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COMPUTER  STUDIES  
STUDENTS  NOTES  

Peter  Cedar  

   

 
  

NAZARENE MISSION SECONDARYSCHOOL

COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES
What is a computer?
i. Computer is an electric device used for storing and processing data
The word device means anything that can store data or information.

In the computer there is a CPU (Central Processing Unit), which acts as the reasoning of
computer.

ii. Computer can also be defined as an automatic, electronic data processing device that
works under stored programs/instructions to produce information

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Automatic: because it can work on its own with little or no interventions from the user
Electronic: because they are made up of solid state known as integrated circuit necessary for
electric current
Data: this consist of the raw, unprocessed facts, including text, numbers, images, and sound.
Examples of raw facts are hours you worked and your pay rate.
Programs: are set of instructions that tell a computer what to do
Information: this is processed data e.g. the total wages owed you for a week’s, month’s work.
Peripherals: are all devices that can be connected to a CPU externally but under its control e.g.
keyboard, mouse, printers, scanners etc.

 
  

Computer system: is the collection of computer software and hardware together with
peripherals.

iii. Computer is also defined as an electronic device which accepts and process and store
data and gives out results of the processing

This definition is giving us the four major functions or elements, which make the basic features
of a computer, namely
i. Accepting data (input)
ii. Processing of data to derive information
iii. Giving out results of the processing (output)
iv. Storing information
The computer is the device that performs four functions:
• It inputs data (getting data into the machine)
• It stores data (keeping data Before and after processing)
• It processes data (performing carefully laid down mathematical and logical operations o
the data)
• It outputs data (sending results of the processing to the user via some kind of display
method).
Information Technology
The ability of a computer to process data and give out information has given rise to the concept
of information technology.
Information technology (IT) refers to scientific advancement in computers and
telecommunication devices, which has resulted in effective processing of data and transfer of
information.
For example, few decades ago one of the ways of sending information was by sending a
messenger. This was time consuming, especially when the distance is long. In present time,
however, the same information can be relayed instantly using electronic mail (E-mail)

 
  

Difference between Data and Information

Data: Are raw, unorganized facts that need to be processed. Data can be something simple and
seemingly random and useless until it is organized.
Information: when data is processed, organized, structured or presented in a given context so as
to make it useful, it is called information.
Example
Each student’s test score is one piece of data.
The average score of a class or of the entire school is information that can be derived from the
given data.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
A. Speed
The first characteristic of computer is speed and this means that computers work very fast. It
takes few seconds to calculate works that we can take hour to complete. Computer can perform
millions of instructions and even more per second. Therefore the speed of the computer is
determined in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of second) or nano-second (10-9 part of second).
B. Accuracy
Computers are accurate and that means it is rare for computers to make mistakes. The degree of
accuracy of computers is very high and every calculation is performed with the same accuracy.
The errors in computers are due to human and inaccurate data.
C. Diligence
A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue etc. it can work for hours
without creating any error.
D. Versatility
It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. For example, you may use
your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management
or to prepare electric bills.
E. Memory
Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any information can be
stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any number of years.
F. Storage

 
  

The computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can also
store data in secondary devices such as flashes, which can be kept outside your computer and can
be carried to their computers.
G. No IQ
Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user
H. No feeling
Computer does not have feelings or emotions, state, knowledge and experience.

HISTORY OF THE COMPUTER

Slide rule: it was a machine developed by English mathematician called Edmund Guinter which
could perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It was widely
used in Europe in 16th century.
History and Generations of Computers
The word Computer was a job title of people whose job was to perform repetitive calculations
required to compute such things as navigational tables, tide charts, and planetary positions for
astronomical almanacs. The present day electronics computers were given this name because
they substitute these computers in the job they performed.

The history of the computer can be traced as far back as 300 BC when Babylonians were using a
computer like machine to help in mathematical calculations
History of computer could be trace back to the effort of man to count large numbers. This
process of counting large numbers generated various systems of numeration like Babylonian
system of numeration, Greek system of numeration and Indian system of numeration. Out of
these the Indian system of numeration has been accepted universally. It is the basis of modern
decimal system of calculation (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9). But you will be surprised to know that
computer does not use decimal system and uses binary system numeration for processing.
Binary numbers are formed by combination of only 2 digits or values 0(zero) and 1 (one) while
digital numbers are formed by combination of ten numbers (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)

Calculating Machines
The history of computer can be traced back as far as 300 BC when Babylonians were using a computer
like machine which helped in mathematical calculations.

 
  

It took over generations for early man to build mechanical devices for counting large numbers.
The Egyptian and Chinese people developed the first calculating device called ABACUS
The word ABACUS means, calculating board. It consisted of sticks in horizontal positions which
were inserted sets of paddles.
Napier’s bones
English mathematician John Napier built a mechanical device for the purpose of multiplication
in 1617 AD. The device was known as Napier’s bones
Slide Rule
English Mathematician Edmund Gunter developed the slide rule. This machine could perform
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. I was widely used in Europe in
16th Century.
Pascal’s adding and subtracting machine
This machine was developed by the man called Blaise Pascal at the age of 19 and it could add
and subtract. The machine consists of wheels, gears and cylinder.
Leibniz’s multiplication and dividing machine
This machine was developed by the German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz
around 1673. This machine could both multiply and divide.
Babbage’s analytical Engine
The English man, Charles Babbage in 1823, built a machine called difference engine. Difference
engine was designed to do complex mathematical calculations. Later he developed a general-
purpose calculating machine called analytical engine. Charles Babbage is called the father of
computers.

Mechanical and electrical Calculator

In the beginning of 19th Century, the mathematical calculator was developed to perform all sorts
of mathematical calculations.
Modern Electronic Calculator
The electronic calculator used in 1960s was run with electronic tubes, which was quite bulky.
Later it was replaced with transistors and as a result the size of calculators became small. The
modern electronic calculator can compute all kinds of mathematical computations and

 
  

mathematical functions. It can also be used to store some data permanently. Some calculators
have in-built programs to perform some complicated calculations.
Generations of Computers

The evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted in the form of computer that we
see today. The present day computer however, has also undergone rapid change during the last
fifty years. This period, during which the evolution of computer took place, can be divided into
five distinct phases known as Generations of computers. Each phase is distinguished form others
on the basis of the type of switching circuits used.

First generation computers (1951-1958)

First generation computers were built with vacuum tubes. Vacuum tubes were tubes that were
made of glass and were about the size of a light bulb. These computers were large in size and
were difficult to write programs on them. Some of the computers of this generation include:

• ENIAC: it stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator. It was the first
electronic computer built in 1946 at university of Pennsylvania, USA by John Eckert and
John Mauchy.
• EDVAC: it stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer and was
developed in 1950. This is when the concept or idea of storing data and instructions
inside the computer was introduced.
• EDSAC: it stands for Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer and was developed
by M.V. Wilkes at Cambridge University in 1949.
• UNIVAC: stands for Universal Accounting Computer. It was produced by Eckerd and
Mauchly in 1951

Limitations of first generation computer

1. The operating speed was very slow

2. Power consumption was very high
3. It required large space for installation
4. The programming capability was slow

Second Generation Computers (1958-1963)

 
  

This is when the device called Transistor replaced the Vacuum Tubes in the first generation in
Bell Laboratories. Transistors are smaller than vacuum tubes and they have a higher operating
speed and they don’t require no heating. Thus the size of the computer got reduced considerably.

In the second generation, the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU) was introduced.

In 1963, there was an introduction of the first computer industry standard character set called
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) that enables computer to
exchange information.

Third Generation Computers (1964-1969)

The third generation computers were introduced in 1964. They used integrated circuits (IC).
These ICs are popularly known as chips. A single IC has many transistors, registers and
capacitors so it is obvious that the size of the computer got further reduced.

An IC is a complete electronic circuit is a small chip made of silicon (the most abundant
elements in the earth’s crust). Those computers were made reliable and compact than computers
with transistor and they cost less to manufactures. Computers of these generations are small in
size, low cost, large memory and processing is very high.

Examples of computer developed during this time include: IBM-360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and
VAX-750. The higher level language such as BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code) was also developed during this period.

1964: introduction of computers built with ICs

1965: Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced the first Mini Computers and introduced
programming language
1969: introduction of ARPANET and the beginning of the internet
Fourth Generation Computers (1970-1990)
The present day computers that you see are the fourth generation computers that started around
1975. It uses Large Scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a single silicon chip called
microprocessors. Due to the development f microprocessor it is possible to place computers
central processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These computers are called microprocessors. Later
Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC) replaced LSICs. Thus the computer, which was

 
  

occupying a very large room in earlier days, can now be placed on a table. The personal
computers that we use now are the fourth generation computers.

Fifth Generation Computers (1991-200 & beyond)

The computers of 1990s are said to be fifth generation computers. The speed is extremely high in
fifth generation computers. Apart from this it can perform parallel processing. The concept of
artificial intelligence has been introduced to allow the computer to take its own decision.

1991: release of World Wide Web standards that describe the frame work of linking documents
of different computers
1993: Linus Torralds developed a version of UNIX called the LINUX system
1993: introduction of computer built with Intel’s Pentium microprocessor
1995: Microsoft releases windows95 a major upgrade to its windows operating system
1997: windows 97 with major web enhancements was released by Microsoft
1998: Microsoft released 98 integrated with internet explorer 4.0
1999: Microsoft released Office 2000 featuring extensive web integrated and document
collaboration-soon followed by windows 2000.
2002: a private internet2 expected to be completed with higher speed, limited access & higher
security expected to include advanced virtual reality interface. It is still a developmental stage.
Study questions

1. Write a short note on Fifth Generation of computer. What makes it different from Fourth
Generation computer?
2. Why did the size of computer get reduced in third generation computer/
3. Give short notes on the following
a) Slide rule
b) Babbage’s Analytical Engine
c) Pascal’s Adding and Subtracting Machine
d) Leibniz’s Multiplication and dividing Machine
4. Explain in brief various generations in computer technology
5. What does the following abbreviation stand for

 
  

a) VLSIC d) EDSAC   g) BASIC  

b) ENIAC   e) UNIVAC   h) DEC  
c) EDVAC   f) ASCII   i) LSIC  
6. The personal computers you see today are in which generation of computer?

TYPES OF COMPUTER
Computers are categorized into three categories based on how they operate. The three types of
computer include analog, digital and hybrid computers.
Analog computers
These are kind of computers that use a currency of physical quantities such as electrical,
mechanical or hydraulic phenomena to model the problem being solved.
Components of analog computers
Some of the electrical components include: potentiometers, operation amplifiers, integrators,
fixed-function generators.
Some of the mechanical components include: gears, levers etc.
Some of the hydraulic components include: pipes, valves, and towers.
Advantages of analog computers
In analog computers performances are done by using properties of electrical resistance, voltage
and so on. This enables analog computers to perform a lot faster than digital computers. As such,
certain useful calculations that are difficult for digital computers are easily done by the analog
computers.
Limitation of analog computers
§ They make a lot of noise
§ They take big footprint
§ They produce a lot of heat
§ They are not as precise as digital computers.
Digital computers
These are computers that use binary digits in order to model the problem.
Basic digital computer has four main sections: the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), the control
unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (generally termed I/O)

 
  

The control unit, ALU, registers (memories), and basic I/O are collectively known as a Central
Processing Unit (CPU).
CPUs are constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.
Hybrid computers
These are computers that combine the features of analog and digital computers.
§ The digital component serves as controllers and provides logical operations
§ The analog component serves as a solver of differential equations.
Since the analog computers are fast but not precise, the digital computers are precise but slow.
The combination of both digital and analog features that form hybrid computer enables it to
underscore both speed and precision.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMPUTERS

There are four classes of computers these are Microcomputers, Minicomputers, Mainframe
computers and Super computers.
A. Micro computers
Microcomputer is the computer that uses a micro chip as its CPU. They are generally called
Personal Computers (PC) because they are designed to be used by one person at a time.
Microcomputers are mainly used for general purposes in places like schools, at home, or at a
business.
The major purposes for which micro computers are used include: word processing, database
management, organizing and making presentations, internet surfing, playing games, and editing
photographs, spreadsheet calculations etc.
Personal computers are in three major sizes:
i. Desktop computers: desktop are not portable due to their size. As the name suggests,
they are meant to rest on top of a desk. The desktop computers usually have peripherals
input and output devices such as keyboard, mouse and monitor
ii. Laptop computers: they are smaller and hence portable. Since they are designed to be
used everywhere, they run both on battery and mains. They have built-in peripherals
such as monitor which folds down, a keyboard and pointing devices such as a track pad

 
  

or a touch pad. Laptops are generally expensive than desktops of the same processing
power because the smaller components that make up a laptop are more expensive.
iii. Palmtop computers: these are handheld computers. While they are portable, these
handheld computers are not as powerful as laptops. Palmtops are at the lowest end of the
computer ranges in terms of speed and storage.
Characteristics of microcomputers
§ They are not multi programmable thus not allowing many programs to run at the same
time
§ Its process is done by a microprocessor
§ They cannot handle many peripherals
§ It has a small memory capacity
§ They are not difficult to operate
§ They are portable computers
B. Mini Computers
Minicomputers are computers that designed to support more than one user at a time. This kind of
computer is generally used for processing large volume of data in an organization. They are also
used to link up other computer on a relatively small network called Local Area Networks (LAN).
Minicomputers are smaller and less powerful than mainframe computers.
Characteristics of mini computers
§ They are able to control limited peripherals
§ They are fast when processing transactions
§ They are able to give instant response i.e. airline reservation
§ They are cheap to purchase compared to mainframe computer
§ It require well trained personnel
C. Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computer is a large, powerful computer that has the capacity of handling processing
for hundreds of users at the same time. Users connect to the mainframes and submit their tasks
for the processing using Dumb Terminals (terminals that have screens and keyboards for input
and output, but do not do their own processing)

 
  

Mainframes are used as centralized information storage facilities where a company wants the
processing power and information storage in one place. They are also used as controlling nodes
in Wide Area Networks (WAN)
Characteristics of mainframe computers
§ They are multi programmable thus allowing many programs to run at the same time
§ It has fast processing unit hence fast in processing transactions. For example insurance
companies uses mainframe computers to process information of millions of policyholders
§ They are able to store large amount of data because it has a large memory capacity
§ They are very difficult to operate.
D. Super Computers
Super computers are basically a mainframe computer that has its speed and power increased.
Supercomputers have high processing speed compared to other computers. Super computers are
used for weather forecasting, biomedical research, aircraft design and other areas of science and
technology.
Characteristics of supercomputers
§ They are used for application that requires a large amount of processing activities
§ It has fast processing unit hence in processing transactions
§ It is used to process very difficult transactions
§ They are used to handle detailed calculations required to model wings of planes
§ It is used for designing i.e. the designing of a car in order to improve the designs
§ They are very expensive and difficult to operate.

UNITS OF DATA PRESENTATION

Human beings communicate with one another using a special language that is made up f speech,
vision, touch, signs and even written symbols. However, this language is too complex for a
simple device like computers to understand. In order for human being to communicate with the
computers, human language needs to be changed into a simpler language known as machine
language, which computer can understand. Machine language is presented using two numbers, 0s
and 1s. A sequence of 0’s and 1’s arranged in different order means different things to the
computer.

 
  

Therefore, all data that is presented by the computer is represented in the form of 1’s and 0’s.
Since only two numbers are used to represent the data, we refer to this as the binary number
system.
DATA STORAGE UNITS
Computer data can be measured or stored in various units. The basic unit of data storage is the
binary digit (bit). The following are definitions for the various sizes:
Bits: a bit can be defined as a binary digit which can either be 0 or 1. It is then smallest
element of data in computer memory.
Byte: a group of bits (often 8) used to represent a single character in the computer memory. A
byte is the basic unit for measuring computer unit. A byte is a basic unit for measuring computer
memory.
Nibble: A nibble is half a byte, which is usually a grouping of 4 bits.
Word: two or more bytes make a word. A word can have 16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits etc.
Kilobyte: A kilobyte is approximately 1000 bytes (210)
Megabyte: a megabyte is approximately 1000 kilobyte which is 1, 000, 000 bytes
Gigabyte: a gigabyte is 1000 megabytes which is 1000, 000, 000 (one billion bytes)
Terabyte: a terabyte is 1000 gigabytes which is 1000, 000, 000, 000 (one trillion bytes)
Converting between data units
1. 1 byte = 8 bits =1 byte
2. 1 kilobyte =1000 bytes = 1 thousand bytes
3. 1 megabyte = 1000 kilobytes = 1 million bytes
4. 1 gigabyte = 1000 megabytes =1 billion bytes
5. 1 terabyte = 1000 gigabytes =1 trillion bytes

AREAS IN WHICH COMPUTERS ARE USED

The computer has changed society today. People are now interacting with the computers in fields
such as education, finance, government, health care, science, publishing, travel, and
manufacturing.

 
  

Education Sector
In then education sector such colleges, secondary school, and universities, computers are used in
various. Some of the ways in which computers are used in this field include
§ For preparation of class time table for both students and teachers
§ Student account handling
§ To maintain a library database and for making of examination papers
§ They are also used for designing and making presentations using PowerPoint.
Financial Sector
Computers have helped in financial sector and the most notable ones are: accounting, banking,
payroll, and sales.
Accounting
Nowadays, most organizations have computerized their accounting systems. Using accounting
software such as SAGE, they are able to produce financial statements quickly and with much
accuracy.
Banking
Most banks now they are using the technology called Auto-Teller Machine (ATM). With ATM
people are able to withdraw money, pay bills, check account balance, generate account
statements.
Computers are also enabling banks to work on network whereby customer’s transaction can be
done at any branch of their bank and get instant information about their accounts. Withdrawing
can be done at any branch. With these capabilities, sending and receiving money has been
simplified.
Payroll
With the increased population, companies are employing many people. Previously, it was
tiresome and difficult to prepare salaries of employees in good time. With then development of
payroll software, it takes only a few individuals to prepare salaries for hundreds of people within
short period of time.
Sales
Large shops normally have a wide range of items for sale that sales personnel cannot manage to
memorize prices of them all. On the other hand, it is not convenient for people to carry large
amounts of cash when going for large shopping.

 
  

This is why Electronic Point of Sale (EPOS) and Electronic Funds Transfer on Point of Sale
(EFTPOS) were developed whereby scanners are used to read cards and bar code to identify
products and their prices.
Communication systems
Computer technology has now cut down on time it took to send a message from one point to
another. .the internet has made it possible to send e-mail from one part of the globe to another
and the recipients gets the message instantly.
In video conferencing, computer technology is facilitating communication whereby people from
different parts of the globe can conduct meeting just as if they are physically face to face, this
can be through Skype or any other means.
Transport systems
In transport systems, computer have assisted in the areas of mobility, security and traffic control
relating to air, road, and rail and shipping.
The following are some of the technologies based on computers.
§ Communication between plane and control towers
§ Security checks which assist in detecting explosives
§ Traffic control lights (robots) which automatically control road traffic
§ Car tracking technologies which enables organizations and other people locate their cars
ina particular region
Research system
people who are working in research use computer technologies in order to analyze the data.
Programs such as spreadsheets are used to analyze large amounts of quantitative data much faster
than if it was done manually.
Entertainment
Computers are used in the area of entertainment in several ways. They are used to design
software and programs which enables people to play games.
With the coming of the digital and video cameras computers are used to edit video which enables
people to watch home videos. They are also used for editing and listening to music.
Advantages of using computers
§ Computers process data much faster than if the processing was done manually

 
  

§ There is high level of accuracy in computer processed information so long as input data is
correct
§ Computers have the ability to store huge amount of data. This saves a lot of space and
paper which could be required if the same data were to be stored manually
§ Computers work automatically and are not subject to exhaustion. As such, they can
process large amounts of data.
Disadvantages of using computers
§ Computers requires a lot of time to be spent of training
§ The computer can fail due to electrical failure, a hardware/software fault or viruses.
§ As computers can do large amounts of work, they can also lead to loss of jobs. The work
which required several people will be done by a single person operating the computer.
§ With most organization computerizing their systems, job opportunity become limited.
§ In case of computers on network, keeping information confidential may be difficult as
some people may attempt to have illegal access to information.

COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER
Computer is made up with two components
§ Computer hardware
§ Computer software
Computer Hardware
This is the term used to describe all the physical parts of the computer system E.g. CPU,
monitor, keyboard, mouse etc.
Functions of computer hardware
§ To produce the output i.e. monitor and printer
§ To enter data into computer system
Components of computer Hardware
There are five parts/components of computer hardware these are: processing devices, input
devices, output devices, storage devices, and communication devices

 
  

PROCESSING DEVICES
This is the devices which is responsible for converting/processing data e.g. CPU
The central processing unit (CPU)
This is the main part of the computer. It acts as the brain of the computer. The CPU is sometimes
known as Central Processor
§ It is central, because it is the center of computer data processing
§ It is processor because it processes data
§ It is unit because it is a chip, which contains millions of transistors (another name for
chip is Integrated Circuit)
The CPU consist of three parts
• Control Unit
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
• Immediate Access Store (IAS) or main memory

PARTS OF THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The control Unit
This is the part of the Central Processing Units that directs and co-ordinates the activities of the
entire computer.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
This is the part/component of the Central Processing units that contains the electronic circuitry
necessary to perform Arithmetic operations and logic operations.
Immediate Access Store (IAS) or main memory
This is part of the Central Processing Unit that stores data and instructions that control
processing.
TYPES of MEMORY
There are three types of memory
§ Random Access Memory (RAM)
§ Read Only Memory (ROM)
§ Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)
Random Access Memory

 
  

RAM is the temporary memory where computer keep data for the processing task, which is being
undertaken.
This is called Volatile memory because when the computer is turned off, all data in this memory
is lost
RAM is also called the primary memory and also main memory
Characteristics/Functions of RAM
§ It is volatile
§ It increases the storage of a computer
§ It can be written and changed
§ It helps to store data and programs
Read Only Memory
This is part of the main memory, which is non-volatile and is mainly used to store programs
essential for the running of the computer like operating system etc.
Functions/Characteristics of ROM
§ It is non-volatile
§ It cannot be written an changed
§ It can be accessible to the user
§ It helps to start up the computer
Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)
This memory store flexible start up instructions such as time, date and calendar that must be kept
current even when the computer is turned off
Characteristics of CMOS
§ It is non-volatile
§ It can be programmed
§ It requires battery
Flash memory
This memory is used to store programs in personal computers, cell phones, mp3players, palm
organizers, printers and digital cameras.
§ It is non volatile
§ It can be reprogrammed
§ Does not require the use of battery

 
  

Processing speed
The processing speed of a microprocessor is determined by a number of factors
§ The word size
This refers to how many bits (binary digits) it can input/output and process at the same
time. Early microprocessors used 8-bit word size; the newest microprocessor use `64-bit
word size.
§ Cache memory
Cache memory is used to store the most frequently accessed information stored in RAM.
This is important in case it needs the instructions or data again, so that it does not need to
go back to RAM memory to get them.
§ Clock speed/ System Clock
The system clock or the clock speed controls the speed of operations within a computer.
The clock speed is measured in units of cycles per second called Hertz (Hz). This is
expressed in Megahertz and Gigahertz (GHz) where one megahertz equals 1 million
cycles (beats) per second. The fast the clock speed the faster the computer can process
information.

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

Input Devices
Input devices are the devices that are used to enter data into the computer
Examples of input devices are:
§ Keyboard § Light pen
§ Mouse § Scanner
§ Digital camera § Microphone
§ Joysticks
MASTERING THE KEYBOARD

The keyboard
The keyboard is a board with set of keys used for rendering data into a computer and typing
commands that directs a computer what to do.
A key: is a button on a keyboard, which performs a specific task or a range of specific tasks.

 
  

Uses of the keyboard

• Entering text data and numbers into the computer
• Playing computer games
• Entering instructions into the computer that instructs the computer what to do
• Moving around document
Advantages of entering data using a keyboard
• Good for manual text entry
• It is familiar device
• Special keys can be used for special functions
• Specialized keyboards can be used to speed up data entry.
Disadvantage
• Mistakes are easily made
• It has a large foot print (it takes a large space)
• Data input is slow compared to many other methods.
Keyboard layout/ classification of the keys on the keyboard
Alphabet keys
These are mainly keys that are used for entering text and data. Alphabetic keys on the keyboard
are normally arranged based on the standard typewriter layout known as QWERTY. This refers
to the top right five keys are position end.
The 46 alphabeti-numerical keys dominate the general typing area. Each alphanumerical key
produces two symbols, and then second reached by holding down the "shift" key while pressing
the alphanumeric key.
Digit/ numerical keys
These are keys that are used for entering numbers. There are two sets of numerical key. The first
set is aligned on top of the alphabet keys. Another set located to the far right of the keyboard and
it is known as numerical keypad.
Function keys
These are Keys that are used to enter specific commands into the computer. These keys are from
F1 to F12
Apart from these major categories, there are other specific keys as outlined below

 
  

Cursor/navigations keys: these are used to move cursor. These include four arrow keys
between the numeric keypad and then alphabet keys, Home, End, Page Up, and Page Down
Control keys
These are keys surrounding the QWERTY keyboard. These are keys such as CTRL, Enter, Caps,
Lock, and ALT and so on. They work after combined with another key to perform an action
Toggle key
These are keys that are used to turn a feature on or off e.g. caps lock, NUM Lock and Scroll
Lock
Special keys
These are keys that are used for special purposes e.g. Esc, typically cancels a selection or a
procedure, Windows key used to display the start menu. All buttons with punctuation marks are
also special keys
In addition to keys of the standard keyboard, then standard keyboard contains a numeric keypad.
This is a set of digit keys, which are used when being typed is predominantly numbers.

A keyboard sketch showing basic keys

Backspace: deletes backward
Enter: for starting a new line
Shift: for typing CAPITALS and used to reach other keys on top of other keys.
Spacebar: for spaces between words
Delete: deletes forward
Tab: for starting a paragraph
Typing
Typing is the insertion of text in the processor or any other program or text box. Typing is done
by just pressing the respective keys on then keyboard. There are some keys that have got two
symbols on them,
To type a symbol that is on the top of the button
Hold down Shift
Press the button
To type capitals
• Hold down Shift

 
  

• Type any alphabetical letter

Or
• Switch on Caps Lock by pressing on Caps Lock button. With the Caps Locks on
everything you type will be in capital letters.
To type symbols,
• Hold down a shift key with one hand
• And press keys the other hand

Deleting
To delete text that is on the left of the cursor (the line blinking on the point of insertion) use
backspace
The delete text that is on the right of the cursor, use DELETE

BLIND TYPING
This is having your hands dangled in the middle of the keyboard while your fingers rest on
certain keys (home keys).
To ether the letter you need to reach the appropriate key with the closest finger. Thumbs are used
to press space bar. Your other eight fingers, excluding thumbs, rest in the center of the keyboard.

Hand positioning
Fingers of the left had rest on the ASDF keys, while those of the right hand on JKL. The index
fingers are on F and j. These keys have special pimples. The thumbs press the Space Bar.
Different types of keyboards
There are different types of the computer keyboard and the following are some of the keyboards
that are commonly used.
Standard keyboard
Standard keyboard are the basic form of the keyboard. The standard keyboards, although they are
the basic form of the keyboards they do have a slight different in the manner the keys are placed.
Qwerty keyboards are the most common and they have the six alphabets Q, W, E, R, T, Y in the
first row, while in A, Z, E, R, T, Y keyboards these letters are also placed in the first row and
they are commonly used primarily in French countries.

 
  

Advantages of standard keyboards

• Standard keyboards were designed to prevent type bar jam, which occurred when the two
typewriter keys near one another were struck simultaneously and would tangle together
inside the machine
• The standard keyboards are familiar. It is the first method most people use when learning
to type.
Disadvantages
• QWERTY keyboards were designed with the purpose of solving a typewriter issue. On
that has no relevance with today’s computer and laptops
• QWERTY design causes a lot of unnecessary movement in the hands, wasting time and
leading to a greater risk of issues such as carpal tunnel syndrome. (A painful condition of
the hand and fingers caused by compression of a major nerve where it passes over the
carpal bones through a passage at the front of the wrist. CTS are caused by repetitive
movements over a long period, or fluid retention and are characterized by sensations of
tingling, numbness, or burning.
Ergonomic keyboards

Ergonomic refers to the study of methods that can reduce stress on muscles to avoid repetitive
strain injury. Ergonomic keyboards are designed in such a way that typing can be done without
putting more stress on the fingers and wrist. If one is using ergonomic keyboard the work can be
carried out in the easiest manner with the least possible strain on any muscle, joint, or organ.
Ergonomic keyboards come in two forms
• As a single piece, where a group of keys have been split in such a way that the angle at
which the user places his or her wrist to type is the least stressful.
• In the form of separate pieces, each having a group of keys, so that the user can set the
angle to his or her convenience.
Characteristics of ergonomic keyboards

 
  

• Split keyboards
The most ergonomic keyboards have a split keyboard design. A standard keyboard is
divided down the center with the resulting keys arranged in a V shape. This places less
stress on the wrist and is more natural to the arms.
• Adjustable
Ergonomic keyboards are made to allow someone adjust the split angle. If one is not sure
what angle of split keyboard would be best for you, you can find a keyboard with an
adjustable angle.

Disadvantages
• Cost
Ergonomic keyboards tend to be more expensive than standard keyboards.
• Ergonomic keyboards are not familiar to use as compared to standard keyboards.
Wireless keyboards
As the name suggests, these keys do not need to be connected to the computer via a wire. This
makes it very convenient for the user to use the keyboard comfortably. Wireless keyboards use
three basic types of connection, Bluetooth, infrared (IR), and the radio frequency to connect to
the computer.
All the three types of wireless keyboards need external power to function. In most cases they use
batteries.
Compact keyboards
Compact keyboards are slim and usually do not have the numerical keypad that is present on the
right side of other keyboards. These are typically used in laptops, where sizing issues makes it
difficult to accommodate a standard keyboard.
Internet keyboards
The Internet keyboards have special keys, called hot keys, which perform functions related to
Internet usage. Hot keys have functions like back, forward, bookmarks list, e-mail inbox, Google
search, YouTube, shopping online, etc.
This makes browsing on the Internet very convenient, as the user does not have to go through the
process of clicking buttons via a mouse.
Gaming keyboards

 
  

As the name suggests, gaming keyboards are designed especially for gamers. They include
features meant to enhance gaming experience, as well as provide convenient usage for gamers.
They include features like volume control, key lighting, in-built joysticks etc.
Virtual keyboards
Virtual keyboards are software devices that let you input data just like a hardware keyboard.
They open up as an application and can be controlled by a mouse or via a touch screen. They are
mainly used in devices that do not necessarily require a keyboard, like a tablet or a smart phone.
MASTERING THE MOUSE
A mouse is a small device that a computer user pushes across a desk surface in order to point to a
place on a display screens and to select one or more actions to take from that position.
Buttons of the mouse
The mouse has got three types of button
• Right button (right click): it’s the button on the right side of a mouse device. This button
displays a context menu for the object under the pointer
• Left button (left click): the button on the left side of a mouse device. The left button is
frequently used for selection
• Middle button (scroll wheel): it is used for scrolling
Uses of the mouse
The mouse is used to do the following things
• Selecting text or graphics
• Drawing auto shapes
• Pointing at menus
• Displaying menu
Advantages of using a mouse
• It is easy and convenient to use a mouse
• Selection of object on screen is made easier by using a mouse than using a keyboard.
Disadvantages of using a mouse
• A mouse can work only with software designed for e.g. windows
• It cannot be used to input text without the help of the keyboard
• It is not very accurate for drawing purposes.
Different types of mice

 
  

Cordless mice
These communicate to the computer without the use of cables. The advantage of this kind of
mice is that they reduce clutter (a collection of things lying about in an untidy mass) on the
user’s desk, and allow greater freedom as to where the mouse is placed.
Optical mice
These have no moving parts, they use laser light. The advantage with these mice is that they do
not suffer from dirt clogging (they are not affected by dust and dirt).
Gyro mice
These can be used in mid air, they do not need a flat surface that’s they are not affected by dirt
and dust.
Scanners
Scanners are used for a wide range data input.
§ They are used to enter pictures into the computer
§ They are used to input text from a document. The reading of text (hand written or
printed) by the scanner is called Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
§ Scanners are used to read the specially spaced lines in magnetic cards e.g. multiple-
choice examinations in MSCE English. This is called Optical Mark Recognition
(OMR).
§ Some scanners read barcodes on goods and use the data so collected to produce
customer’s bill and update stock records for the shop. This method is known as
Electronic Point Of Sale (EPOS)
§ Other scanners read information from a magnetic strip of a card. When swiped through a
scanner, the scanners transfer account information into the banking system, if used in the
shop this is called Electronic Funds Transfer at Point Of Sale (EFTPOS). Other cards,
however, do not have a strip but have a built-in circuit and a set of gold colored contacts.
These are known as Smart Cards. A good example is: Auto-Teller Machine card
(ATM).
Advantages of using scanners
o Good for inputting pictures and line art
o Good for inputting large amounts of text using OCR
Limitations of scanner

 
  

o Text can be incorrect, some characters like zero and the letter o can be confused
o Flat bed scanners have large footprint.
Joystick
This is used in the same way as a mouse. It is mainly used for playing games. It is otherwise
known as a game controller
Touch Pad
Touch pad is the kind of pointing device used by most laptop computers. The on-screen cursor is
moved by sliding a finger along the surface of the touch pad. The buttons are located below the
pad. Most pads allow left mouse clicking by taping on the pad itself.
Light pad
It looks like ordinary pen but this has a cable connecting it to the computer
Advantages
o It is used to input graphical data
o It has a small foot print
o It is similar to pen or pencil that the user will be familiar with
Limitations
o It is poor at inputting more general data such as text
Track Point
A track point is a small rubber projection embedded between the keys of the keyboard. The track
point acts like a little joystick that can be used to control the position of the on-screen cursor.
The track points are normally used in smaller notebook computers, which do not have space for a
touch pad.
Track ball
A trackball is a kind of mouse with a movement sensitive ball located on top. The ball is rolled
with fingers. The left and right buttons are usually located in the sides.
The trackball have got an advantage over a mouse in that they remain stationary and hence do
not need a lot of room to use. However, like the mouse, dirty rollers can make their cursor
control jumpy and unsmooth. Modern trackballs are optical.
Touch screen

 
  

Touch sensitive display screens are kind of screens where the user can make choices and press
button images on the screen using a stylus. Some computers, especially PDAs, use touch
screens.
Graphic tablets
A graphic tablet consists of an electronic writing area and a special pen that works with it
Graphics tablet allow artists to create a graphical image motions and actions similar to using
more traditional drawing tools.
Other input devices
There are so many other input devices. Some of them are outlined below.
Input device Functions
Microphone • Some computers can respond to spoken word and carry
out instructions like printing or transcribing the spoken
word into text
• Voice can also be recorded in the same audio form on a
computer using a microphone
Digital camera • This can capture and store a picture in an electronic
format without putting it on a film. This picture can also
be transferred into computer via a cable
Digital video camera • This captures moving pictures and can transfer them into
a computer using a cable. This is otherwise known as
video digitizer

Output Devices
These are all devices that bring the results.
Examples of Output devices are
• Monitor
• Printer
• Speakers
• Fax
Forms of output

 
  

• Soft copy: a soft copy is a kind of output, which is not tangible but can only, be seen or
heard. Soft copy can be audio or visual, on a Visual Display Unit (VDU). The most
common, however, is the visual output.
• Hard copy: a hard copy is tangible output of data. Printers mostly produce it.
The difference between hardcopy and softcopy is that hardcopy is the tangible output while
softcopy is the intangible output.
SOFT COPY
MONITOR
Monitor is the most frequently used output. Two important characteristics of monitor are the size
and clarity. The diagonal length of its viewing area indicates a monitor size. Common sizes are
15, 17, 19, and 21.
The monitor’s clarity is indicated by its resolution, which is measured in pixels.
Pixels are individual dots (or picture elements) that form images on a monitor. Pixel is a short
form for picture (pix) and element (el).
Resolution refers to the image sharpness of a display screen. The greater resolution (the more
pixels) the better the clarity of the image. For a given level of clarity, large monitors require a
higher resolution (more pixels).

Uses of the monitor

• It is used to show instructions and data as they are input
• It also displays images
Types of Visual Display Units
There are different types of Visual display Unit namely:
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors
2. Thin Film Transistors (TFT) screen
i. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors
ii. Gas Plasma Display (GPD) monitor: it is a type of Thin display screen which uses
neon gas
Other types of display include
• Electro-Luminescent display (EL)
• Vacuum Fluorescent Display (VFD)

 
  

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors

This works by firing a beam of electrons at a specially coated glass screen
Characteristics of CRTs
• They need a high voltage supply
• They have a curved shape
• They are large, heavy and need a lot of power hence are not suitable to be used by the
laptop computers

Thin Film transistors (TFT) screen

This is often called a flat screen monitor because the display surface is flat rather than having the
slight curved in CRTs.
Characteristics
• They are thin and light, hence are used on laptop computers and other portable devices
like mobile phones
• They do not need high voltage or use a much electrical power as a CRT screen.
• They are more expensive than the CRTs.

HARDCOPY
Hard copy is a tangible output of data. Printers mostly produce Hardcopies.
Printers
A printer is an output device that prints characters, symbols, and graphics on a paper or any other
hardcopy medium. It produces a hard copy form of output.
The quality of sharpness (resolution) is given by DPI (dots per inch). This refers to the measure
of the number of dots printed in a linear inch.
Types of printers
There are two types of printers, namely:
• Impact printers
• Non impact printers
IMPACT PRINTERS

 
  

Impact printer form characters by hammering the shape of a character onto a carbon or ink
ribbon placed against a paper and this leaves an impression of the character on the paper.
Examples of impact printers are the Dot Matrix Printer and Daisy Wheel printers
Dot matrix Printer contains print head of small pins, which strike an inked ribbon against
paper, or carbon, to form an image.
Advantages of dot matrix printer
• They can handle both text and graphics
Disadvantages
• They are generally slow
• Printing quality is not good
• They cannot print color text or graphics
• They are noisy when printing
Daisy wheel printers
Daisy wheel printer has a removable flower-like wheel consisting of spokes with embossed
(mold) characters. When printing, the wheel is rotated to align the required character and then
the character is hit with a hammer.
NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
Non-impact printers form characters and images without direct physical contact between the
printing mechanism and the paper. These printers form characters in various ways such as
spraying ink onto the paper.
Types of non-impact printers

 
  

There are three types of non-impact printers, these are

• Laser printers.
• Inkjet
• Thermal
Laser printers
These printers create images with dots. With laser printers, images are produced on a drum,
treated with magnetically charged ink-like toner, and then are transferred from drum to paper.
Why they are most common non-impact printer
• They produce sharp, crisp images of both text and graphics
• They are quiet and fast
• They can print in different font styles and types.

Inkjet printer
Inkjet printers form the image on the page by spraying tiny droplets of ink on the paper. These
are the most common type for home use systems. Inkjet printers use the cartridge that has
nozzles that do spray ink on the paper.
Advantages
• They can print in color
• They produce good quality printouts
• They are quiet
• They are less expensive
Disadvantages
• They are slow than the laser printers
• They have a lower resolution
• They are more expensive to operate than the laser printer/ replacing the cartridges
What is common in terms of printing among laser, dot matrix, and inkjet printers is that all of
them form images with little dots.
Thermal printers
This printer forms image by burning dots onto special paper, using colored waxes and heat
Advantages
• They produce highest quality color printing

 
  

Disadvantages
• They are very expensive and they use expensive paper.
Difference between impact and non-impact printers
• Impact printers use an inked ribbon or carbon, unlike non-impact printers that use ink or
toner
• Impact printer use a print hammer or a wheel unlike non-impact printer
• Impact printers are noisy when printing, while most of the non-impact printers are silent
• All impact printers do not print colored document, unlike most of the impact printers
which print in color (e.g. inkjet or thermal printers and some expensive laser printers)
Multifunction printers
These are printers that do more than printing. These printers do printing, scanning, copying and
faxing.
This means a single multi function printer combines a photocopier, scanner, and fax machine.
Advantages
• They take less space than using four separate machines
• They accost less than four separate machine
Disadvantages
• If one component breaks, nothing works—if for example, the photocopier component
breaks then the other components; fax, printer, and scanner will not work.
Factors to consider when purchasing a printer
§ Print quality: dot matrix printers are good for bulk printing of draft documents, laser is
good for printing official documents while thermal printers are good for checkout counter
receipts.
§ Initial cost: though the prices of printers have come down, laser and thermal printer are
still expensive compared to inkjet printers
§ Running cost: the cost of maintaining inkjet printer is higher than that of maintaining
laser printers
§ Speed: the speed of the printer is measured in terms of a number of pages it can print per
minute.
§ Colour printing: most printers support black and colour printing. however, colour printer
especially lasers are relatively more expensive.

 
  

Characteristics of impact printers

• They produce noise when printing due to the physical contact between printing head and
the paper
• Most of them are slow when printing
• Most of them produce poor quality output
• They are cheap because they are use ordinary stationery
Characteristics of non-impact printers
• They are quiet when printing because there is no physical contact between printing head
and the paper
• Most of them are fast when printing
• They are very expensive to purchase
• Most of them produce good quality output

STORAGE DEVICES
Storage is an essential feature of the computer. It enables the computer to save, store information
for future use. Computers store data either in chips inside the computer (primary storage) or on
the media such as magnetic disk, compact disk etc., these are called secondary storage.
Secondary storage is the storage of data outside the processor. Secondary storage includes floppy
disk drive and hard disk drive. Primary storage includes ROM and RAM. Data stored in these
chips is immediately accessible to the central processing unit, unlike data stored on secondary
storage where there is a delay while the data is loaded into memory from the storage medium.
Types of secondary storage devices
There are several types of secondary storage devices but the following are the common
1. Magnetic media
2. Optical disks
3. Solid state media
Magnetic media
Magnetic media are those devices whose data is stored in a form of magnetic fields. These
include floppy diskettes and zip disks.
Floppy Disk

 
  

These devices are named floppy because they contain a flexible plastic disc inside. The word
floppy means flexible or not rigid
It is also called a diskette because it is a removable flat piece of Mylar plastic packaged in a 3.5-
inch plastic case.
Parts of floppy disk and their functions
• Write protect notch: it allows one to prevent a diskette from being written to. This means
that the write-protect notch allows one to protect the data already in the disk
• Read/write head: is used to transfer data between the computer and the disk
• Plastic jacket: protects them from dust, sunlight and moisture.
• Metal shutter: slides out of the way when the disk is inserted into the drive to give way
for the read/write head to reach the disk inside.
• Hub/spindle hole: rotates the disk for data retrieval
Types of floppy disks
There are four types of floppy disk and these are
• 3.5-inch floppy disk: these are the present day standard disks. They carry the label 2HD
the 2 means double sided and HD means high density, which means it stores more data
than the previous standard DD- double density
• Zip disks: these are disks with capacity of 100 or 250 megabytes. They are 70 times the
storage of the standard floppy disks.
Zip disks are used to
§ Store large spread sheet files
§ Store data base files
§ Store image files
§ Store multimedia presentation files and websites
• Super disks: they are disks with the capacity of 120 megabytes
• HiFD disk: HiFD disks have the capacity of 200 megabytes. They have 140 times the
capacity of today’s standard floppy disks
Note: zip disks; super disks and HiFD are known as the floppy disk cartridges.
Advantages of floppy disks
• They are cheap
• Floppy disk is available in most computers.

 
  

Disadvantages
• They hold very little data
• They can easily get damaged when exposed to sunlight, moisture and dust.

HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD)

Hard Disks are thin but rigid metal platters covered with a substance that allows data to be held
in the form of magnetized spots. Unlike floppy disks that use flexible plastic, hard disk uses
metal.
Hard disks are sealed form impurities within a container since they can take (attract) things like
dust particles, smoke particles, human hair, finger print smudge etc. which can cause what is
called a head crash.
Head Crash
• A head crash happens when the surface of the read/write head or particles on the surface
comes in contact with the surface of the hard disk platters.
• A head crash also happens when you bump a computer too hard
• Head crash causes the loss of data on the disk since they may fail to read.

Types of Hard Disk

There are three types of hard disks namely
1. Removable hard disk (external): these consist of one or two platters enclosed along with
read/write heads in a hard plastic case, which is inserted into a microcomputers cartridge
drive.
They are used to transport huge files, such like desktop publishing files with color and
graphics and large spreadsheets. They are also used to back up data.
2. Non removable hard disk (internal): they are also known as fixed disk because they are
located inside the system unit and are used to store almost all programs and data files.
Nearly every microcomputer uses its internal hard disk to store its Operating system and
major application like MS Word and Ms. Excel.
3. Hard disk packs: these are removable devices used to store massive amounts of
information.
Performance enhancement (how to improve the performance of hard disks)

 
  

There are three ways of improving the performance of hard disks and these are: Disk Caching,
redundant arrays of inexpensive disks and file compression/decompression.
Disk caching
This improves hard disk performance by anticipating data needs. Hard disks improve their access
time by caching. Disk cache, sometimes called a buffer, consists of memory chips on a hard disk
that stores most frequently accessed items such as data, instructions, and information. Disk
caching and memory caching works on the similar fashion. When a processor requests data,
instructions, or information from the hard disk, the hard disk first checks its disk cache-before
moving any mechanical parts to access the platters. If the requested item is in disk caches, the
hard disk sends it to processor. If the hard disk does not find the requested item in the disk cache,
then the processor must wait for the hard disk to locate and transfer the item from the disk to the
processor.
During the idle processing time, frequently used data is read from the hard disk into memory.
When needed, the data is accessed directly from the memory. The transfer rate from memory is
much faster than from hard disk, as a result, the overall system performance is increased by as
much as 30 percent.

Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (RAIDS)

This improves the performance by expanding external storage. Groups of inexpensive hard disks
drive are related or grouped together using networks and special software. These grouped disks
are treated as a single large capacity hard disk. They can outperform single disks of comparable
capacities.
File compression and Depression
This increases storage capacity by reducing the amount of space required to store data and
programs.
File compression helps to speed up transmission of files from one computer system to another.
Two well know file compression programs are WinZip and KPzip
Advantages of Hard Disk
• They can read and write data faster than floppy drives
• They have a large storage capacity
Disadvantages of Hard Disk Drive

 
  

• They are prone to head crashes (a situation when the read/write head touches the surface
of the disk)
Advantages of hard disks over floppy disks
• Hard disks have a large volume of storage capacity
• Access in hard disks is faster than in floppy disks
OPTICAL DISKS/media
An optical disk is a removable disk on which data is written and read through the use of laser
beam. Examples are CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD and VCD.
CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)
Advantages of CD-ROM
• They have large amount of storage capacity
• Data stored is permanent- there cannot be accidentally changed or deleted
• Production is very cost effective when a large number of copies are produced.
Disadvantages
• Access is as fast as for magnetic disk
• You cannot write your own data on the CD.
CD-R (compact Disk Recordable)
Advantages
• They can be read by ordinary CD drives
• Data is permanent
• They have a large data storage volume
Disadvantages
• Access is not as fast as for magnetic disks
• They cannot be reused if the data on them is no longer needed
• Not all computers have a CD-R writer.
CD-RW (Compact Disk Re-writable)
Advantages
• Disk can be reused
• Can be read by a normal CD drive
• Direct and sequential access possible

 
  

• They have a large storage capacity

Disadvantages
• They are more expensive than the CD-R
• They are slower to write to than the CD-R
• Access is not as fast as the magnetic disk.

DVD (Digital Versatile Disk or digital Video Disk) and VCD (Video Compact Disk)
Advantages
• They have a large amount of storage space
• Data is permanent
Disadvantages
• They are more expensive
• They may not be read in other CD drives
Solid state Drives
Solid State Drives are storage devices that use flash memory to store data, instruction and
information. Flash memory is the type of memory that retains (keep) data, instruction or
information in the absence of power supply. They are called solid-state drives because they have
no moving parts. The lack of moving parts makes flash memory storage more durable than other
types of media such as magnetic hard disks and optical discs
Examples of solid-state drives include memory cards, USB flash drives, ExpressCard modules
etc.

Registers: these are the special high-speed storage areas

Function: they are used by the control unit and the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), to speed
up processing.
Buses: buses or bus lines are electrical data roadways through which bytes are transmitted within
the CPU and between the CPU and other components of the CPU.
The three principal bus lines are

 
  

• Industry standard architecture (ISA). It is too slow and was developed by International
Business Machines (IBM)
• Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI). It is faster than ISA
• Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP). It is the newest and it is very fast.
Ports: a port is a connecting socket on the outside of the system unit.
Types of ports
Serial ports: these are used for variety of purposes. They are used to connect a mouse,
keyboard, modem and many other. They are good for sending information over a long distance.
Parallel ports: these are used to connect devices that need to send or receive a lot of data over a
short distance. Parallel ports are used to connect printers to the system.
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGPs): these are used to connect monitors and they are able to
support high-speed graphics and other video input.
Universal Serial Bus (USB) port: these are faster ports and are used to connect several devices
to the system unit. They are expected to gradually replace serial and parallel ports.
FireWire ports: these ports are newest. These ports are faster than the USB ports. They connect
high-speed printers and even video cameras to the system unit.
Multiplexing: this is the process that allows multiple programs to be communicating at the same
time.

COMMUNICATION DEVICES
Communication is defined as a process in which two or more computers or devices transfer data,
instructions, and information. Today, even the smallest computers and devices, with hundreds of
computers and devices can communicate directly with one another, with hundreds of computers
on company network or with millions of other computers around the globe, often via the internet.

For successful communication you need the following

§ A sending device that initiates an instruction to transmit data, instruction, or information.

§ A communication device that connects the sending device to a communication channel.

 
  

§ A communications channel, or transmission media on which the data, instructions or

information travel.
§ A communication device that connects the communication channel to a receiving device
§ A receiving device that accepts the transmission of data, instructions, or information.

MODEM
Modem means (MODulator-DEModulator)
Modem is a device that changes signals from analogue to digital or digital to analogue.
Modulation: is the process of converting from digital to analogue
Demodulation: is the process of converting from analogue to digital.
How it works
Modem connected to a computer converts the computer’s digital signals into analog signals into
eh process known as
The Modem enables digital microcomputers to communicate across analogue telephone lines.
Modern is regarded as an input and an output because for incoming signals it converts the
analogue signal into a digital signal and for the outgoing signals it converts the digital signal into
analogue signals
TYPES OF MODEMS
There are three types of modem and these include internal, external and wireless modem
Internal modem: consist of a plug-in circuit board inside the system unit. A telephone cable
connects the modem to the telephone cable wall jack
External modem: this modem stands apart from the computer and is connected by a cable to the
computer serial port. Another cable connects the modem to the telephone wall jack.
Wireless modem: it connects to the computer serial port not to telephone lines. Wireless
modems receive through the air.
Advantages of modems
§ They are cheap
§ They are easy to use
§ They can be used anywhere provided a telephone line is available.
Disadvantages
§ Data transfer through a modem is relatively slow.

 
  

As a result, much faster digital modems for Internet connection were developed; these are
ISDN, ADSL and Network Hub/Switch
ISDN (Integrated Service Digital Network)
Advantages of ISDN lines
§ It sends and receives data much faster than a modem
§ It has the capability of handling large amounts of data.
§ It enables videoconferencing (users can talk to and see each other)
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
Advantages
§ It sends and receives data much faster than both a modem and ISDN
§ It does not require a dial up connection---a connection in which a computer gets
connected to the internet when a modem dials up to a telephone number provided by
internet services provider (ISP)
§ Users are permanently connected to the internet
§ You can still make receive calls on the telephone line connected
Network Hub/Switch
A hub or a switch is a central point that connects several devices in a network together. These are
devices used to connect computers on Local Area Network (LAN). Computers on network can
access each other through the hub or switch. In a star network, these help each individual
computer to access information on the source computer without going through other computers.
Network Cards
They are sometimes called a network interface card (NIC pronounced nick), is a communications
device that enables a computer or device that does not have built-in networking capability to
access a network. Network cards are in a variety of styles. A network card for a desktop
computer is an adapter card that has a port to which a cable connects. A network card for mobile
computers and devices is in the form of a USB network adapter, Express Card, PC Card, or a
memory card.

SOFTWARE SYSTEM
Definitions

 
  

Software is set of computer programs that were designed to improve the work of the computer
system.
Programs are a group of instruction that tells hardware what to do. On its own, hardware cannot
do anything. A program can be a single program or a set of programs. It also includes data that
has been. Example of software: windows etc.
Functions of software
§ To optimize the work of a computer
§ To facilitate the running of users programs
§ To provide assistance with program development
TYPES OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE
There are two types of computer software: namely
1. Systems software
2. Application software

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software is the software that controls the hardware and how all other software works.
System software enables the application software to interact with the computer. System software
consists of the programs that control or maintain the operations of the computer and its devices.
System software serves as the interface between the user, the application software, and the
computer’s hardware. It also helps the computer manage its internal and external resources.
Types/components of system software
The following are the components of the system software
1. Operating system
2. Utility programs
3. Language translators
4. Device drivers
Operating system (OS)
Operating system is a set of programs containing instructions that work together to coordinate all
the activities among computer hardware resources.
Functions of Operating System

 
  

Many different operating systems exist, designed for all types of computers. However, most
operating systems provide similar functions. Here are some of the functions of the operating
systems.
1. Booting: this is the process of starting or restarting a computer. When turning on a
computer that has powered off completely, you are performing cold boot. A warm
booting is the process of using the operating system to restart a computer. Warm boot
closes any running processes and programs; however, it does not save any unsaved work.
Thus, always remember to save your work before rebooting (restarting) a computer.
Boot disk: is a drive from which your personal computer boots (starts). Sometimes a
hard drive becomes damaged and the computer cannot boot from the hard disk, or you
may want to preview an operating system without installing it. In these cases, you can
boot from a special disk, called a boot disk or recovery disk that contains a few system
files that will start the computer.
Other functions include
2. Updating software automatically: the operating system provides automatic updates to
most programs in the computer.
3. Configuring devices: each device on a computer, such as the mouse, keyboard, monitor,
printer etc., has its own specialized set of commands/ drivers. When you boot the
computer, the operating system loads each device driver; these drivers will not function
without their correct drivers.
4. Operating systems also play a role in providing system security: most multi user systems
require users to use user ID and password before allocating access to the system. The
operating system checks the validity of the entered information and reports any attempted
breaches of security.
5. Monitoring system activities: the other function of the operating system is to monitor
system activities. The operating system will notify the user if input/output devices need
attention, if an error has occurred, or if anything abnormal occurs in the system.
6. Operating systems also provides help to End-Users: all operating system pride help on
some areas through the use of F1 button
7. Memory management: controlling the amount of memory used for each application as
well as itself

 
  

8. Error handling: the OS detects any interruption in the executing of the program
instructions and gives possible cause and/or solution. These errors may include when a
printer run out of paper in the course of printing and hardware and software malfunction.
9. Providing file management and other utilities: operating system provides users with the
capability of managing files, searching for files, viewing images, uninstalling programs,
cleaning disks, setting up screen servers etc.
10. Disk formatting:
Types of operating system
There are three categories of operating system namely
1. Single user operating systems
This is a kind of operating system which allows only one user to run one program at a time. For
example, if you are working in a graphics program and want to check e-mail messages, you must
quit the graphics program before you can run the email program. Early systems were single
user/single tasking. Smart phones and other mobile devices, however, often use a single
user/single tasking operating system. Most other operating systems today are multitasking.
2. Multi-user operating system
This type of operating system allows two or more users to run programs simultaneously.
Networks, servers, mainframes, and supercomputers allow hundreds to thousands of users to
connect at the same time.
3. Multitasking operating system
These are operating systems that allow a user to have several applications running
simultaneously and to switch between them. In this case, there is no need to close one program
before running another one.
USER INTERFACE
In more general terms, an operating system provides a means of communication between the
computer and the user. This communication is known as user interface. There are a number of
user interfaces that have been in use with computers. These include: command line interface,
menu driven interface, and Graphic User Interface (GUI)
Command line interface uses instructions (commands) with specialized syntax (grammatically
arranged words), which the user and the computer can understand. The user types the commands
instructing the computer what to do and in response the computer gives the response after

 
  

executing the command. The response may sometimes be in form of further instructions to the
user. The disadvantage with this interface is that it requires the user to give exact spelling,
grammar and punctuation. Examples of command line interface are in the disk Operating
System.
Menu driven interface was invented to address the problems of memorizing commands that
command line interface had. In menu driven interface, the tasks that the computer can do are
listed in menus that are displayed for the user to choose. This is more user-friendly because it
does not require a lot of memorizing. However, the tasks that the computer can do are so many
that menus are required to display them effectively. This leads to the problem of having so many
menus and submenus making it difficult for one to easily tell where one item or the other is.
Graphic User Interface is the most user-friendly interface. It uses a combination of menus,
graphics, windows and pointers. With these, it is very easy to communicate with computer. For
details on how GUI works, see the section on Windows below.

DISK OPERATING SYSTEM (DOS)

Disk Operating system is essentially command-driven interface. It allows a chain of complex
commands to be entered into a computer to customize the operating system for a particular use.
The user is supposed to type in commands in exactly the correct syntax to perform any operation.
Contents of DOS
The DOS contains a number of items of which some are as follows
• Command interpreter/processor: this is a file which holds instructions for interpreting
most of the various commands. The command interpreter comprises of mainly
instructions which command services frequently needed, which are called internal
commands e.g. COPY. These are called internal commands because they are held in the
memory of a computer all the time.
• External commands: these are instructions for services which are less frequently used. As
such, these are kept on s removable disk and are run when required.
• Command line or DOS prompt: the A> or B> or C> symbol which is displayed on the
screen after booting up. The drive displayed is called the default drive or current drive
Information organization

 
  

It is helpful to keep information in an organized manner for easy retrieval. To be able to do this,
you need to understand Dos file structure
Computers store information using devices known as drives. On PCs drives are labeled using
drive letters as follows.
A-first floppy drive
B-second floppy drive (if available)
C-first hard disk drive. If there are other additional hard disk drives, they take subsequent drive
letters such as D, E and F.
If there are other drives, for example, CD or DVD-ROM drives, they carry the drive letters
following hard drive letters. That is, if you have two hard disk drives they will be labeled C and
D the CD-ROM drive will be drive E.
All information in a computer is kept in form of files. A computer file is similar to a paper
document holding related information. All files are stored in directories. A directory is like a
container for keeping files.
Advantages of information organization
• It is easy to find and retrieve information one needs.
• It is easy to transfer information from one location to another.
• It is easy to sort the information.
DOS file management systems
DOS uses specified commands to work with files. At this time. You need to start your computer
in DOS, if you have already started the computer; this can be done by opening command prompt
which falls either under programs or accessories in the start menu.
DOS prompt like this
C :\> you will also see the blinking cursor after it. Whatever you type will appear on the screen
and this is called command line, because it is where you type commands to DOS.
Changing drives
To change current drive:
§ Type drive letter for the drive you want followed by a colon
§ Press enter
For example, if you want to make the flash drive E a current drive, type E: at the system prompt.
When you press Enter, you will see the following

 
  

E :\>
Viewing the content of directories
To display or lists the contents of the active directory you use the DIR commands as follows:
§ Type DIR
§ Press space bar once
§ Type location of the directory (see file location)
To display the contents of directory page by page
§ You type space and /P after the DIR command
For example
C:\>dir /P
Changing directories
To view a file or execute a program in a directory or subdirectory, made the directory containing
the program or file the active directory. This is done using CHANGE DIRECTORY (CD)
commands as follows:
§ At command prompt, type CD
§ Press space bar (type a space)
§ Type the directory name of the one you want to make active
§ Press enter.
For example, if you are at C :\> and you want to change to program files directory, type the
following at command and press enter.
CD program files
To return to the root directory
§ Type CD\ at command prompt
§ Press enter
Creating a directory
To create a directory, the MKDIR (or DIR) command is used as follows:
§ Type MKDIR.
§ Press space bar
§ Type location where you want to create the directory.
If you want to create a directory named TEST in the directory C, for example, press enter after
typing:

 
  

MKDIR C:\TEST
Deleting directories
The command RMDIR is used to remove a directory. The abbreviation RD can also be used.
§ Type RMDIR
§ Press space bar
§ Type location and press enter
To remove the directory TEST for example
§ Type RMDIR C:\TEST
§ Press Enter
Deleting files in a directory
To erase a file the DEL command is used as follows:
§ Type DEL
§ Press space bar
§ Type location
§ Press Enter.
For example, to remove a file named PETER from drive C:
• Type DEL C: WAKHONZA.
• Press Enter.
To erase all contents o f a directory use DEL command, for example, to remove files from TEST
directory:
• Types DEL C:\TEST\*.*
• Press Enter
Copying files
Files can be copies from one directory to another. To do this, the COPY command is used as
follows
• Type copy
• Press space bar
• Type the present file name (including its extension and location).
• Press space bar
• Type the destination location and its file name (this may be the same name as in source
directory)

 
  

• Press Enter
For example, to copy the files PETER directory
• Type COPY C:\TEST\PETER.DOC C:\NOTES\PETER
• Press Enter
To copy all files from one directory to another, wild card characters are used.
For example, the following command will copy all files from PETER directory to NOTES
directory.
• Type COPY C:\TEST*.*C:\NOTES
I f you make TEST your current directory, this command will be shortened to the following
COPY C:\*.*C\NOTES
Renaming files
Files can be renamed using the RENAME command as follows:
• Type RENAME
• Press space bar
• Type old FILE NAME (including location)
• Press space bar
• Type new name
For example, if you want to rename PETER which is in Notes directory to become CEDAR
• Type: RENAME Peter Cedar
• Press Enter
The rename command can also be abbreviated as REN
DISK MANAGEMENT
Formatting a disk
A disk cannot be used with a computer unless it is formatted. Formatting is a process during
which the computer arranges the surface of the disk into a form it can recognize and use to store
data.
Note that formatting will erase all data or programs on the disk:
To format a disk, the FORMAT command is used as follows:
• Type FORMAT
• Press space bar
• Type drive to be formatted

 
  

• Press Enter
For example, if you want a floppy disk (in drive A):
• Type FORMAT A:
• Press Enter
If you want to format the drive which is the current root directory, just type FORMAT and press
Enter
Labeling a Disk
Once a format command has been run, you will be prompted to supply the label of your disk so
that you should be able to know what it contains next time you want to use it
Copying a disk
There are two ways of copying a disk. One uses an eternal DOS command known as
DISKCOPY. Another one uses an internal DOS command known as COPY

To copy contents of a floppy disk in drive A using the DISKCOPY command

• Type DISKCOPY A: A:
• Press Enter
This command will load the disk copy program from DOS. You will prompt to insert a source
diskette in drive A. do this and press Enter

Creating a folder that cannot be deleted

• Select derive or location where you want to create the folder
• Type md lpt1\
• Press enter
To delete the locked folder
• Type rd lpt1\
• Press enter
Using the COPY command
• Type COPY
• Type space
• Type Source Disk drive and wild cards
• Type Destination Disk drive

 
  

• Press Enter
For example, to copy contents of a diskette in drive A into a diskette in drive B
• Type COPY A:*.*B:
• Press Enter
Wildcard characters
Sometimes you need to delete or copy more than one file. This can be time consuming to delete
one file at a time. In order to handle multiple files with DOS commands, you use what are known
as wildcards character.
Wildcards are character that can be used to represent more than one letter. DOS has two wild
card characters which can be used in file specifications: the asterisk (*) and a question (?)
The question mark
A question mark in a filename extension stands for any single character in that position
Example
If you want to delete all files in a directory you can
• Type DEL ????????.???
• Press Enter
This command is instructing the computer to delete all files with any character in every position
of the file name. Each character of the file name is represented by each question mark
Example
If you want to copy all files with a name beginning with Test (that is, files with names like
Testament, Test-tube, Testimony):
• Type COPY A: TEST????,????
• Press Enter
The Asterisk
An asterisk in a file name means that any character or combination of characters can be in that
position in the rest of the filename. This is a short hand for a series of question marks.
Example 1
To delete all files from a directory:
• Type DELL*.*
• Press Enter

 
  

WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

Windows is a kind of operating system that uses the Graphic User interface to facilitate
communication between the computer and the user. GUI uses a number of facilities – a
combination of which makes the GUI t be the most user-friendly type of interface.
Contents of Windows
Windows basically consists of the GUI which has four major components namely: Windows,
Icons, Menus and Pointers. They are in short abbreviated as WIMP

Windows
Windows is a rectangular area on a display screen in which text or graphical images may be
displayed. Several windows may be displayed on a screen at the same time. Most computers use
software that handles all screen displays by means of windows.
Each window provides menus and icons which can be used to execute commands relevant to the
task in the window. Almost every window in the Windows environment contains some basic
buttons for closing, minimizing and restoring the window (except for dialog boxes which contain
only button for closing the window)
Icons
Icons are buttons with small meaningful pictures or symbols of the things they represent for easy
memorization of their functions. They are used as a shortcut for opening he items or sending the
command they represent. There are several types of icons and these include
• Program icons
• File icons
• Folder icons
• Toolbar icons
These program, file or folder icons are displayed in dialog boxes or on the desktop.

 
  

§ Program icons consist of a symbol of the program they represent and a small caption
under the icon
§ Folder icons usually consist of yellow boxes with the name of the folder under it
§ File icons consist of a symbol for the program that was used to create the file and the
name of the file under it.
MENUS
Menus are indicates=d in two major ways; by name and by a small black triangle on the right of
a list or an icon.
Pointers
Pointers are tools used for pointing and clicking on icons, menus, and other items.
Advantages of Windows over DOS
• It is more user friendly because of the GUI
• It is faster than DOS
• With many utility software attached to it, it is easy to maintain.
• It is task oriented
• It can handle several tasks at the same time making it possible to work with several
programs at once.
File management in Windows Environment
Files in windows are organized in drives which contain folders and subfolders (folders
containing other folders). Folders are like containers or filing cabinets. They can contain other
folders referred to as sub-folders and files.
To locate a file or a folder, you trace it through a file path. This is a chain of folders and sub-
folders which lead to where the folder or file is. It is otherwise known as an address. For
example, a fillet ha is on Drive C and is in the folder my music, contained in another folder
personal which is in the folder my documents will have the following as its address:
C:\user\Peter\my music
The above address simply means my music is contained in Peter which is in User which in turn
in contained in Drive C. it is important to know addresses because they assist in locating lost
files or folders.
Searching for lost files or folders
To locate a file or folders

 
  

• Click on start
• Click find
• Type file of folder name
• Click find now
Creating a folder
To create a folder inside another folder
• Right-click anywhere inside the folder in which you want to create the other folder or on
desktop
• Select New
• Click folder
• Type Folder Name
To create a folder in a dialog box
• Click the new folder icon on the toolbar of the dialog box
• Type folder name in the textbox provided.

Utility programs
Utility programs are also known as service programs.
Utility programs are generally used to support enhance, or expand existing programs in a
computer system.
They perform tasks related to the control and allocation of computer resource. They enhance
existing functions or provide services that are not provided by system software programs.
Functions provided by utility programs include the following: managing files, searching for files,
viewing images, uninstalling programs, cleaning up disks, defragmenting disks, backing up files
and disks, setting up screen savers, protecting against viruses, removing spyware (program
placed on a computer without the user’s knowledge that secretly collects information about the
user). and adware (software that automatically displays or downloads advertising material
(often unwanted) when a user is online). filtering Internet content, burning optical media
discs, playing media files etc.

Examples of tasks done by the utility programs are

• Software protection against damage by viruses

 
  

• Creating back ups

• When there is a software crash, utilities help to recover the lost files.
Language translators
These are instructions produced by programs to create system and application software. They are
used to translate or convert the statements (an instruction in the computer program) in
programming language into a form that the computer can understand.
Programming language
It is a set of rules and symbols that tells the computer what operations to do
Machine language
It is the basic language of a computer that is represented in 0s and 1s
Programming language is also called high-level language
Machine language is also called low-level language
Types of language translators:
There are two types of language translators namely: compiler and interpreter
Compiler
A compiler is a language translator that converts the entire program of a high level language into
a machine code before the computer executes the program.
The interpreter
An interpreter is a language translator that converts each high level statement (an instruction in a
computer program) into machine language and executes it immediately, statement by statement.
The difference between a compiler and an interpreter is that compiler translates the entire
program into machine code while a compiler translates statement by statement.
Device drivers
These are specialized software programs that allow input and output devices to communicate
with the rest of the computer.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software is software that has been developed to solve a particular problem, to
perform useful work on specific tasks, or provide entertainment.
Types of application software
There are two types of application software

 
  

§ General purpose software (or genetic or content free software)

§ Custom designed software (or bespoke or tailor software)
General-purpose software
General-purpose software is a kind of software that is made for different applications or use. The
user decides what to use the software for. Thus y they are called content-free because it is the
user who decides what to use the software for. Examples of general-purpose software
application programs are word processors, spreadsheets, and database.
Custom-designed/tailor made software
Tailor-made software is software designed for a specific field. Examples of tailor made software
include
§ Sage for accounting
§ Payroll software for preparing salaries of employees
§ SPSS (Software Package for Social Science) for statistics
Type of software Examples of application Purpose
software
Word processing Microsoft word, Corel Writing letters, reports and
WordPerfect, Lotus Word Pro other documents
Spreadsheets Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Working with calculations,
Corel Quattro Pro creating models, simulation
Databases Microsoft Access, Lotus Organizing, sorting and
Approach, FileMaker Pro, searching data
Corel Paradox
Desktop publishing Microsoft Publisher, Serif Production of brochures,
PagePlus, Adobe PageMaker, newsletters, invitation cards
Quark Express
Presentation software Microsoft PowerPoint, Designing and presenting slide
Microsoft Photo Editor, Corel shows to an audience
Painter, Adobe Photoshop,
Adobe Illustrator
Graphics Microsoft Paint, Microsoft Painting and drawing
Photo Editor, Corel Painter,

 
  

Adobe Photoshop, Adobe

Illustrator
Computer-aided design Autodesk autoCAD, Viagrafix For designing architectural
DesignCAD plans and models.

SAFE USE AND MANAGEMENT OF COMPUTER AND LABORATORIES

Most computer parts and software are vulnerable to both intentional and accidental destruction.
The destruction can lead to loss of software and data. It is therefore, important to observe some
safety precautions in keeping and using computers.
Management of computer laboratory
Computer laboratory is a place where computers are kept and used. Computer laboratories and
the computers themselves must be kept clean at all the times so that they do not breakdown
easily.
Qualities of a good laboratory
The good computer laboratory must have the following
§ Smoke detectors and fire extinguishers- this prevent fire that can damage the computers
and other files
§ Carpet- to prevent dust that can damage the storage devices and even the computers
§ Celling and air conditioners – to regulate temperature
§ Lockable doors – to prevent thieves and any unauthorized personnel
§ Security guards – to prevent physical security around the premises
§ Well ventilated – to allow good circulation of air
§ All electricity cables should be wired properly to avoid accidents
§ Should have adequate light
§ Should always be clean
§ Uninterrupted Power Supply- to allow saving of data and proper shutting down of
computer in cases of electrical power failures.
Lab assistants/Personnel
It is very important that a computer laboratory should have well trained staff. the lab personnel
is there to assist the student with resolving problems relating to coursework. The lab assistants

 
  

assist with general problems that students may encounter while visiting in then labs eg printing
jam, saving files etc.
The computer labs are for education purposes only. Lab users failing to comply with the lab
guidelines may lose privileges to campus lab facilities.
Duties of lab assistants
§ Keep the lab clean and organized; pick up thrsh, paper, disks, pens etc
§ Straighten chairs, keyboards, mice, monitors etc
§ Clean monitors
§ Notify technical staff if the supply are low
§ Be alert to students
§ Assist the students with computer problems
§ Delete students files and extra files from the desktop
§ Make sure no one enters the labs while the classes are in session
§ Make sure the computer desks are clean
§ Connect and power on all peripherals before powering on the computer
Rules and regulations to be observed in the computer lab
DON’T
§ Switch off your computer without shutting down using the start button
§ Bring food or drinks into the lab
§ Disconnect the keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer or ny peripheral if the PC is powered
on at the mains
§ Use tobacco products in the lab
§ Play games in the lab
§ Enter lab if the class is in session
§ Change software preferences
§ Save any personal files to hard drives
§ Save username or passwords used by you to log in to accounts
DO
§ Save all your files to removable media (USB drive, etc)
§ Return all lab materials
§ Talk softly in the lab

 
  

Leadership role
§ Talk to the staff or teachers whenever you feel something needs to change
§ Come up with ideas on how to improve our services in order to serve the students better
§ Remember to know about the Do’s and Don’ts
Possible causes of loss of data and software in the lab
In the computer lab, data and other important information can be lost. This can be so due to a
number of factors like:
§ Power failure – interrupted power supply can lead to both destruction of delicate parts of
computer such as hard disks and loss of unsaved data
§ Crashing of disk
§ Natural disaster such as fire, earthquakes can destroy computer system
§ Accidental erasure of data: data can be lost through faulty procedures which may lead to
users erasing data accidentally.
§ Viruses can also cause havoc in your computer system causing massive loss of data
§ Dust
§ Thieves and hackers etc.
Safety measures against loss of software and data
To prevent loss of software and data, there is a need to follow proper rules of keeping our
computers and the computer laboratory.
These include:
§ Physical restrictions on the computer laboratory: no one should be allowed to enter into
the computer lab without the presence of properly trained and responsible personnel
§ Thieves and hackers: Burglar proofing the laboratory to prevent thieves from stealing
computers or accessories
§ Fire: Having fire fighting equipment inside the laboratory
§ Dust: Dust proofing your computers by covering them with a cloth after use
§ Keeping our laboratory clean and ventilated
§ For power failure: Connect our computer to Uninterrupted Power Supply – when the
mains electricity has gone off, the UPS retains power for several minutes allowing the
user to save his/her work and shut down the computer properly.
§ Viruses: Having anti-viral software to protect computers from viral attacks

 
  

§ Crashing of disk: Back up all files that in case of loss of data, the back up can be used
instead
§ Accidental erasure: make sure you know what you want to do. Be skillful and
competent.

COMPUTER VIRUSES

Personal firewall
A personal firewall is a utility that detects and protects a personal computer from unauthorized
intrusions. When connected to the Internet, your computer is vulnerable to attacks from a hacker.
A hacker is someone who tries to access a computer or a network illegally.
Operating systems often include personal firewall. Windows automatically enables its built-in
personal firewall, called windows firewall, upon installation of the operating system. If your
operating system does not include a personal firewall or you want additional protection, you can
purchase a stand-alone personal firewall utility or a hardware firewall, which is a device such as
a router that has a built in firewall.

Virus
A computer virus is a program designed to harm or cause harm on an infected computer. It
spreads through e-mail attachments, portable devices, websites containing malicious scripts and
file downloads. A computer virus attaches itself to the host files and always activate whenever
you open the infected fi9les. The virus can replicate itself and then infect the other files on your
computer causing more damage.
Computer viruses do not generate by chance. The programmer of a virus, known as a virus
author, intentionally writes a virus program. Some authors find writing viruses a challenge.
Others write virus programs to cause destruction. Writing a virus program usually requires
significant programming skills.
Signs of Virus infection
• An unusual message or image is displayed on the computer screen
• An unusual sound or music plays randomly
• The available memory is less than what should be available

 
  

• A program or file suddenly is missing

• An unknown program or file mysteriously appears
• A file becomes corrupted
• A program or a file does not work properly
• The computer operates much slower than usual.
Different types of computer viruses
There are different types of computer viruses and the following are some of the types and what
they do.
Macro viruses
These viruses infect the files created using some applications or programs that contain macros.
They hide in documents shared through e-mail and network.
Memory resident viruses
They usually fix themselves inside the computer memory. They get activated every time the OS
runs and end up infecting other opened files. They hide in RAM.
Overwrite viruses
These types of viruses delete any information in a file they infect, leaving them partially or
completely useless once they are infected.
Direct action viruses
These viruses mainly replicate or take action once they are executed. When a certain condition is
met, the virus will act by infecting the files in the directory or the folders. The viruses are
generally found in the hard drive, but they keep on changing location
Directory virus
Also known as cluster virus or file system virus. They infect the computers directory by
changing the path indicating file location. They are usually located in the disk but affect the
entire directory.
FAT Viruses
These viruses attack the File Allocation Table (FAT) which is the disc part used to store every
information about the available space, location of files, unusable space etc.
Boot sector
It attaches itself to the bootstrap of the hard drive and prevents the computer from booting
correctly. Those are usually spread through removable storage devices

 
  

Logic bombs/time bombs

These viruses are made to take a particular action on a particular date or when a certain event
takes place. An example is a virus that can be set to delete database or crash software if a
particular employee is fired. Software companies use this feature in their trial version software
where when a certain time period elapses, the software asks you to for the paid up license
otherwise it stops functioning.
Back door/trap doors
These are viruses that open up a security for unauthorized user to access the computer without
the knowledge of the authorized user.
Companion viruses
These types of viruses infect files just like the direct action and the resident types. Once inside
the computer, they accompany other existing files.
E-mail virus
This is the virus spread via an email. Such virus will hide in an email and when the recipient
opens the mail it infect the computer.
Worm
This program is very similar to virus and has the ability to self-replicate leading to negative
effects on your computer.
Trojan horse
Unlike viruses, Trojan horse does not replicate itself but it can be just destructive. Trojan horse is
those programs that claim to rid your computer of viruses but instead introduces viruses into
your computer.
Measures to control/prevent viruses’ infection
i. Avoid sharing removable storage media: where sharing has to take place, scan the media
for virus infection before reading files from it
ii. Avoid open unknown emails or software from questionable sources
iii. Install a good anti-virus software. Anti viruses identifies the virus in the computer and
use that information it has about the virus to clean it from the computer files. Most
viruses are easy to clean however, polymorphic and metamorphic viruses are a bit
complicated because they keep on changing every time they replicate with the aim of
evading detection.

 
  

Antivirus
To protect a computer from virus attacks, users should install an antivirus program and update it
frequently. An antivirus program protects a computer against viruses by identifying and
removing any computer viruses found in memory, on storage media, or on incoming files. Most
antivirus programs also protect against worms and Trojan horse. When you purchase a new
computer, it often includes antivirus software.

COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Communication
Communication is defined as the process in which two or more computers or devices transfer
data, instructions, and information
Data communication is the process of transmitting data signal from one point to another through
the network.
Terms used in data communication
Some of the terms used in data communication include:
Data signal: this is an electric current which is used to transfer data from one device to another.
Signal modulation and demodulation: this is the process of converting data signals to and from a
form that is suitable for transmission over a transmission medium. For example, modem.
Multiplexing: this is the process of sending multiple data signal over the same medium.
Demultiplexing is the process of separating the multiplexed signals at the receiving end.
Bandwidth: is the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can carry at any time
and measured in HERTZ.
Broadband signal: is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the transmission medium
directly without modulation
Broadband transmission: is the transmission of analog signal over the medium using a particular
frequency.
Attenuation:
This is the decrease in magnitude and energy of a signal as it progressively moves along a
transmission medium.

 
  

Modes of data communication

Simplex transmission: it is then transmission of data in one direction
For example: computer which can transfer information to the printer but the printer cannot
transfer back to then computer
§ Radio because there is no feedback
Half duplex transmission: is a mode of transmission, data is transferred in both direction but
not simultaneously for example fax machine
Full duplex transmission: this is mode of transmission, data is transferred in both direction but
simultaneously for example: telephone, discussion
Networks
network is a collection of computers and devices connected together via communication media
and transmission media.
Importance of Network
i. Facilitate communication: using communication people communicate efficiently and
easily via E-mail, instant message, online social media, etc.
ii. Sharing hardware: in a networked environment, each computer can have access to
hardware on the network. For example, if computers are connected to the network and the
printer is connected to the network, computer users can have access to the printer instead
of providing each user with the same piece of printer.
iii. Sharing data and information: in a networked environment, any authorized computer user
can have access to data and information stored on other computers on network.
iv. Sharing software: users connected to the network can have access to software on the
network
v. Transferring of funds: this is called Electronic Fund Transfer, it allows the users
connected to the network to transfer money from one bank to another via transmission
media.
Limitations of Network
Although network has many advantages, it also has many challenges that are associated with
implementation and human factors. Some of then limitations and disadvantages include
i. Security issues: data and information held in a computer on a network is more prone to
illegal access threats than the one held in a stand-alone computers.

 
  

ii. High initial cost: the initial cost of buying network hardware and software is very high.
iii. Moral and cultural effects: large networks like the internet have chatrooms and
messaging services that enables under age children to meet peers and adults on the net
some of whom may have bad intentions. Access to pornographic sites on the internet has
also made the fight against social problems such as HIV/AIDS, bad sexual behavior,
drugs and substance abuse more complicated.
iv. Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking: the network provides a rich recruitment ground
for all types of illegal activities such as terrorism and drug trafficking. The easy flow of
information from one place to another keeps even those who are on the wrong side of the
communication easily.
v. Over-reliance on network: modern organization today have phased out most manual
operations. This means that all business process depend on computer networks. The
disadvantage of this overreliance is that if by any chance the network fails or goes down,
then all systems in the organization will be brought to an end.
Classification of Network
Networks are usually classified as a local area network, metropolitan area network, or wide area
network. The main difference among this classification is their area of coverage.
Local Area Network
Is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area as a home,
school computer laboratory, office building. A wireless LAN is a LAN that uses no physical
wires. Computers and devices that access a Wireless LAN must have a built in wireless
capability or the appropriate wireless network card.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
This is a high-speed network that connects local area networks in a metropolitan (a very large
and densely populated industrial and commercial city) area such as a city or town and handles a
bulk of communications activity across that region.
Wide Area Network
This is a network that covers a large geographic area (such as a city, country, or the world) using
a communication channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables,
and radio waves.
Network architectures

 
  

Network architecture refers to the design of the computers, devices and media in a network.
Categories
Network architecture is categorized into two as
Client/server network: this is a network design whereby one or more computers act as a server,
and the other computers on the network request services from the server.
A server is sometimes called host computer. This computer controls access to the hardware,
software, and other resources on the network and provides a centralized storage for the programs,
data, and information.
The clients are other computers and mobile devices on the network that rely on the server for
resources. For example, a server might store a database of customers. Clients on the network
access the customer database on the server.
Some servers, called dedicated servers, perform specific tasks. For example, a file server stores
and manages files. A print server manages printers and documents being printed. A database
server stores and provides access to a database. Etc.
Peer-to-peer network: this is the design whereby each computer, called peer, has equal
responsibilities and capabilities, sharing data, or information with other computers on the peer to
peer network. Each computer stores files on its own storage devices. Each computer the network
contains both the server operating system and application software.
All computers on the network share any peripheral devices attached to any computer. For
example, one computer may have a laser printer and a scanner, while another has a printer.

Elements of Network
A computer network is made up of several standard elements (components), which can be
classified in four categories namely: data communication media, communication devices,
networking software, and data signals.
Data communication media
Data communication media: this is a pathway used for carrying data and information from one
point to another. Communication media can be divided into two: communication using cables
and wireless communication
Communication using cables (bound media)
This is when the data signal is transmitted through a restricted pathway such as a cable.

 
  

Types of bounded transmission media (cables)

There are several types of bounded transmission media but the most common ones are
i. Two wire open lines cables: are made up of two parallel copper wires separated by a
plastic insulator. They are used in telecommunication network to transmit voice signal.
ii. Twisted pair cables: is made up of two solid copper wire strands (a single length of
something) wound around each other. in a double helix (three dimension shape) manner.
These cables are used to transmit both voice and data signals.
Types of Twisted Pair cables
There are two types of twisted pair cables
Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP): these are cables that do not have a shield that prevents
ElectroMagnetic Interference (EMI) also called ‘electric noise’ from the environment.
Noise is unwanted electrical energy that degrades the quality of signals and data. Noise
may come from lightening sparks, radio signal and even the radiation from the spark
plugs in motor vehicles.
Shield Twisted Pair (STP): these are similar to unshielded twisted pair only that a
braided shield is wrapped around the wires to shield or protect them from noise.

iii. Coaxial (koakiso) cables: this cable resembles the cable used to connect television
antenna to a television set. This cable has a central copper core which may be of solid or
stranded wires surrounded by insulator.
Advantages of coaxial cables include
§ They are stable even under high loads
§ They can carry voice, data and video signal simultaneously
§ They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference than twisted pair cables
Disadvantage of coaxial cables include
§ They are expensive to buy and to install as compared to twisted pair
§ They are hard to work with
Fiber optic cables
Fibre optical cables utilize light to transmit data from one point to another on the network. The
light signal travels through the core, through a process referred to as total internal reflection.
Advantages of Fibre optic cables

 
  

§ They are fast and support high bandwidth (amount of data that a transmission medium
can carry at any time)
§ It covers a large distance because it has a low attenuation
§ It is smaller and lighter than copper cables
§ It is capable of carrying more data signals than wired cables
Disadvantages
§ They are very expensive to install
§ Connectivity devices and the media are expensive
Wireless communication (unbounded media)
Wireless or bounded media, is a type of media that is used to transfer data from one point to
another without using physical connection. In this case, transmitting antenna and receiver aerial
facilitate the communication. Examples of wireless transmission media include microwaves,
satellite, radio waves, and infrared transmission.
Advantages of wireless communication
• It is flexible in operating as compared to bounded media
• It can span large geographical areas easily
• It can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do not have high cost
physical infrastructure such as telephone lines
Disadvantages of wireless communication
• It is difficult to establish or configure
• The initial cost is very high.

Communication devices
Communication devices are devices that are used as interface or junctions between the terminals
Network Equipment and Terminologies
i. Network server: this is a host/giant computer that provide resources to the other
computers workstation) on the network
ii. Workstation: this is any computer connected to the network
iii. Client: is any computer that is able to access information from the server
iv. Node: it is any device that can be connected on the network e.g. a printer
v. Modem: it is a device that can change digital signals and analogue signals

 
  

vi. Hub: it acts like an extension where it spreads network cables to each computer from
server
vii. Router: is a communications device that connects multiple computers or other routers
together and transmits data to its correct destination on a network

viii. Switches: this is a device that forwards packet (block of data) directly to the address node
without broadcasting
ix. Bridges: this is a device that link several network segments together.
x. Repeater: is a device that receives a signal from one segment of a network, cleans it o t
remove any distortion, boots it and then sends it to another segment of network.
xi. Network cables: these are cables that are used to connect computers in a network.
xii. Network interface cards (NIC): it is a communications device that enables a computer
or device that does not have built-in networking capability to access a network.
xiii. Gateways: this is any device e.g computer, that can be configured to provide access to
wide area networks or Internet.
xiv. Personal computer memory card international association (PCMCIA) cards: this is
a card inserted into a device such as personal assistants or a laptop in order to enable
wireless communication between the devices and a wired network server
xv. Transmitters: this is electronic telecommunication device that transmit electronic signals
to receiver in a given radius. It sends signals to all the equipment
Network software
These are programs that help the user to establish connection to another computer or network,
manage the transmission of data, instructions, and information.
Network software can be classified into two main groups namely
• Network operating systems
• Network protocols.
Network software
These are operating systems specifically designed to improve the computer’s retrieval,
transferring and processing of data on the network. The servers run the software on the network.
In addition, this software performs the following network related functions
• Provides access to network resources such as printers and folders
• Enables nodes on then network to communicate with each other more efficiently

 
  

• Responds to requests from application programs running on the network

• Supports network services like network card drivers and protocols
Protocols
Protocols refer to the rules and technical procedures that govern communication between
different computers on a network.
Data signals
All messages that are sent and received through the network must be represented using a data
signal. A signal can either be analog or digital. Signal is an electric impulse or radio wave
transmitted or received.
Network Topology
Network topology is how computers and devices have been arranged in a communication
network. Three common used network topologies are star, bus, and ring.
Star topology: on a star network, all the computers and devices (nodes) on the network connect
to a central device, thus forming a star. Two types of devices that provide a common central
connection point for nodes on the network are hub and switch. All data that transfers from one
node to another passes through the hub or switch.

Computer  
Computer  
3  
1  

File  server  

Computer   Computer  
2   4  

Fig. a ring Topology

Advantages of star topology

i. Star network are easy to configure

 
  

ii. It allows centralization of key networking resources like concentrators and servers
iii. It gives the network administrator a focal point for network management. When
something goes wrong with the network, the administrator can troubleshoot it from one
place.
Disadvantages of star topology
i. The star-based network is costly because it requires one complete cable per computer.
ii. If the central hub fails, the entire network will be down
iii. Time consuming during installation because each node forms a segment of its own.
Bus topology: this is the type of topology whereby all the devices that are on the network share a
single cable. A bus is a physical cable that connects the computer and other devices.

Computer   Computer   Computer   Printer    

1   3   5  

Computer   Computer     Computer  

2   4   6  

Main cable
(Backbone)

fig. bus topology

Advantages
i. Computers and other devices can be attached and detached at any point on the bus
without disturbing the rest of the network.
ii. Failure of one device does not affect the rest of the bus network.
Disadvantage
i. The drawback is that several workstation may want to transmit simultaneously and there
has to be some strategy of deciding who to get a line.
ii. Troubleshooting a cable fault is difficult because the fault could be anywhere on the
cable.
iii. The bus topology limits the number of computers that can be connected to then cable
because each computer is listening to the cable in order to transmit.

 
  

Ring topology: in a ring topology, all devices are connected to one another in the shape of a
ring. If the main channel has been damaged, or any computer or device on a ring network fails,
the entire network potentially could stop functioning.

Computer    
1  
 

1  

Computer   Computer  
5   2  
   

Computer   Computer  
4   3  

Fig. ring topology

Advantages of ring topology
i. It uses a short length cable
ii. Ring topology is easy to install
Disadvantages
i. Modification may be difficult because adding or removing a device can disrupt the entire
network
ii. Troubleshooting is difficult

Mesh topology
This is a type of topology where there are many paths between different locations. In a mesh
topology, every node is connected to every other node in the network.

 
1
2

 
C c
o o
m m

c c
o o
m m

Advantages
i. The network can still operate even when a node breaks down or a connection breaks
ii. The network is reliable
Disadvantages
i. It is expensive on cable due to redundant links
Tree/hierarchical topology
This is a hybrid topology whereby the groups of star-configured networks are connected to linear
bus backbone.

c
o
c c
m o o
m m
 
c
o
c  
m o
m

  c
o
m
c
o
m

Bus backbone

 
  

Network security
Network security is the security measure that is implemented to protect your data and
information from intruders on the network.
Ways of enforcing security
§ Share level security: this is a network security whereby the user decide which resources
to give for sharing
§ User-level security: this is the type of security, which uses the password. A network
administrator assigns accounts to users and each user is provided with a unique name and
password which he or she can use to access network resources
Internet
What is the difference between Network Operating System (NOS) and General Operating
System?
The general operating system is the software designed to control the hardware, provide common
programs like calculator, notepad, paint etc. and provide the platform in which the user can
install application software.
Network Operating System is the type of operating system that is designed for network use.

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES
The era of computer and information and communication technology has brought both blessings
and disappointments in the workplace. Some people have acquired very paying jobs while others
have lost theirs. Many jobs have been created in the areas like banking, manufacturing,
educational institutions, communication sector and other service industries.
Educational opportunities in ICT
Most computer-related educational opportunities offered at post-secondary level are new and
dynamic compared to other disciplines. It is therefore difficult for most institutions that offer ICT
courses to update their ICT curricula in order to accommodate these rapid changes. These
changes also make it difficult for aspiring ICT professionals to identify the best career
opportunities and training institutions to join. ICT courses are offered in the following tertiary
institutions:
• Universities

 
  

• Polytechnics
• Middle level colleges
Universities
A university is considered as the highest institution in formal education. In most countries,
universities are categorized into two major groups namely public and private universities.
Public universities
Public universities are established by the state and are run by the state appointed management
team. Admission to such a university is controlled by either then state or a recognized body.
However, most universities in developed countries do their own independent admissions on
running of programs. For example, university of Malawi {Chancellor College, The Polytechnic,
College of Medicine, University of Agriculture {Bunda College, Chitedze, Natural Resources
College} administer University entrance examination to students for selection and admission.
Private universities
Private universities are self-sponsored institutions set by individuals, churches or any other
organization. Such universities are privately run and students’ enrollment depends on whether
the student is capable of sponsoring him/herself. However, for these universities to operate they
must be registered or accredited by the commission of higher education or any other quality
assurance body that is recognized worldwide. Accreditation leads to public acceptance and
confirmation evidenced by the grant of charters by the state or accrediting bodies for example,
Catholic Universities. Universities are authorized to offer approved diploma, undergraduate and
postgraduate programs. Some of the ICT related degree programs offered at university level
courses include Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Information Technology/Systems, Bachelor of
Science (computer engineering) and Bachelor of Science Mathematical Science.
Research institutions
These are institutions that concentrate on narrow fields of study such as computer or ICT
technology, agriculture and space science.
Polytechnic
These are institutions of higher learning that mostly offer diploma and certificate courses in
technical fields such as ICT, mechanics and food production. A polytechnic may also be
accredited by a university or the state to offer degree programmes. Some of then ICT courses

 
  

offered at polytechnic level are diploma and certificate in computer studies, computer repair and
assembly, computer operator and management information system.
Colleges
Just like the polytechnics, middle level colleges offer diploma, certificate and craft courses in
many disciplines such as technical, ICT, teacher training and business management. In Malawi,
such colleges include Domasi College of Education, Soche Technical and Lilongwe Technical
Colleges.
Most public and private colleges are now offering ICT related courses both at certificate and
diploma level. The most important consideration to make before you join a college to pursue in
ICT course is:
• Whether it offers ICT courses recognized both locally and internationally
• The cost of training with such an institution
Career opportunities in ICT
Information and Communication Technology has created new job titles. The following are some
of then responsibilities of the professionals who are generally called Information Technology
Workers.

1. Computer operator
Some of the responsibilities of a computer operator include
i. Entering data into the computer for processing
ii. Keeping up-to-date records of all information processing activities
2. Computer Technician
Computers require regular maintenance; upgrading as well as emergency repairs and computer
technicians do this. Some of the responsibilities of computer technicians are:
i. Troubleshooting computer hardware and software related problems
ii. Assembling and upgrading computers and their components
iii. Ensuring that all computer related accessories such as printers, modems, storage media
and devices are in good working conditions
iv. In developing countries, technicians help hardware engineers in designing and creating
some computer components such as storage devices and motherboard.
3. System analyst

 
  

This is a person who is responsible for analyzing a company’s needs of problem then design and
develop a computer based information system.
Some of then responsibilities of a system analyst include:
i. Reviewing the current manual or redundant information system and making
recommendations on how to replace it with a more efficient one
ii. Working with programmers to construct and test the system
iii. Co-cordinating training for users of then new st=ystem
A good system analyst is one who has at least the following attributes
i. Good problem solving and creativity: must have wide experience in solving problems
ii. Good communication skills: then analyst must be able to communicate clearly and
precisely both in writing and in speech. He or she must be able to talk to different groups
of people like managers, operators, attendant and the general public
iii. Must be business knowledge: the analyst must clearly understand the environment for
which the system is being developed.
iv. Technical knowledge: a system analyst must be well trained in relevant areas of computer
science such as hardware, software-programming knowledge.
4. computer programmer
then following are some of the responsibilities of a computer programmer
i. develop in-house application programs or system programs
ii. customize commercial application packages to suit then organization’s needs
iii. install, test, debug, and maintain programs developed or customized for the organization
5. software engineer
This is one who is skilled in software development and technical operation of computer
hardware. Some responsibilities of the software engineer are
i. Developing system and application software
ii. Developing user and technical documentations for the new software
iii. Maintaining and updating the software to meet day-to-day requirements while
overcoming challenges.
6. Computer engineer
Some of the responsibilities of computer engineer are:

 
  

i. Design and develop computer components such as storage devices, motherboard, and
other electronic components
ii. Determine the electrical power requirement of each computer component
iii. Re-engineer computer components to enhance its functionality and efficiency
iv. Design and develop engineering and manufacturing computer controlled devices such as
robots.
7. Information system manager
The information system manager plans, staffs, schedules, controls, and monitor all the activities
of the ICT department in the organization.
Other responsibilities of an information system manager include:
i. Making sure that all tasks in the IT department are done correctly and on time in order to
support business planning, control and decision making process
ii. Preparing budgets for the department
iii. Managing the human resource within the department
8. Database administrator (DBA)
The major purpose of computerizing an organization or institution is to store data in an organized
way for easy access, retrieval and update. The organization requires a person who should be
responsible for updating records in an information system database. For this reason, a database
administrator is responsible for:
i. Designing and developing database application for the organization
ii. Setting up security measures needed to control access to data and information
iii. Keeping the database up-to-date by adding new records, modifying or deleting
unnecessary records
9. Computer trainer
Due to the dynamic nature of computers and information technology, there is a high demand for
qualified ICT trainers. Some of the responsibilities of an ICT trainer are:
i. Training people on how to use a computer and various application programs
ii. Developing training references materials
iii. Guide learners on how to acquire knowledge through carrying out research
iv. Preparing learners for ICT examination
10. Web administrator/webmaster

 
  

A Webmaster is responsible for

i. Developing and testing websites
ii. Maintaining, updating and modifying information on the website to meet new demands
by the user.
iii. Monitoring the access and use of internet connection by enforcing the security measures,
iv. Downloading information needed by an organization or institution from Internet
websites.
11. Computer graphics designer and typesetters
These are people who are responsible for designing graphical objects and professional
publication. Such people may get employed in publishing houses to typeset books, newspapers
and magazines.
12. Network administrator
A network administrator is a specialist whose responsibilities are to:
i. Set-up a computer network
ii. Maintain and enforce security measures on the network
iii. Monitor the use of network resources
iv. Maintain and troubleshoot network related problems
13. Computer sales representatives
Computer sales representative should have good knowledge in information and communication
technology. This would help them to analyze customer needs and advise them accordingly. A
good computer salesman needs to be self confident, persuasive and proficient in business
communication.
14. Self-employment
Self-employment can be achieved by using a computer or other ICT devices such as mobile
phones to start bureau services, Internet services, consultancy services and computer hardware
and software vendor business.