know that f (x ) is continuous and differentiable. Let’s also suppose
that we know that f (6)  2 and that we know that f ' ( x )  10 . What is the largest
possible value for f (15) ?
 3. Does there exist a differentiable function f that satisfies
f (0)  2, f (2)  5, and f ' ( x)  1 on (0,2). If not, why?
4. Does there exist a differentiable function f that has the value 1 only when x=0, 2, and 3,
3 3
and f ' ( x )  0 only when x  1, , and ? If not, why?
4 2
1
5. Let f ( x)  , a  1, b  1 . Verify that there is no number c for which
x
f (b)  f (a )
f ' (c )  . Explain how this does not violate the mean-value theorem.
ba
Solution

f (2)  f (1)
1. f ' (c)  3c 2  4c  1   3c 2  4c  5  0  c  0.7863 or c  2.1196
2  (1)

f (15)  f (6)
2. f ' (c )   f (15)  f (6)  9 f ' (c)  f (15)  88  f max (15)  88
15  6

3.9.3 Derivative test (1st & 2nd tests)

Since the derivative measures the slope, its value at a point tells us how steeply to draw the
graph at that point. In particular, the slope of a graph is undefined or zero at any extreme
(high or low) point, so derivatives are useful for locating maxima and minima of functions. In
this section well see how we can use the first derivative of a function to give us some
information about the shape of a graph and use this information in some applications.

Theorem (First Derivative Test): Suppose that x=c is a critical point of f(x).

1. If f ' ( x )  0 to the left of x=c and f ' ( x)  0 to the right of x=c, f(c) is a relative
maximum.
2. If f ' ( x)  0 to the left of x=c and f ' ( x )  0 to the right of x=c, f(c) is a relative
minimum.
3. If f ' ( x ) is the same sign on both sides of x=c, f(c) is neither relative maximum nor
relative minimum.

Note: If c is a critical point for f(x), such that f '(x) changes its sign as x crosses from the left
to the right of c, then c is a local extremum.

While the tangent line is a very useful tool, when it comes to investigate the graph of a
function, the tangent line fails to say anything about how the graph of a function "bends" at a
point. This is where the second derivative comes into play.

Rate of change of slope (i.e. derivative of derivative or "second derivative") corresponds to

curvature, so knowledge of the derivative and second derivative of a function can help us to
produce a quick qualitatively correct picture of its graph.
Theorem (Second-Derivative Test)
Suppose that x=c be a critical point of f(x) such that f '(c) =0.

1. If f ' ' (c)  0 , then f(c) is a relative maximum of f.

2. If f ' ' (c)  0 , then f(c) is a relative minimum of f.

3. If f ' ' (c)  0 , inconclusive. That means f(c) can be anything: a relative maximum,
relative minimum or neither.

Note: Let c be a critical point for f(x) such that f '(c) = 0.

 If f ''(c) > 0, then f '(x) is increasing in an interval around c. Since f '(c) =0, then f '(x)
must be negative to the left of c and positive to the right of c. Therefore, c is a local
minimum.
 If f ''(c) < 0, then f '(x) is decreasing in an interval around c. Since f '(c) =0, then f '(x)
must be positive to the left of c and negative to the right of c. Therefore, c is a local
maximum.

 If f ''(x) exists at x0 and is positive, then f ''(x) is concave up at x0. If f ''(x0) exists and
is negative, then f(x) is concave down at x0. If f ''(x) does not exist or is zero, then the
test fails.
 The third part of the second derivative test is important to notice. If the second
derivative is zero then the critical point can be anything.

Example

1. A quadratic function f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c has a local minimum at x=2 and passes through

the points (-1,3) and (3,-1). Find a, b, and c.
2. Find the local extrema and inflection point(s) of the following function by using the
second derivative test, whenever possible.
A. f ( x)  x 5  5 x
B. f ( x)  3x 5  5 x 3  3
2
C. f ( x)  x(6  x) 3

x
D. f ( x ) 
1 x2
E. f ( x)  sin x  cos x

3.9.4 Extreme values

Theorem: Suppose that f(x) is continuous on the interval [a, b]. Then f(x) has maximum and
minimum values on [a,b]; i.e.; there are at least two numbers such that f(c) is a
maximum and f(d) is a minimum of f(x) on[a, b].

Theorem (Extreme Value Theorem): Suppose c is an interior point of an interval I, and f(c)
be an extreme value of f on I. Then if f ' (c ) exists, then f ' (c )  0 .
Note:
 Extreme Value Theorem works provided f is continuous on an interval I.
 If f(x) has a local extreme value at c, then either f ' (c)  0 or f ' (c) does not exist.

How to find extreme values of f(x) on [a,b]

Compute the values of f at critical points on (a, b) and at the end points a and b.
The largest of those values is the maximum value of f on [a, b]
The smallest of those values is the minimum value of f on [a,b]

Note:

 All local extreme values occur at critical points, but not all critical points occur at local
extrema.
 It is possible for a function f to have a critical number in (a,b) that does not
corresponding to an extreme value of f on a, b .
 Let c be a critical point for f(x). Assume that there exists an interval I around c such that
f(x) is increasing to the left of c and decreasing to the right, then c is a local maximum.
This implies that if
o f ' ( x)  0 for x  c and f ' ( x)  0 for x  c x close to c then c is a local
maximum.
o f ' ( x)  0 for x  c and f ' ( x)  0 for x  c x close to c, then c is a local
minimum.

Note: We only want real values of x for critical points.

Fermat’s Theorem: If f(x) has a relative extreme value at x  c , x  c is a critical point.

Note that this theorem says nothing about absolute extreme value. An absolute extreme value
may or may not be a critical point.

Example: Find all extreme values (if any) of the given function the given interval. Determine
at which numbers in the interval these values occur.

A. h( x)  2 x 3  3x  1; on [2,2] B. f ( x)  x  2nx; on 0.5,2 C. f ( x)  x  2nx; [0.5,2]

3.9.5 Concavity and inflection points

While the tangent line is a very useful tool, when it comes to investigate the graph of a
function, the tangent line fails to say anything about how the graph of a function "bends" at a
point. This is where the second derivative comes into play.

Example: Consider the function f(x) = ax2. The tangent line at 0 is the x-axis regardless of
the value of a. But if we change a, the graph of f(x) bends more or less sharply depending on
the size of the parameter a. Note that the value a is directly related to the second derivative,
since f ''(x) = 2a. Concavity is usually best “defined” with a graph.

Definition: Let f be a differentiable function on an interval I. The graph of f is concave up

on I provided f ' is increasing on I and concave downward on I if f ' is decreasing on I.
Theorem: Assume that f ' ' exists on an interval I.

a. If f ' ' ( x )  0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave upward on I

b. If f ' ' ( x )  0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I
Note:

A function is concave up if it opens up and is concave down if it opens down. Notice that
concavity has nothing to do with increasing or decreasing. A function can be concave up
(concave down) and either increasing or decreasing.

Definition: A point x=c is called an inflection point if the function is continuous at the point
and the concavity of the graph changes at that point.

Note: A list of possible inflection points will be those points where the second derivative is
zero or doesn’t exist.

Theorem: If the point (c, f (c )) is a point of inflection, then either f ' ' (c)  0 or f ' ' (c ) does
not exist.

Examples:

1. Find d such that (d , f (d )) is a point of inflection of the graph of

f ( x)  ( x  a )( x  b)( x  c)
2. Fin c given that the graph of f ( x)  cx 2  x 2 has a point of inflection at (1, f (1)) .
3. Fin a and b so that the function f ( x)  ax 3  bx 2  1 has a point of inflection at (1,2) .
4. Find all the critical points and give the intervals on which the function is increasing and
decreasing.
x  5 C. f ( x)  3x  5 x  3
5 3
A. g ( x)  x 3 x 2  4 5 40 3
B. f ( x)   x 5  x 4 
2 3
Example: Suppose that the elevation above sea level of a road is given by the function
x x
E ( x)  500  cos( )  3 sin( ) where x is in miles. Assume that if x is positive we are to
4 4
the east of the initial point of measurement and if x is negative we are to the west of the initial
point of measurement. If we start 25 miles to the west of the initial point of measurement and
drive until we are 25 miles east of the initial point how many miles of our drive were we
driving up an incline?

Solution:
 1 x 3 x x
E ' ( x)   sin( )  cos( )  0  tan( )  3
4 4 4 4 4
x 
 4  3  2n , n  0,1,2,3,...

 x  4  2n , n  0,1,2,3,...
 4 3
 4
 x  3  8n , n  0,1,2,3,...

 x  16  8n , n  0,1,2,3,...
 3

So the critical points that fall in the interval that we’re after are,

Here is the number line with the critical points and test points.

So, it looks like the intervals of increasing and decreasing are,

Notice that we had to end our intervals at -25 and 25 since we’ve done no work outside of
these points and so we can’t really say anything about the function outside of the interval [-
25,25].

From the intervals of we can actually answer the question. We were driving on an incline
during the intervals of increasing and so the total number of miles is,

Even though the problem didn’t ask for it we can also classify the critical points that are in
the interval [-25,25].
Example: Consider the function f(x) = (x-1)2, for x  [0,3] . The only critical point is x=1. And
the first or second derivative test will imply that x=1 is a local minimum. Looking at the
graph (see below) we see that the right endpoint of the interval [0,3] is the global maximum.

If c is an endpoint of the domain of f(x), then f(x) is said to have an endpoint maximum
(minimum) at c if and only if f ( x)  f (c)( f ( x)  f (c) for all x in the domain close to c,
respectively.

Note: If f(x) is differentiable on the interval I, then every global extremum is a local
extremum or an endpoint extremum.

Ways of finding global extrema:

 Find the critical points.

 List the endpoints of the interval under consideration.
 The global extrema of f(x) can only occur at these points! Evaluate f(x) at these points
to check where the global maxima and minima are located.

3.9.6 L’Hopital’s rule

Theorem: (L'Hôpital's rule) Let f and g be functions such that f (a) = g(a) = 0, and suppose
that f and g are differentiable on an open interval I containing a, and that g ' ( x)  0 , except
f ' ( x) f ' ( x) f ( x)
perhaps at a. If lim exists and lim  A , then lim  A provided the second
x a g ' ( x) xa g ' ( x) xa g ( x)

limit exists.

Proof: Let x > a and apply the Cauchy Mean Value Theorem to the interval [a, x], to find c
f ( x) f ( x)  f (a) f ' ( x)
with a < c < x such that lim  lim  lim
xa g ( x) xa g ( x)  g (a) xa g ' ( x)

f ( x) f ' (c ) f ' ( x)
Then lim  lim  lim , since we know the actual limit (not just the one
xa g ( x) c  a g ' (c ) x a g ' ( x)

sided limit) exists. Now repeat with x < a to get the result.
 f ( x) f ' ( x) f ' ' ( x)
Remark: If lim f ' ( x)  0 and lim g ' ( x)  0, lim  lim  lim .
x a x a xa g ( x) x a g ' ( x) x a g ' ' ( x)

Indeter Transformation
minate
Form

0 f ( x) f ' ( x)
lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)  0  lim  lim ,
0 xa xa x a g ( x) x a g ' ( x)

f (a)  f ' (a)  f ' ' (a)  ...  f ( n 1) (a)  0, but f ( n ) (a)  0
In general if g (a)  g ' (a)  g ' ' (a)  ...  g ( n 1) (a)  0, but g ( n ) (a)  0
 f ( x)   f ( n ) ( x) 
lim   lim ( n ) 
xa g ( x)
  xa  g ( x) 

Form Transformation

 f ( x) f ' ( x)
lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)    lim  lim
 xa xa xa g ( x) xa g ' ( x)

0. f ( x)
lim f ( x)  0, lim g ( x)    lim f ( x) g ( x)  lim
x a x a x a x a 1
g ( x)

 1 1
 ][
g ( x) f ( x)
lim f ( x)  , lim g ( x)    lim[ f ( x)  g ( x)] 
x a x a x a 1
f ( x) g ( x)

00 lim f ( x)  0, lim g ( x)  0  lim f ( x) g ( x )  0 0  lim f ( x) g ( x )  lim e g ( x ) n ( f ( x ))

x a x a x a x a x a

0 nf ( x )
1 
lim f ( x)  , lim g ( x)  0  lim f ( x) g ( x )  lim e g ( x ) nf ( x )  lim e g ( x)
 e
xa xa x a xa xa

The form 0 0 is reduced to the form 0.

Example Evaluate

4 x 2  5x 5x 4  4 x 2  1 x 2  16
A. lim B. lim C. lim
x4 1  3x 2 x 1 10  x  9 x 3 x4 x  4

1  cos x 1  cos x F. lim xe  x

D. lim E. lim x 
x 0 x2 x 0 x2
 ex x  sin x x
G. lim , n  1,2,3,... H. lim 1 x 1
x  x n x 0 sin x(1  cos x) 2
I. lim
x 0 x2
2 sin x  sin 2 x 1
 1 1
J. lim K. lim x x L. lim  
x 0 x3 x  
x 0 sin x x
lim cot x n(1  x)  .0 1
lim xnx ,
M. x 0  lim sin( x )e  0.
2 x
O. x0
N. x 0  nx
H int lim
x 0 1
x
Solution

1  cos x sin x 1
D. lim 2
 lim 
x 0 x x 0 2 x 2

1 3
x 1  1 1 1 
1 x 1 (1  x) 2  ( )(1  x) 2
2  lim 2 2  lim 2 2 1
I. lim 2

x 0 x x 0 2x x 0 2 8

1
1
nx nx 1
y  x  ny 
x
 lim ny  lim  lim x  lim  0
x x   x   x x   1 x   x
K. 1
lim ny
 lim x x  lim e ny  e x  e0  1
x  x 

n(1  x) 0
lim cot xn(1  x)  lim 
x 0 x 0 tan x 0
1

M. n(1  x)
 lim 1 2 x   lim
1
 lim  1
x 0 (1  x ) sec x
2
x 0 tan x x 0 sec x

N.
1
1
ex 1 1 1 1 et
lim sin( x 2 )e  lim
x
 lim sin( 2 )e t , but sin( 2 )  2  lim sin( 2 )e t  lim 2  
x 0 x 0 1 t  t t t t  t t  t
2
sin( x )