1.

Explain in detail about (i) SNMP, (ii) TELNET

Ans: (i) SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

Definition:​
SNMP is a protocol used to monitor and manage devices on IP networks such as routers,
switches, servers, workstations, printers, and more. It belongs to the application layer of the OSI
model and enables network administrators to manage network performance, find and solve
network problems, and plan for network growth.

Basic Operations (SNMP Commands):

●​ GET: Used by the manager to request information from an agent.​

●​ SET: Used by the manager to modify the configuration on the agent.​

●​ GETNEXT: Retrieves the next object in the Management Information Base (MIB).​

●​ TRAP: Sent from the agent to the manager to report an event or error.​

●​ INFORM: Similar to TRAP but includes acknowledgment.

(ii) TELNET (Telecommunication Network)

Definition:​
TELNET is a network protocol used to provide a command-line interface for communication with
a remote device or server over a TCP/IP network. It allows users to log in to remote systems
and control them as if they were local.

Purpose of TELNET

• To provide bidirectional interactive communication between two machines.

• Enables remote administration of systems.

• Common in earlier UNIX-based environments for managing servers.

Telnet Commands

• 1. open: Open a Telnet connection to a remote host.

• 2. close: Close the current Telnet connection.

• 3. quit: Exit the Telnet session.

• 4. set: Set various Telnet options (e.g., terminal type).

2. Explain in detail about (i) E-mail (ii) DNS.

Ans: (i) DNS (Domain Name System )

• DNS is a hierarchical and distributed database that translates human-readable domain names
into IP addresses.

• Ex: www.google.com into IP addresses142.250.190.14

• It enables users to access websites using easy-to-remember names instead of numeric IP

addresses.

• DNS is primarily used for mapping host names to IP addresses

• DNS is a core service of the internet, operating at the Application Layer of the OSI model.

• DNS is essential for the functioning of the internet

• Domain Name System Architecture

• The domain Name System comprises domain names, domain name space, and name servers
that have been described below:
• Domain Names
• A domain name is a symbolic string associated with an IP address. There are several domain
names available; some of them are generic, such as com, edu, gov, net, etc., while some
country-level domain names, such as au, in, za, us, etc.
(ii) Electronic Mail (E-mail)
• Electronic mail is a method of exchanging digital messages over the internet using electronic
communication protocols.
• It is a core application layer service in computer networks.
• E-mail allows a message to include text, audio, and video. It also allows one message to be
sent to one or more recipients.
• Components of E-mail:
• Mailbox: Storage location for incoming emails.
• User Agent (UA): Email client (e.g., Outlook, Thunderbird, Gmail) used to send/receive emails.
User Agent is front-end software for composing, sending, reading emails.
• Message Transfer Agent (MTA): Server software that transfers emails from sender to receiver.
• Architecture: The general architecture of an e-mail system includes three main components:
a). User agent, b). Message transfer agent, and c). Message access agent.
• a). User agent (UA) provides services to the user to make the process of sending and
receiving a message easier.
• A user agent is a software package (program) that composes, reads, replies to, and forwards
messages. It also handles mailboxes

b). Message Transfer agent

• In normal usage, the user agent builds a message and passes it to the message transfer
agent, which then uses some of the header fields to construct the actual envelope.
c). Message Access Agent
• POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3):
• In internet a message transfer agent on an ISP machine accept e-mail for its customers and
store it in their mailboxes on an ISP machine. For this POP3 is used.
3. With neat diagram, explain the TCP connection establishment in the normal case and
call collision case
Ans:

1. Normal Case (Three-Way Handshake)

This process involves three steps between two hosts (say, Host A and Host B):

1.​ SYN:​
Host A sends a SYN (synchronize) packet to Host B to request a connection.​
Example: SYN, Seq = x​

2.​ SYN-ACK:​
Host B responds with a SYN-ACK packet. This means it acknowledges Host A's
request and also initiates a connection back.​
Example: SYN, ACK, Seq = y, Ack = x+1​

3.​ ACK:​
Host A responds with an ACK (acknowledgment), confirming the connection.​
Example: ACK, Seq = x+1, Ack = y+1​

✅ Connection is established after these three steps. Data transfer begins.

🔹 2. Call Collision Case

A call collision occurs when both hosts initiate a connection simultaneously. This is rare
but possible.

Steps:

1.​ Host A sends SYN to Host B​

→ SYN, Seq = x​

2.​ Host B sends SYN to Host A at the same time​

→ SYN, Seq = y​

3.​ Each host receives the other's SYN and responds with SYN-ACK:​

○​ Host A replies: SYN-ACK, Seq = x, Ack = y+1​

○​ Host B replies: SYN-ACK, Seq = y, Ack = x+1​

4.​ Both hosts send final ACKs, acknowledging each other.

4. Distinguish between IPv4 and IPv6.
Ans:
IPv4 IPv6

IPv4 has a 32-bit address length IPv6 has a 128-bit address length

It supports Manual and DHCP It supports Auto and renumbering address

address configuration configuration

In IPv4 end-to-end, connection In IPv6 end-to-end, connection integrity is Achievable

integrity is Unachievable

It can generate 4.29 × 10⁹ address The address space of IPv6 is quite large; it can
space produce 3.4 × 10³⁸ address space

The Security feature is dependent IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in the IPv6
on the application protocol

Address representation of IPv4 is in Address representation of IPv6 is in hexadecimal

decimal

Fragmentation is performed by the In IPv6, fragmentation is performed only by the sender

sender and forwarding routers

In IPv4, packet flow identification is In IPv6, packet flow identifications are available and
not available use the flow label field in the header

In IPv4, checksum field is available In IPv6, checksum field is not available

It has a broadcast message In IPv6, multicast and anycast message transmission
transmission scheme scheme is available

In IPv4, encryption and In IPv6, encryption and authentication are provided

authentication facilities are not
provided

IPv4 has a header of 20–60 bytes IPv6 has a header of 40 bytes fixed

IPv4 can be converted to IPv6 Not all IPv6 can be converted to IPv4

IPv4 consists of 4 fields which are IPv6 consists of 8 fields, which are separated by a
separated by dots (.) colon (:)

IPv4’s IP addresses are divided into IPv6 does not have any classes of the IP address
five different classes: Class A,
Class B, Class C, Class D, Class E
5. Explain about Sliding Window Protocol?
Ans: The Sliding Window Protocol is a method used in computer networks to ensure reliable
and efficient data transmission between a sender and a receiver. It is primarily used in the data
link layer and the transport layer (such as in TCP). The main idea of the protocol is to allow the
sender to send multiple frames before needing an acknowledgment for the first one, thus
improving bandwidth utilization and performance. The "window" refers to a set of frames that
can be sent without receiving an acknowledgment. As the sender receives acknowledgments
from the receiver, the window "slides" forward, allowing it to transmit more data.

Purpose
●​ Ensures efficient data transfer.​

●​ Controls the number of frames a sender can send before waiting for an
acknowledgment (ACK).​

●​ Helps in reliable and ordered delivery.

Types of Sliding Window Protocols

1. Stop-and-Wait ARQ

●​ Window size = 1.​

●​ Sender sends one frame and waits for ACK before sending the next.​

●​ Simple but inefficient, especially on long-delay links.​

2. Go-Back-N ARQ

●​ Sender can send multiple frames (up to N) before needing an ACK.​

●​ If a frame is lost, all subsequent frames are resent (go back and resend from the lost
one).​

3. Selective Repeat ARQ

●​ Like Go-Back-N but only the lost or erroneous frames are retransmitted.​

●​ Requires more memory but is more efficient.

6. Write about design issues of Network layer

Ans: Store-and-Forward Packet Switching

• The network layer follows a store-and-forward approach where each router stores incoming
packets before forwarding them.
• Helps in error checking and congestion control but increases transmission delay.
• Services Provided to the Transport Layer
• The network layer provides services to the transport layer, which can be either
connection-oriented or connectionless.
Connectionless Service:
• Independent packets are sent without establishing a connection.
• Each packet is treated separately and may take different paths.
• Example: Internet Protocol (IP) Connection-Oriented Service:
• A logical connection is established before transmission.
• Packets follow the same route, ensuring reliable delivery.
• Example: Virtual Circuit Networks (ATM)
• Connection Oriented (CO) service is also called (Virtual circuit) and Connectionless (CL)
service is also called (Datagram).
• Example: The Internet offers connectionless network -layer service; ATM networks offer
connection -oriented network -layer service.
• Connection Oriented Service: In connection -oriented service there are three phases. 1.
Connection setup: Path establishment between the source and the destination routers. This
connection is called a VC (virtual circuit). 2. Data transfer. 3. Termination of the established path
7. Draw the architecture of WWW and explain the various blocks in detail.
Ans:

1. User Interface (Web Browsers)

This is the topmost layer of the architecture.

●​ It includes applications like Chrome, Firefox, Edge, Safari, etc.​

●​ It provides a graphical interface for users to access web pages, enter URLs, and
interact with multimedia and web-based content.

2. Application Layer (Web Applications)

This layer contains web applications such as:

●​ Email services (Gmail), social media (Facebook), e-commerce sites (Amazon), etc.​

●​ It uses application-level protocols, mainly HTTP and HTTPS, to communicate with the
browser and web servers.

3. Transport Layer (HTTP/HTTPS)

This layer ensures data is transmitted reliably between client and server.

●​ It uses protocols like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP under the hood.

4. Internet Layer (TCP/IP)

This layer is responsible for routing data across networks.

●​ Uses the IP (Internet Protocol) for addressing and delivering packets to the correct
destination.​

●​ TCP/IP stack forms the core protocol suite of the internet.​

5. Network Layer (Routers, Switches)

This layer includes networking hardware that connects devices and routes traffic.

●​ Routers decide the path the data should take.​

●​ Switches connect multiple devices within the same network.

6. Physical Layer (Cables, Signals)

This is the lowest level, dealing with actual transmission of data in the form of electrical or
optical signals.

●​ Involves cables, fiber optics, radio signals (Wi-Fi), etc.

8. Compare and contrast Go back N and selective Repeat protocol
Ans: Go back N:
The Go-Back-N protocol is a sliding window protocol used for reliable data transfer in computer
networks. It is a sender-based protocol that allows the sender to transmit multiple packets
without waiting for an acknowledgement for each packet. The receiver sends a cumulative
acknowledgement for a sequence of packets, indicating the last correctly received packet.
selective Repeat protocol
The Selective Repeat protocol is another the used for reliable data transfer in computer
networks. It is a receiver-based protocol that allows the receiver to acknowledge each packet
individually, rather than a cumulative acknowledgement of a sequence of packets.

Go-Back-N Protocol Selective Repeat Protocol

Uses cumulative acknowledgment; ACK N Uses individual acknowledgments for each

means all frames up to N are received frame received correctly.
correctly.

If a single frame is lost or has an error, all Only the erroneous or lost frames are
subsequent frames are resent. resent.

Can send multiple frames (N frames), but Can send multiple frames (typically up to
must wait for ACKs in order. N/2), and ACKs can be out of order.

Receiver accepts only in-order frames; Receiver buffers out-of-order frames and
out-of-order frames are discarded. reorders them after receiving the missing
ones.

Less efficient when errors occur due to More efficient as only the lost or corrupted
unnecessary retransmission of correct frames are retransmitted.
frames.

Simpler implementation with sequential More complex implementation due to

processing and fewer buffers. buffering, reordering, and individual tracking.

Suitable for networks with low error rates. Suitable for high-error networks where
efficiency is critical.

Example: If frame 3 is lost, frames 3, 4, 5, Example: If frame 3 is lost, only frame 3 is

etc., are all resent. resent; frames 4, 5, etc., are buffered.
9. Explain the following Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) and Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15)
Ans: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
Overview

Ethernet, defined by the IEEE 802.3 standard, is the most widely used wired LAN (Local Area
Network) technology. It supports high-speed communication over physical cables such as
twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic.

Key Features

●​ Standard: IEEE 802.3​

●​ Data Transfer Rates: 10 Mbps (original), 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet), 1 Gbps (Gigabit
Ethernet), 10 Gbps and above.​

●​ Medium: Copper cables (Cat5, Cat6), fiber optics.​

●​ Topology: Star or bus (modern networks use star topology with switches).​

●​ Access Method: CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision

Detection) to manage access and collisions on shared channels.​

●​ Frame Structure:​

○​ Preamble​

○​ Destination and Source MAC Address​

○​ Type/Length field​

○​ Data and Padding​

○​ Frame Check Sequence (FCS)​

🔹 Advantages
●​ High data transfer speed and reliability.​

●​ Cost-effective and scalable.​

●​ Simple configuration and wide support.​

✅ Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15)
🔹 Overview
Bluetooth, defined by IEEE 802.15, is a short-range wireless communication standard
designed for personal area networks (PANs). It allows devices like smartphones, headphones,
and computers to communicate without physical cables.

🔹 Key Features
●​ Standard: IEEE 802.15.1 (Classic Bluetooth), IEEE 802.15.4 (Low Rate WPAN), IEEE
802.15.6 (Body Area Networks)​

●​ Range: Typically up to 10 meters (can go up to 100 meters in Class 1 devices)​

●​ Frequency Band: 2.4 GHz ISM band (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical)​

●​ Data Rates:​

○​ Bluetooth 2.0: up to 3 Mbps​

○​ Bluetooth 4.0 (BLE): optimized for low energy usage​

○​ Bluetooth 5.0: increased range and speed (up to 2 Mbps with BLE)​

●​ Topology: Star (piconet), and Scatternet (multiple piconets interconnected)​

●​ Access Method: Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) and Time Division
Duplex (TDD)​

🔹 Advantages
●​ Eliminates the need for cables.​

●​ Low power consumption (especially BLE).​

●​ Easy device pairing and interoperability.

10. Explain about Multiple Access Protocols: ALOHA, CSMA and Collision Free
Protocols.
Ans: Multiple Access Protocols are used in shared communication networks (like LANs and
wireless networks) to manage how multiple devices access the communication medium without
interfering with each other

1. ALOHA Protocol

ALOHA was the earliest random access protocol, developed at the University of Hawaii.

🔸 Types:
●​ Pure ALOHA:​

○​ Stations transmit data whenever they have data to send.​

○​ If a collision occurs, the sender waits for a random time and retransmits.​

○​ Efficiency: ~18% (i.e., only 18% of the channel capacity is used effectively).​

●​ Slotted ALOHA:​

○​ Time is divided into slots; stations can only send at the beginning of a slot.​

○​ Reduces collision window

2. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

CSMA improves on ALOHA by sensing the channel before transmission to reduce the chance
of collisions.

🔸 Types of CSMA:
●​ 1-persistent CSMA:​

○​ If the channel is idle, it sends immediately.​

○​ If busy, it keeps sensing until idle, then transmits.​

●​ Non-persistent CSMA:​

○​ If the channel is busy, waits for a random time before trying again.​

○​ Reduces collision chance but increases delay.​

 ●​ P-persistent CSMA (used in slotted channels):​

○​ If idle, transmits with probability p, or waits with probability 1-p.

3. Collision-Free Protocols

These protocols avoid collisions altogether using scheduling or priority mechanisms.

🔸 Examples:
●​ Bit-Map Protocol:​

○​ Each station has a time slot assigned in the form of bits.​

○​ Stations send in their allotted time, preventing collisions.​

●​ Token Passing Protocol:​

○​ A special frame called a token is passed between stations.​

○​ A station can transmit only when it holds the token.

11. Explain about dynamic routing with example.
Ans: Dynamic routing is a networking technique in which routers automatically adjust their
routing tables based on changes in the network topology. This is done using routing protocols,
which allow routers to exchange information about the network and determine the best path to
forward data packets.

Types of Dynamic Routing Protocols:

1.​ Distance Vector Protocols​

○​ Example: RIP (Routing Information Protocol)​

○​ Each router shares its routing table with its neighbors periodically.​

○​ Simple, but slow to converge.​

2.​ Link State Protocols​

○​ Example: OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)​

○​ Each router builds a map of the network and calculates the shortest path using
Dijkstra’s algorithm.​

○​ Faster and more efficient than distance vector.​

3.​ Hybrid Protocols​

○​ Example: EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)​

○​ Combines features of both distance vector and link state protocols.

12. Explain the congestion prevention policies in the network layer.
Ans: Congestion in a network occurs when too many packets are present in the network,
causing delays, packet loss, or degraded performance. Congestion prevention policies aim to
avoid congestion before it happens, rather than reacting to it after it occurs. These policies are
implemented primarily in the network layer.

1. Admission Control

●​ Description: Before admitting new traffic into the network, the system checks whether
there is enough capacity to handle it.​

●​ Purpose: Prevents overload by refusing new traffic that may cause congestion.​

●​ Used in: Virtual circuit networks and QoS-based systems.​

●​ Example: If a video stream request is made, the network checks if enough bandwidth is
available before allowing it.​

🔹 2. Traffic Shaping (Leaky Bucket & Token Bucket)

●​ Description: Regulates the flow of data into the network by shaping traffic to be more
predictable.​

●​ Leaky Bucket: Data is sent at a constant rate regardless of burstiness.​

●​ Token Bucket: Allows bursts of data but controls average rate over time.​

●​ Purpose: Prevents sudden data bursts that could overwhelm the network.​

🔹 3. Resource Reservation (RSVP)

●​ Description: Reserves resources (e.g., bandwidth, buffers) along the path before
transmitting packets.​

●​ Purpose: Ensures that enough resources are available to handle traffic smoothly without
causing congestion.​

●​ Used in: Multimedia transmission and real-time services.​

🔹 4. Packet Scheduling and Queuing
●​ Description: Manages how packets are placed in queues and in what order they are
transmitted.​

●​ Techniques:​

○​ FIFO (First-In-First-Out)​

○​ Priority Queuing: Higher-priority traffic is sent first.​

○​ Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ): Ensures fair distribution of bandwidth.​

●​ Purpose: Reduces congestion by controlling packet flow and prioritizing critical traffic.​

🔹 5. Routing Algorithms
●​ Description: Smart routing can prevent congestion by dynamically selecting less
congested paths.​

●​ Adaptive Routing: Changes routes based on real-time network conditions.​

●​ Purpose: Avoids sending packets through congested areas of the network.​

🔹 6. Window-Based Flow Control

●​ Description: Limits the number of unacknowledged packets in transit.​

●​ Used in: TCP at the transport layer, but impacts the network layer indirectly.​

●​ Purpose: Helps prevent congestion by controlling data flow rate.​

🔹 7. Load Shedding (Last Resort)

●​ Description: In extreme cases, the network drops packets intentionally.​

●​ Purpose: Prevents buffer overflow and total network collapse.​

●​ Not preventive by design, but can help protect the network from escalating congestion.