A Level Physics Notes

and it is especially interested in what they are called Conceptualize, Categorize,

A Level Physics: fundamental mechanisms underlie every
phenomenon. Physics aims to describe the
Analyze, and Finalize.
GENERAL PROBLEM-SOLVING
function of everything around us, from the
movement of tiny charged particles to the motion STRATEGY
An Introduction of people, cars, and spaceships. In fact, almost
everything around you can be described quite
Conceptualize
The first thing to do when approaching a problem
By Mr Chibwowa E. accurately by the laws of physics. Consider a
smart phone as shown below.
is to think about and understand the situation.
Study carefully any diagrams, graphs, tables, or
photographs that accompany the problem.
© Copyright 2017 by Chibwowa E Imagine a movie, running in your mind, of what
[email protected] happens in the problem. If a diagram is not
+263 773 483 245 provided, you should almost always make a quick
WHY STUDY PHYSICS? drawing of the situation. Indicate any known
values, perhaps in a table or directly on your
Physics is not really some esoteric study sketch. Now focus on what algebraic or numerical
presided over by guardians who make you take information is given in the problem. Carefully
Physics describes how electricity interacts with
exams for no apparent reason other than cruelty, read the problem statement, looking for key
the various circuits inside the device. This Page 1
although it may seem like it at times. Physics is phrases such as ―starts from rest”,“stops”,or
knowledge helps engineers select the appropriate
the human study of your world. So don‘t think of “freely falls” etc.
materials and circuit layout when building the
physics as something just in books and the heads Now focus on the expected result of solving the
smart phone.
of professors, locking everybody else out. Physics problem.
Next, consider a GPS system. Physics describes
is just the result of a questioning mind facing  Exactly what is the question asking?
the relationship between the speeds of an
nature. And that‘s something everyone can share.  Will the final result be numerical or
object, the distance over which it travels, and
These questions — what is light? Why do algebraic?
the time it takes to travel that distance. When
magnets attract iron? Is the speed of light the  Do you know what units to expect?
you use a GPS device in a vehicle, it utilizes these
fastest anything can go? — concern everybody • Don‘t forget to incorporate information from
physics equations to determine the travel time
equally. So don‘t let physics scare you. Step up your own experiences and common sense.
from one location to another. Besides what you
and claim your ownership of the topic. If you  What should a reasonable answer look
might expect to learn about physics concepts, a
don‘t understand something, demand that it be like?
very valuable skill you should hope to take away
explained to you better — don‘t assume the fault  For example, you wouldn‘t expect to
from your physics course is the ability to solve
is with you. This is the human study of the calculate the speed of an automobile to
complicated problems. The way physicists
natural world, and you own a piece of that. be 5x106 m/s.
approach complex situations and break them
Physics is concerned with describing the Categorize
down into manageable pieces is extremely useful.
interactions of energy, matter, space, and time, To help you remember the steps of the strategy,

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

• Once you have a good idea of what the problem apply to the type of situation in the problem. For use it as a model for solving future
is about, you need to simplify the problem. example, if the problem involves a particle moving problems in the same category.
Remove the details that are not important to the under constant acceleration. Choose which When solving complex problems, you may need to
solution. For example, model a moving object as a equations are relevant. identify a series of sub-problems and apply the
particle. If appropriate, ignore air resistance or • Use algebra (and calculus, if necessary) to solve problem solving strategy to each. For very simple
friction between a sliding object and a surface. symbolically for the unknown variable in terms of problems, you probably don‘t need this strategy
• Once the problem is simplified, it is important what is given. Substitute in the appropriate at all. But when you are looking at a problem and
to categorize the problem. numbers, calculate the result, and round it to the you don‘t know what to do next, remember the
 Is it a simple plug-in problem, such that proper number of significant figures. steps in the strategy and use them as a guide.
numbers can be simply substituted into a Finalize

SECTION I: GENERAL PHYSICS

definition? • This is the most important part. Examine your
 If so, the problem is likely to be numerical answer.
finished when this substitution is done.  Does it have the correct units?
 If not, you face what we can call an  Does it meet your expectations from TOPICS
analysis problem—the situation must be your conceptualization of the problem?  Physical Quantities and Units
analysed more deeply to reach a solution.  What about the algebraic form of the  Errors and uncertainties
• If it is an analysis problem, it needs to be result—before you substituted Your brain is more than just a unique instrument.
categorized further. numerical values? In some sense it is you. You could imagine having
Page 2
 Have you seen this type of problem  Does it make sense? your brain removed from your body and being
before? Examine the variables in the problem to see hooked up to machinery that provided it with
 Does it fall into the growing list of types whether the answer would change in a physically sight, sound, and touch in such a way that ―you‖
of problems that you have solved meaningful way if they were drastically increased remain6. It is difficult to imagine that you still
previously? or decreased or even became zero. Looking at exist in any meaningful sense if your brain is
Being able to classify a problem can make it much limiting cases to see whether they yield taken out of your body and destroyed while your
easier to lay out a plan to solve it. For example, if expected values is a very useful way to make sure body is artificially kept alive.Your brain, however,
your simplification shows that the problem can that you are obtaining reasonable results. is an instrument. It has internal structure. It
be treated as a particle moving under constant • Think about how this problem compares with uses energy. It does ―work‖.It is, in fact, a
acceleration and you have already solved such a others you have solved. How was it similar? biological machine of sublime complexity and
problem, the solution to the present problem  In what critical ways did it differ? subtlety, one of the true wonders of the world!
follows a similar pattern.  Why was this problem assigned? Note that this statement can be made quite
Analyze  You should have learned something by independent of whether ―you‖ are your brain per
• Now you must analyze the problem and strive doing it. se or a spiritual being who happens to be using it
for a mathematical solution. Because you have  Can you figure out what? (a debate that need not concern us at this time,
already categorized the problem, it should not be  If it is a new category of problem, be however much fun it might be to get into it) –
too difficult to select relevant equations that sure you understand it so that you can either way the brain itself is quite marvelous.For

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

all of that, few indeed are the people who bother Case Study : The importance of units
to learn to actually use their brain effectively as Derived quantities and Units Read the extract from CNN News 30 September
an instrument. It just works, after all, whether A derived quantity is a quantity formed by 1999 and answer the questions below.
or not we do this. It is by no means complete or combining two or more base quantities and their
Questions:
authoritative, but it should be enough to get you corresponding units are known as derived units.
started, to help you discover that you are Derived units are obtained by multiplying and/ 1. Why did the Mars Climate Orbiter crash?
actually a lot smarter than you think, or that dividing by the units of basic quantities according Answer in your own words.
you‘ve been in the past, once you realize that you to the relationship between the derived quantity 2. How could this have been avoided?
can change the way you think and learn and and the basic quantities. Examples of derived 3. Why was the Mars Orbiter sent to Mars?
experience life and gradually improve it. quantities, their SI units and their corresponding 4. Do you think space exploration is
base unit equivalents are shown below. important? Explain your answer.
Physical Quantities and Units
All measurable quantities are known as physical Table 1.2: Derived quantities and units
quantities. All physical quantities can be
QUANTITY FORMU BASE UNITS SI UNIT &
expressed as combinations of only six LA SYMBOL
fundamental physical quantities known as base Area mxm=
quantities: length, mass, time, temperature, Volume mxmxm=
Force kg x (m/s2)= kgm Newton N
amount of substance and electric current. Pressure N/m2=(kgm )/ m2= Pascal Pa
Base quantities and base Units
P=
kg
Page 3
A base quantity is a fundamental quantity used Energy E=Fs Nm =(kgm )m = Joule J
to form all the other physical quantities. Thus it kg
Power J/s =(kg )/s = Watt W
is the building block of all physical quantities.A P=
kg
base unit is a unit assigned to a base quantity.It Charge As Coulomb C
is used to form derived units. The six base Voltage V= J/C = (kg )/As Volt V
=kg
quantities and their corresponding base units are
Resistance V/A = kg /A Ohm 
shown below = kg
Basic Quantity Base Units Symbol Capacitance C = Q/V C/V=(As)/( kg Farad F
)
Length Metre m = A 2m-2kg -1s 4
Mass kilogram kg Permittivity ε0 = C 2/(Nm 2) =
of free space (Q1Q2)/(4 A2s2/(kgm3s-2) =
Time second s
π Fr2) A2s4kg-1m-3
Electric ampere A Magnetic B=F/IL N/Am= Tesla T
Current kelvin K field strength (kgm )/Am =
kgA-1
Temperature
Magnetic φ = BA. Tm =(kgA-1 )m Weber Wb
Amount of mole mol flux =kgmA-1
Substance

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Only quantities with the same dimensions

The importance of units S.I Units can be added, subtracted or equated in an
NASA: Human error caused loss of Mars Virtually every other country in the world now equation.
Orbiter November 10, 1999 uses SI units as the standard. The acronym ―SI‖ An equation is homogeneous if all the terms
WASHINGTON (AP) | Failure to convert English is derived from the French Système in it, on both sides of the equation have the
measures to metric values caused the loss of International.This ensures that scientists from same units.
the Mars Climate Orbiter, a spacecraft that different parts of the world can understand each Example
smashed into the planet instead of reaching a other to enhance international cooperation in the Use base units to check the homogeneity of
safe orbit, a NASA investigation concluded field of science. Also, this provides a the following equations
Wednesday.The Mars Climate Orbiter, a key standardized system of identification of various
(a)
craft in the space agency's exploration of the units and their corresponding quantities which
red planet, vanished after a rocket firing (b)
can be used throughout the whole world.
September 23 that was supposed to put the (c)
Prefixes
spacecraft on orbit around Mars.An are used for multiples and submultiples of a unit (d)
investigation board concluded that NASA and are useful when dealing with either very Solutions
engineers failed to convert English measures of small or very large numbers .Some of the (a) L.H.S: Unit for =m
rocket thrusts to newton, a metric system important prefixes are shown in Table 1.3 below. R.H.S: Unit for = ms-1 × s = m
measuring rocket force. One English pound of Table 1.3 Metric Prefixes for Powers of 10 Unit for = ms-2 × s2 = m
force equals 4.45 N. A small difference
Page 4
and their Symbols Equation is therefore homogeneous
between the two values caused the spacecraft Prefix Symbol Value since all terms have the same base
to approach Mars at too low an altitude and the
unit.
craft is thought to have smashed into the tera T 1012 (b) L.H.S: Unit for = N = kgms-2
planet's atmosphere and was destroyed.The
giga G 109 R.H.S: Unit for ma= kgms-2 =L.H.S
spacecraft was to be a key part of the mega M 106 Equation is therefore homogeneous
exploration of the planet. From its station
kilo k 103 since both sides have the same base
about the red planet, the Mars Climate Orbiter deci d 10-1 unit.
was to relay signals from the Mars Polar
centi c 10-2 (c) L.H.S: Unit for = Pa = N/m2
Lander, which is scheduled to touch down on milli m 10-3 = (kgms-2)/m2 = kgm-1 s-2
Mars next month.The root cause of the loss of
micro µ 10-6 R.H.S: Unit for F/A = N/m2
the spacecraft was a failed translation of nano n 10-9 = (kgms-2)/m2 = kgm-1 s-2 =L.H.S
English units into metric units and a segment of
pico p 10-12 Equation is therefore homogeneous
ground-based, navigation-related mission since all terms have the same base
software," said Arthus Stephenson, chairman of
Uses of units unit.
the investigation board. This story illustrates
Base units are used to check the
the importance of being aware that different
homogeneity of physical equations.
systems of units exist.Furthermore, we must be
able to convert between systems of units!
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

Examples include displacement, velocity, force, This can also be achieved using a simple
momentum etc. A vector quantity can be scale drawing in which all vectors are
(d) L.H.S: Unit for = W =J/s represented by an arrow, the magnitude shown drawn to scale and measuring the length
= (kgm-1 s-2 )/s = kgm-1 s-3
by the length and the direction by the of the resultant vector and the angle it
R.H.S: Unit for E/t = J/s arrowhead. makes to the horizontal
= kgm-1 s-3 =L.H.S
Equation is therefore homogeneous since
Test yourself
Force F1 = 10 N Force F2 = -15 N
all terms have the same base unit. 1. A stone of weight 2.5N is dropped
Addition of vectors
NB* an equation which is not homogenous is wrong into a fast-flowing stream.
The addition of two or more vectors yields
but a homogeneous equation does not imply it is It does not fall vertically, because
another vector which is known as the resultant.
correct. of the sideways push of the water
The resultant is a single vector which produces
3 cases of equations being homogeneous of magnitude 1.5N and an upthrust
the same effect in both magnitude and
yet incorrect are shown of 0.5N.
direction as the combination of vectors acting
(incorrect coefficients) a) Calculate the resultant force on
on the object.There are 2 methods of adding
the stone.
(missing terms) vectors;
b) Is the stone in equilibrium?
(extra terms) Parallelogram of vectors
2. A parachutist weighs 1000N.When
The correctness of an equation can be Two vectors are drawn from same origin
she opens her parachute,it pulls
ascertained by an empirical method i.e Two lines respectively parallel to them
upwards on her with a force of Page 5
performing an experiment are drawn at their tips
2000N.
The diagonal of the parallelogram equals
a) Draw a diagram to show the forces
The mole the resultant.
acting on the parachutist.
One mole of a substance is the amount of it that Triangle of vectors
b) Calculate the resultant force acting
contains the same number of elementary units as Two vectors are drawn with the head of
on her.
there are atoms in 12g of carbon 12. one touching the tail of the other.
c) What effect will this force have on
The number of atoms in carbon 12 is 6.022 × The third side of the triangle drawn
her?
1023 .This number is the Avogadro constant, NA from tail to head of the two represents
Resolving vectors
and is given as 6.022 × 1023 mol-1 for example 1 the resultant. If the three forces have
It follows from the parallelogram rule that any
mole of oxygen has a mass 32g. their arrows pointing in the same
vector can be treated as a sum of any two
Scalars and vectors direction, then the object on which
vectors. There are an infinite number of these
A scalar quantity is one which can be fully they are acting is in equilibrium.
pairs. The two vectors that add up to a resultant
described by its magnitude.Examples include Thus the resultant vector can be
are known as the components of that vector.The
mass, time, length, speed, power etc.A vector calculated from the magnitude and
two useful components of a vector are those that
quantity is one which can only be fully described direction of the third line in the triangle
are mutually perpendicular.
by its magnitude and direction. using trigonometry.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

 A Level Physics Notes

Rsinϑ R You will never lose marks by quoting a large final

Errors and uncertainties uncertainty if your procedure and method of
Physics is an experimental science. All physical collecting data are correct and justified, and all
laws, theories, and formulae were developed sources of error discussed. When we make a
ϑ Rcosϑ based on measurements of things. All measurement, we generally assume that some
The magnitudes of the components are found by measurements in science suffer from exact or true value exists based on how we
using trigonometry, Rcosϑ and Rsinϑ. uncertainty which results from unavoidable define what is being measured. While we may
Test yourself errors. No matter how hard we try to control never know this true value exactly, we attempt to
1.A crate is sliding down a slope. The weight things, some level of experimental error is find this ideal quantity to the best of our ability
of the crate is 500N. The slope makes an unavoidable. A source of error may be one of a with the time and resources available.
angle of 30° with the horizontal. number of things, or any number of those things. RANDOM AND SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
a)Draw a diagram to show the situation. No measuring instrument is perfect! Reporting There are 2 types of errors in measured data. It
Include arrows to represent the forces which experimental results with appropriate is important to understand which you are dealing
act on the crate: the weight and the contact uncertainty and following these through in with, and how to handle them.
force of the slope. calculations is a critical part of A level Physics. RANDOM ERRORS refer to random fluctuations
b) Calculate the component of the weight down
CRUCIAL THINGS TO KNOW: in the measured data due to:
the slope.
An error is the difference between the readability of the instrument
c) Explain why the contact force of the slope
the measured value and the expected the effects of something changing in the Page 6
has no component down the slope
value of something (unavoidable). surroundings between measurements
d)What third force might act to oppose the
An uncertainty is a mathematical way the observer being less than perfect
motion? In which direction would it act?
of expressing or summarizing the Examples include:
2.A boy of mass 40 kg is on a waterslide which
error (unavoidable).  Parallax error
slopes at 30° to the horizontal. The frictional
A mistake is simply not doing  Applying too much pressure when using a
force up the slope is 120 N. Calculate the
something correctly through micrometer screw guage
boy‟s acceleration down the slope.
carelessness (avoidable). They result in readings being randomly scattered
3.A child of mass 40 kg is on a water slide.
Thus, an error is not the same as an around the true value since they result from
The slide slopes down at 25° to the horizontal.
uncertainty, though both are random fluctuations in the measurement of
Calculate the child‟s acceleration down the
unavoidable. They are often used in values. Random errors can be reduced by taking
slope:
common language to mean the same several readings and averaging. A precise
a) when there is no friction and the only force
thing, but they are not! experiment has small random error.
acting on the child is his weight
Our strategy in dealing with uncertainties and SYSTEMATIC ERRORS refer to reproducible
b)if a frictional force of 80 N acts up the
errors is to minimize them, but at the same fluctuations consistently in the same direction
slope.
time be honest about them by reporting them due to:
truthfully. An instrument being wrongly calibrated

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

An instrument with zero error (it does cases where the least counts are wide enough to 2. Fractional uncertainties are expressed
not read zero when it should – to correct estimate beyond them with certainty, you may do
for this, the value should be subtracted so. It is ultimately up to the experimenter to ( )
from every reading) determine how to report a measured value, but 3. Percentage uncertainties are expressed as ±
The observer being less than perfect in be conservative and do not overestimate the [the fractional uncertainty in the measurement x
the same way during each measurement. precision of the instrument. Sometimes you hear 100] =(± [(Δx/x)100]%).
Examples include: that uncertainties should generally be reported Examples
 Zero error as half the least count; this is technically  Length = (234 ± 2) mm or [234 ±
 Parallax error correct. But since they should be reported with (2/234)]x100 = 234 ± 8.5 % mm
 Stopwatch moving too fast/too slow the same number of decimal places as the  Period = (1.6 ± 0.3) s or [1.6 ±
Systematic errors cannot be detected or instrument, in practice this amounts to stating (0.3/1.6)]x100 = 1.6 ± 18.8 % mm
reduced by taking more measurements. They can them as ± the least count.The least count is Fractional and percentage uncertainties are
be reduced by : known as the absolute uncertainty. unitless and can save lots of time when making
 Changing the instrument Measured values should be given as: calculations, even though it seems cumbersome to
 Checking for zero errors before taking [measured value ±absolute uncertainty] (unit of express uncertainty this way
readings measurement) DETERMINING FINAL UNCERTAINTIES IN
 Avoiding parallax errors UNCERTAINTY IN CALCULATED RESULTS STATED RESULTS
 Recalibrating the instrument Absolute ,fractional and percentage Physics is an experimental science, so we need to
Page 7
An accurate experiment has small systematic uncertainties be concerned with how we treat uncertainties in
error. When graphing experimental data, you can Whether included as part of a measurement or calculated values using experimental data. The
see immediately if you are dealing with random or at the end of a calculation, uncertainties can be general rules are:
systematic errors (if you can compare with expressed in three ways: 1. If data are to be added or subtracted,
theoretical or expected results). 1. Absolute uncertainties are expressed as ± the add the absolute uncertainty:
REPORTING A SINGLE MEASUREMENT number of units in the measurement (± Δx). e.g ( )
You would be surprised at how few people 1. Length = (234 ± 2) mm 2. If data are to be multiplied or divided,
actually know how to take a proper reading of 2. Period = (1.6 ± 0.3) s add the fractional or percentage
something. Most people try to report a measured This tells you immediately the maximum and uncertainty:
value with a degree of certainty that is too minimum experimental values of a measurement.
generous – expressing more certainty in a Absolute uncertainties have the same units as
( ) = ( )
reported value than really exists. You should the stated measurement. All uncertainties begin 3. If data are raised to a power, multiply
avoid this! It is bad practice. as an absolute uncertainty, stated according to the percentage uncertainty by that
Generally we report the measured value of the uncertainty in the precision of the power:
something with the decimal place or precision instrument.
going not beyond the smallest graduation
(called the „least count‟) on the instrument. In

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

 A Level Physics Notes

Test yourself Quality Measured values are Measured values are The word ―displacement‖ implies that an object
accurate Precise
has moved, or has been displaced.
1. A cylinder has a radius of (1.60 ± examples parrallax Zero
Displacement is the change in position of an
Parallax
0.01) cm and a height of (11.5 ± object:
Calibration errors
0.1)cm. Find the volume and its Δx = xf − x0, where Δx is displacement,
uncertainty. xf is the final position, and x0 is the
2. The power dissipated in a resistor of initial position.
resistance R carrying a current I is SECTION II: NEWTONIAN Note that the SI unit for displacement is the
equal to I2R. The value of I has an metre (m) and has a direction as well as a
uncertainty of ±2% and the value of R
has an uncertainty of ±10%. What is
MECHANICS magnitude.
Distance and Displacement
the value of the uncertainty in the Although displacement is described in terms of
TOPICS
calculated power dissipation? direction, distance is not.
3. When a force F of (10.0 ± 0.2) N is  Kinematics
Distance is defined as the magnitude or size of
applied to a mass m of (2.0 ± 0.1) kg,  Dynamics
displacement between two positions. Note that
what is the percentage uncertainty  Forces
the distance between two positions is not the
attached to the value of the  Work, Energy and Power
same as the distance travelled between them.
calculated acceleration?  Circular Motion
Distance travelled is the total length of the path
 Gravitational Field Page 8
4. The volume V of a cylinder of height h travelled between two positions. It has no

Kinematics
and radius r is given by the expression direction and, thus, no sign.
V = πr2h. In a particular experiment, Displacement is distance travelled in a particular
r is to be determined from direction.
measurements of V and h. The In order to describe the motion of an object, you Time
uncertainties in V and in h are : V must first be able to describe its position— As discussed in Physical Quantities and Units,
±7%, h ± 3% .Calculate the where it is at any particular time. The position is the most fundamental physical quantities are
approximate uncertainty in r. specified relative to a convenient reference defined by how they are measured. The amount
frame. Earth is often used as a reference frame. of time or change is calibrated by comparison
Summary with a standard. The SI unit for time is the
In other cases, we use reference frames that
Property Random errors Systematic errors
are not stationary but are in motion relative to second, abbreviated s. Elapsed time Δt is the
Cause Poor experimental faulty instruments
Techniques the Earth. To describe the position of a person in difference between the ending time and
Result Measured values are Measured values are an airplane, for example, we use the airplane, not beginning time, Δt = tf − t0, where Δt is the
scattered randomly shifted to one side the Earth, as the reference frame. change in time or elapsed time, tf is the time at
about the true value of the true value by
Displacement the end of the motion, and t0 is the time at the
the same amount
Reduction -taking many -changing the If an object moves relative to a reference frame beginning of the motion
readings and instruments this change in position is known as displacement. Velocity-is the rate of change of displacement
averaging -recalibration

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

v = Δx/t, Δx = (xf − x0) where xf and x0 are the Test yourself

final and beginning positions
1 Trials on the surface of a new road
The definition indicates that velocity is a vector
show that, when a car skids to a
because displacement is a vector. It has both
halt,its acceleration is −7.0 m s-2.
magnitude and direction.The SI unit for velocity
Estimate the skid-to-stop distance
is meters per second or m/s, but many other For a speed-time graph, the area under the curve
of a car travelling at the speed
units, such as km/h, mi/h (also written as mph), is the distance travelled.
limit of 30 m/s
and cm/s, are in common use. The gradient at any point on the curve equals the
2. At the scene of an accident on a
Acceleration acceleration.
country road, police find skid marks
Is the rate at which velocity changes, as given as Note, the acceleration is also the second
stretching for 50 m. Tests on the
a = Δv/t, Δv = vf – v0 derivative of a speed-time function.
road surface show that a skidding
The SI units for acceleration are m/s2, meters Equations of Motion
car decelerates at 6.5 m s-2. Was
per second squared .Recall that velocity is a These equations apply only if the motion takes
the car which skidded exceeding the
vector—it has both magnitude and direction. This place along a straight line and the acceleration is
speed limit of 90 km /h on this
means that a change in velocity can be a change constant; {hence, for eg., air resistance must be
road?
in magnitude (or speed), but it can also be a negligible.}
3. A car starts from rest and
change in direction. For example, if a car turns a One of the equations of motion stems
accelerates at 10 ms-2 for 3 s.
corner at constant speed, it is accelerating from the definition of acceleration:
What is the maximum speed it Page 9
because its direction is changing Acceleration as acceleration = the rate of change of velocity
attains?
a vector. When an object slows down, its i.e rearranging we get [1]
4. A car travelling at 25 ms-1 starts to
acceleration is opposite to the direction of its If we define the displacement 's' as the decelerate at 5 ms-2.How long will it
motion. This is known as deceleration. average speed times the time(t), then: take for the car to come to rest?
Displacement-time graphs ( )
[2] 5. A car travelling at 20 ms-1
Substituting for v from [1] we get
( )
decelerates at 5 ms-2. How far will
Thus s = [3] the car travel before stopping?
6. A car travelling at 30 ms-1
The last equation is also derived from
accelerates at 5 ms-2 for 8 s.
equations [1] and [2].
How far did the car travel during
For a displacement-time graph, the gradient at a v = u + at (equation 1)
( ) the period of acceleration?
point is equal to the speed. From [1]
Vertical motion under gravity
Speed-time graphs Substituting we get
( )( )
leading to
( ) When we use the expression freely falling
[4] object, we do not necessarily refer to an object
dropped from rest. A freely falling object is any
object moving freely under the influence of
gravity alone, regardless of its initial motion.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Objects thrown upward or downward and those acceleration (g) always acts downwards and hence the only force acting on it is the
released from rest are all falling freely once and is therefore negative(-) weight. The acceleration is thus 9.81 m s-2 at this
they are released. Any freely falling object acceleration due to gravity (g) is a point. As a body falls, air resistance opposes its
experiences an acceleration directed downward, constant weight. The downward acceleration is thus less
regardless of its initial motion. We shall denote Test yourself than 9.81 m s-2. As air resistance increases with
the magnitude of the free-fall acceleration by speed, it eventually equals its weight (but in
1. A stone is thrown vertically upwards
the symbol g. opposite direction). From then there will be no
at 15 ms-1.
Weight resultant force acting on the body and it will fall
(i) what is the maximum height
The weight of an object is defined as the with a constant speed, called the terminal
attained?
gravitational force acting on the object, and is velocity.
(ii) how long is the stone in the air
dependent on the mass of the body.
before hitting the ground
Note that the acceleration due to gravity (or
2. A boy throws a stone vertically down
acceleration of free-fall, usually denoted by g) is
a well at 12 ms-1.If he hears the
taken as constant for all bodies, although it
stone hit the water 3 s later,
varies slightly from place to place. The direction
(i) how deep is the well?
of that force (weight) is always toward the
(ii) what is the speed of the stone when
centre of this planet. We can calculate the
it hits the water?
weight of an object from its mass by the Research Project : Experimental Design
3. An egg falls off a table. The floor is Page
equation W = mg, where W=weight, m=mass and Design an experiment similar to the one done
0.8 m from the table-top. 10
g=acceleration of free fall. Consider a body by Galileo to prove that the acceleration due
a) Calculate the time taken to reach
moving in a uniform gravitational field under 2 to gravity of an object is independent of the
the ground.
different conditions: object‘s mass. The investigation must be such
b) Calculate the velocity of impact with
Without air resistance that you can perform it at home or at school.
the ground.
These problems concern a particle projected Bring your apparatus to school and perform
vertically upwards and falling 'under gravity'. the experiment. Write it up and hand it in for
Whether the body is moving up, or at the highest With air resistance assessment.
point or moving down, the weight of the body, W, If air resistance is NOT negligible and if body is
is the only force acting on it. The body therefore projected upwards with the same initial velocity,
experiences a constant acceleration. as the body moves upwards, both air resistance
and weight act downwards. Thus its speed will Projectiles
In these types of problem it is assumed that: decrease at a rate greater than 9.81 m s-2 . This Vertical & horizontal components of velocity

air resistance is minimal causes the time taken to reach its maximum A projectile is an object travelling under the
displacement & velocity are positive(+) height reached to be lower than in the case with influence of the force of gravity alone.When a
upwards & negative(-) downwards no air resistance. The maximum height reached is particle is projected under gravity at a velocity u
also reduced. At the highest point, the body is at an angle θ to the horizontal (neglecting air
momentarily at rest; air resistance becomes zero resistance) it follows the curve of a parabola.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

The maximum height attained occurs when the

Test yourself
particle is momentarily stationary, before falling
under gravity. The vertical component of speed is 1. A particle P is projected at an angle
zero at this point (vv=0). of 45 degrees to the horizontal at a
From for vertical motion with u speed of 30 ms-1.What is the speed
= usinθ , a= -g and v=0 and direction of the particle after
3 s?
Therefore H=
( )
H=
2. A stone is thrown horizontally with a
Horizontal Range(R) velocity of 12 m/s from the top of a
The range is simply the horizontal component of vertical cliff .Calculate how long the
speed multiplied by the time of flight. stone takes to reach the ground 40
From s = with u = ucosθ ,a=0 and t= m below and how far the stone lands
from the base of the cliff.
Hence R = (ucosθ)( )=
3. A stone is thrown horizontally from
The particle has an initial horizontal speed of Using the identity we get the top of a vertical cliff and lands
ucosθ, which is unchanged throughout the motion. 4.0 s later at a distance 12.0 m
R =
Vertically the particle has an initial speed of from the base of the cliff . Ignore
usinθ. It falls under gravity and is accelerated Maximum range Rmax
air resistance.
downwards with an acceleration of g ms-2 Occurs when the horizontal distance by a Page
a) Calculate the horizontal speed of
Time of flight projectile is a maximum. 11
the stone.
The time of flight is calculated from the vertical It occurs when =1 =450 Hence b) Calculate the height of the cliff .
component of the velocity. 4. A stone is thrown with a velocity of
Rmax =
It is the time it takes for the particle to go up, 8 m/s into the air at an angle of 40°
reach its maximum height and come down again. Velocity (speed & direction) at any time t to the horizontal.
So this is twice the time to maximum height. Solution of problems is to find the vertical a) Calculate the vertical component of
If the time to maximum height is t s, then the component of speed at time t and combine this the velocity.
time of flight is 2t. with the original horizontal component of speed, b) State the value of the vertical
Consider motion up to maximum height. This is which remains unchanged. component of the velocity when the
attained when the final vertical velocity vv = 0. The velocity v has two perpendicular components stone reaches its highest point.
From v=u + at for vertical motion with u=usinθ , given as vv = usinθ –gt and vh = ucosθ Ignore air resistance.
a= -g we get Hence c) Use your answers to a) and b) to
0= usinθ – gt therefore t = and this is the √ calculate the time the stone takes to
reach its highest point.
time to reach the maximum height. at an angle ( ) d) Calculate the horizontal component
Hence time of flight T = of the velocity.
Maximum height attained (H)

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

5. The range of a projectile is the A body of large mass requires a larger

horizontal distance it travels before displacement in the y -direction are
identical to those of a freely falling force to change its speed or direction by
it reaches the ground. The greatest a noticeable amount, it has a large
range is achieved if the projectile is body.
inertia.
thrown at 45° to the horizontal. A The mass of a body is a measure of its
ball is thrown with an initial velocity

Dynamics
inertia.
of 40 m/s. Calculate its greatest In the SI system, the unit of mass is
possible range when air resistance is the kilogram (kg).
considered to be negligible. Second law:
In the last section we saw how motion can be
6. An Alaskan rescue plane drops a The rate of change of linear momentum is
described in terms of displacement, velocity,
package of emergency rations to a directly proportional to the applied force and
acceleration and so on. This is known as
stranded hiker. The plane is traveling occurs in the same direction as the force.
kinematics. Now we are going to look at how we
horizontally at 40.0 m/s at a height of Theory
can explain how an object moves in terms of the
1.00 x 102 m above the ground.  If we consider a force F acting on a
forces which change its motion. This is known as
(a) Where does the package strike the mass m with velocity v, the Second law
dynamics
ground relative to the point at which it may be represented by the
Newton's Laws of Motion
was released? ( )
First law: proportionality:
(b) What are the horizontal and vertical
A body will remain at rest or move at uniform ( )
Page
components of the velocity of the
speed along a straight line unless acted upon
package just before it hits the But acceleration, thus 12
by an external force.
ground?
Mass When F = 1N, m = 1kg and a = 1ms-2 and
Newton‘s first law expresses the
Summary concept of inertia. The Newton (N)
The inertia of a body is the reluctance The Newton is the force that when applied to a 1
The important facts of projectile motion can
of a body to start moving, or to stop kg mass will give it an acceleration of 1 ms-2.
be summarized as follows:
moving once it has started. Third law:
Provided air resistance is negligible,
When you are standing in a bus, and the The forces of two interacting bodies on each
the horizontal component of the
bus starts very quickly, your body seems other are equal and directed in opposite
velocity vh remains constant because
to be pushed backward, and if the bus directions.
there is no horizontal component of
acceleration. stops suddenly, then your body seems to Test yourself
The vertical component of the be pushed forwards.
1. A 5N force acts on a 2.5kg mass,
acceleration is equal to the free fall Notice that when the bus turns left, you
making it accelerate in a straight
acceleration g. will seem to be pushed to the right, and
line.
The vertical component of the when the bus turns right, you will seem
i) What is the acceleration of the
velocity vv = usinθ -gt and the to be pushed to the left.
mass?

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

ii) How long will it take to move the i) By Newton's 3rd. Law, the is important to consider the direction in
mass through 20m? force on X due to Y , (Fx) is the which the colliding objects are moving
2. A 4 kg mass travelling at constant same as the force on Y due to X before and after the collision.
velocity 15 ms-1 has a 10 N force , (Fy) . 2. Because momentum depends on the
applied to it against the direction of velocity of the object, and the velocity
motion. depends on the choice of the reference
i) What is the deceleration produced? ii) By Newton's 2nd. Law, the rate frame, different observers will measure
ii) How long will it take before the of change of momentum is the different momenta for the same object.
mass is brought to rest? same, since F = (rate of change As a passenger, the momentum of a car
3. A sky diver with mass 80kg is of momentum) with respect to you is zero. However, it
falling at a constant velocity of iii) Because the directions of the is not zero for an observer on the
70ms-1 When he opens his momentum of the objects are ground watching the car move away from
parachute he experiences a constant opposite, (and therefore of him.
deceleration of 3g for 2 s where g different sign) the net change 3. We chose an isolated system (the two
is the acceleration due to gravity. in momentum is zero. carts) for our investigation. The sum of
i) What is the magnitude of the  If we consider the speed of individual the products of mass and velocity mv of
decelerating force? masses before and after collision, we all objects in the isolated system
ii) What is his rate of descent at the obtain another useful equation: remained constant even though the carts
Page
end of the 2 seconds deceleration? • uA = initial speed of mass A collided with each other.However, if we
had chosen the system to be just one of 13
Linear momentum •
•
•
uB = initial speed of mass B
vA = final speed of mass A
vB = final speed of mass B
the carts, we would see that the linear
momentum p = mv of the cart before the
Linear momentum of a body is a product of its
• relative initial speed of mass A to mass collision is different than it is after the
mass and velocity ie
B = uB - uA collision. Thus, to establish that
momentum = mass x velocity [p = mv] where p-
• relative final speed of mass A to mass B momentum p is a conserved quantity, we
momentum, m-mass and v - velocity
= vB - vA need to make sure that the momentum
units: kgms-1 or Ns
• momentum before the collision equals of a system changes in a predictable way
Momentum of a body is a vector quantity, its
momentum after for systems that are not isolated.
direction being the direction of the velocity
The Principle of Conservation of Momentum Fx=- FY[Newton‟s third law]
The total linear momentum of a system of i.e mA [vA – uA ] = -mB [vB – uB ]
colliding bodies, with no external forces hence, mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mB vB
acting, remains constant. Note the following three
 for two perfectly elastic colliding bodies important points.
with no external forces note: 1. Unlike mass, which is a scalar quantity,
p = mv is a vector quantity.Therefore, it

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Test yourself from injury? Also, why do boxers often ―roll with the
punch‖?
1. A 5 kg mass moves at a speed of 3 Explanation: The brain is immersed in a cushioning
ms-1 when it collides head on, with fluid inside the skull. If the head is struck suddenly
a 3 kg mass travelling at 4 ms-1, by a bare fist, the skull accelerates rapidly. The brain
travelling along the same line.After matches this acceleration only because of the large
the collision, the two masses move impulsive force exerted by the skull on the brain. This
large and sudden force (large Fav and small t) can
off together with a common speed.
cause severe brain injury. Padded gloves extend the
What is the common speed of the

2.
combined masses?
An artillery shell of mass 10 kg is
time t over which the force is applied to the head.
For a given impulse Fav a glove results in a longer
time interval than a bare fist, decreasing the average
FORCES
fired from a field gun of mass force. Because the average force is decreased, the Force: is a push or a pull
2000 kg. If the speed of the shell acceleration of the skull is decreased, reducing (but :rate of change of momentum
on leaving the muzzle of the gun is not eliminating) the chance of brain injury. The same Law of universal gravitation
250 ms-1, what is the recoil speed argument can be made for ―rolling with the punch‖: If
Every particle of matter in universe attracts
the head is held steady while being struck, the time
of the gun? every other particle with a force which is
interval over which the force is applied is relatively
Energy changes during collisions short and the average force is large. If the head is directly proportional to the product of their
If no kinetic energy is lost (K.E.= ½ mv2 ) then allowed to move in the same direction as the punch, masses and inversely proportional to the square
the collision is said to be perfectly elastic. the time interval is lengthened and the average force of their distances apart.The gravitational force Page
However if kinetic energy is lost, the collision is reduced. `F' between two particles of masses m1 and m2, 14
described as inelastic. In the special case when This is simply the force multiplied by the time separated by distance r is given by
all the kinetic energy is lost, the collision is the force acts.We can obtain an expression for where, G is a constant called the
described as completely inelastic. This is when to this in terms of momentum from Newton's
universal gravitational constant, and is assumed
two colliding bodies stick to one another on Second Law equation F=ma, where the force F is
to have the same value everywhere for all
impact. For a perfectly elastic collision constant. Remember that velocity, force and
matter.
therefore impulse are vector quantities. For a
Coulomb's law
mass m being accelerated by a constant force F,
Coulomb's law states that the electrical force
Impulse of a force v1 is initial velocity and v2 is final velocity:
between two charged objects is directly
Ft = m(v2- v1)
proportional to the product of the quantity of
Since impulse is the product of force and time,
charge on the objects and inversely proportional
Science and Reality: the units of impulse are (Newtons) x (seconds),
to the square of the separation distance between
or N s .
Boxing and Brain Injury the two objects.
For Force-time graphs
In equation form, the electrical force `F'
In boxing matches of the 19th century, bare fists  The area under a force time graph
between two point charges q1 and q2, separated
were used. In modern boxing, fighters wear padded represents impulse.
by distance r is given by
gloves. How do gloves protect the brain of the boxer

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Or where, is a constant the pressure at the bottom of the cylinder is We use the term viscous force to describe the
called the Coulomb's law constant. greater than the pressure at the top of the frictional force in fluid (such as air
cylinder. This means that there is a bigger force resistance).The property of the fluid
acting upwards on the base of the cylinder, than determining this force is the viscosity of the
Fluid Mechanics there is acting downwards on the top.The fluid. In the simplest form, viscosity can be
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids and the difference in these forces is the upthrust or evaluated by the thickness of a substance.A
forces on them. (Fluids include liquids, gases, and buoyancy force, ‗Fb'. we can see that general rule is that gases are less viscous than
plasmas.) Upthrust = Fb = Fup - Fdown= (pY – pX)A Therefore liquids, and thicker liquids exhibit higher
Origin of upthrust acting in a body in fluid Fb = ρgAh where h is the height of the cylinder, viscosity than thin liquids
When an object is immersed in a fluid (a liquid or and V is its volume. ‗ρ' denotes density of the Stokes‟ Law and Terminal velocity
a gas), it appears to weigh less than when in liquid and ‗g' denotes acceleration due to gravity. For a sphere of radius r, moving with velocity v
vacuum. It is easier to lift large stones under Volume of fluid displaced = volume of cylinder = through a fluid whose coefficient of viscosity is
water than when they are out of water. The Ah η, the viscous force F experienced by the force
reason for this is that immersion in the fluid mass of fluid displaced =Ahρ is given by (Stokes‟ law)
provides an upthrust or buoyancy force.We can weight of fluid displaced = Ahρg = Fb = ρgV  Consider a sphere falling from rest
see the reason for the upthrust when we think where V=Ah through a viscous fluid.
about an object, such as cylinder in water as This relation has been derived for a cylinder, but  Forces acting on the fluid are its weight
illustrated below. it will also apply to objects of any shape. W, and the upthrust U, due to displaced
Page
Frictional forces fluid, and the viscous drag F.
Frictional force is one that opposes the motion.  Initially W U + F sphere accelerates
15
It is a force always acts in direction opposite to downwards.
the direction of motion. Frictional force is  As velocity of sphere increases so too
independent of the area of contact of the does the viscous drag and eventually W =
surfaces.For two surfaces with no relative U + F. sphere continues to move
motion the limiting frictional force is directly downwards but now there is no net
proportional to the normal reaction. The force.
coefficient of limiting friction μ is defined by  The velocity has a constant maximum
value known as the terminal velocity vt.
To determine the coefficient of friction:  If ρf and ρs are the densities of the fluid
Raise one end of a plank gradually and measure and the sphere respectively, then
the value of θ, at which the block is on the point
Archimedes' principle
of slipping.  At terminal velocity U + F = W where
A body immersed in a fluid (totally or partially)
Since F = mgsinθ and R = mgcosθ
experiences an upthrust which is equal to the
weight of fluid displaced.Remember, that the Hence
pressure in a liquid increases with depth. Thus, Viscosity & Viscous forces

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

( ) Triangle Law for Three Forces in Equilibrium: along the ruler. The turning effect acts at the
Three forces in equilibrium can be represented in hand where the metre ruler is pivoted. Keeping
( )
magnitude and direction by the three sides of a the weight and its distance along the ruler
triangle taken in order. constant, the turning effect can be changed by
Experimental determination of η using Stokes‘
holding the ruler at an angle to the horizontal.
law Centre of gravity
The turning effect becomes smaller as the ruler
 Place liquid under investigation in a large An object may be made to balance at a particular
approaches the vertical position. The turning
measuring cylinder. point. When it is balanced at this point, the
effect of a force is called the moment of a
 Drop a small ball bearing of radius r object does not turn and so all the weight on one
force. The moment of a force depends on the
gently into the liquid. side of the pivot is balanced by the weight on the
magnitude of the force and also on the distance
 Time for ball to fall from A to B is other side. Supporting the object at the pivot
of the force from the pivot.
determined, (A should be sufficiently means that the only force which has to be
below the surface so that the bearing applied at the pivot is one to stop the object
would have reached terminal velocity) falling - that is, a force equal to the weight of
here the object. Although all parts of the object have
( ) weight, the whole weight of the object appears
From the above equation,
to act at this balance point. This point is called
Vector triangle to represent forces in equilibrium the centre of gravity of the object. The moment of a force is defined as the product
The following diagram shows three forces acting Rotational motion of the force and the perpendicular distance of Page
on an object. When a force acts on an object, the force may the line of action of the force from the pivot. 16
cause the object to move in a straight line. It Referring to figure above, the force has a
could also cause the object to spin magnitude ‗F' and acts at a point distance ‗l '
(rotate).Consider a meter ruler held in hand at from the pivot. Then, when the ruler is at angle θ
one end so that the ruler is horizontal. If a to the horizontal,
weight is hung from the ruler, we can feel a Moment of force = Fd = Fl cos θ
turning effect on the ruler. The unit of the moment of a force is newton-
Figure: A vector diagram representing metre (Nm).
the body in equilibrium Couples
In the above diagram, if three vectors represent A couple constitutes of two forces, equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction whose lines
three forces⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ , then for the object to be
of action do not coincide.
in equilibrium,⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
NB
Hence, for an object to be in equilibrium, the net
 a couple can only produce a turning
force acting on it must be zero.
effect, (not translational motion).
 a couple cannot be represented by a
The turning effect increases if the weight is
single force.
increased or it is moved further from the hand

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

 When a screwdriver is used, we apply a forces and the perpendicular distance between force. It is measured in joules (J) or expressed
turning effect to the handle. the forces. as newton-metre (Nm).One joule of work is done
 We do not apply one force to the handle Rotational Equilibrium when a force of one newton moves its point of
because this would mean the screwdriver  For a body to be in rotational application by one metre in the direction of
would move sideways. equilibrium, net torque acting on the force.
 Rather, we apply two forces of equal object must be zero. Qn: What happens when force & displacement
size but opposite direction on opposite Principle of moments are not in same direction?
sides of handle as illustrated below. The principle of moments states that for a body ANS:If the force and displacement both are not
to be in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise in same direction, then the component of force in
moments about any point must equal the sum of the direction of the displacement must be found.
the anticlockwise moments about the same point.
Equilibrium
For a body to be in equilibrium,
1. The sum of forces in any direction must
be zero, i.e. resultant force acting on
Torque body must be zero.
Consider the two parallel forces, each of 2. The sum of the moments of the forces
 As illustrated above, consider a force
magnitude F as shown below (Figure 2.12) on about any point must be zero. , i.e.
`F' acting along a line at an angle θ to Page
opposite ends of a diameter of a disc of radius `r resultant torque acting on body about
the displacement. 17
'. Each force produces a moment about the any point must be zero.
 The component of the force along the
centre of the disc of magnitude `Fr ' in a
direction of displacement is `F cos θ '
clockwise direction.The total moment about the
centre is `F x 2r' or `F × perpendicular distance WORK, ENERGY, work done = Fx cos θ
Work done by expanding gas
between the forces'.
A building can be demolished with explosives.
POWER When the explosives are detonated, large
quantities of gas at high pressure are produced.
As the gas expands, it does work by demolishing
Work the building. Consider a gas contained in a
cylinder by means of a frictionless piston of area
When force is applied to an object, work is done A as illustrated below.The pressure `p' of the
The turning effect of a couple is referred to as a only if there is displacement in the direction of gas in the cylinder is equal to the atmospheric
torque. The unit of torque is same as that of the force. Mathematically, work done = force × pressure outside the cylinder. This pressure
moment of a force, newton-metre (Nm).The displacement in direction of force. Work done is maybe thought to be constant.
torque of a couple is the product of one of the a scalar quantity and is represented as dot
product of force and displacement in direction of

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Test yourself 7 a) A toy car works by means of a

stretched rubber band. What form of
1. A child tows a toy by means of a string. potential energy does the car store
The tension in the string is 1.5 N and the when the band is stretched?
string makes an angle of 25 ° with the b) A bar magnet is lying with its north
horizontal. Calculate the work done in pole next to the south pole of another bar
moving the toy horizontally through a magnet. A student pulls them apart. Why do
Since, , the gas produces a distance of 265 cm. we say that the magnets‟ potential energy
force ‗F' on the piston given by F = PA. 2. A sample of gas has a volume of 750 cm3. has increased? Where has this energy come
When the gas expands at constant pressure, the The gas expands at a constant pressure from?
piston moves outwards through a distance `Δx ' of 1,4 x 105 Pa so that its volume
becomes 900 cm3. Calculate the work done
Energy
so
Work done by the expanding gas = force × by the gas during the expansion.
distance moved;W = pAΔx 3. A man pulls a box along horizontal ground
using a rope .The force provided by the Energy is the ability to do work.It is a scalar
rope is 200 N, at an angle of 30° to the quantity measured in joules (J).
However, `AΔx' is the increase in volume of the
horizontal. Calculate the work done if the Energy conservation & conversion
gas ΔV . Hence, W = pΔV Law of conservation of energy
box moves 5.0 m along the ground.
4. A weight-lifter raises weights with a mass Energy can neither be created nor destroyed: It Page
 When the volume of a gas changes at can only be converted from one form to another.
of 200 kg from the ground to a height of 18
constant pressure, Conversion of energy
1.5 m. Calculate how much work he does.
work done = pressure × change in volume  Fossil fuels are sources of chemical
By how much does the g.p.e. of the
 When the gas expands, work is done by energy. As an example, when petrol is
weights increase?
the gas. burned in a car engine, some of the
5. Calculate how much gravitational potential
 If the gas contracts, then work is done energy is gained if you climb a flight of chemical energy is converted into kinetic
on the gas. stairs. Assume that you have a mass of energy of the car and some is wasted as
52 kg and that the height you lift heat energy.
yourself is 2.5 m. When the car stops, its kinetic energy is
6. A climber of mass 100 kg (including the converted into heat energy of the brakes.
equipment she is carrying) ascends from The outcome is that all the chemical energy
sea level to the top of a mountain 5500 m has been converted into heat energy which
high. Calculate the change in her dissipates in the atmosphere and is of no
gravitational potential energy. further use. However, the total energy
present in the Universe has remained
constant. Hence, all energy changes are

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

governed by the law of conservation of Conversely, if a positive charge moves closer to a associated with a moving object.Kinetic energy is
energy. negative charge, energy is released because energy due to motion.Consider an object of mass
Forms of energy there is force of attraction. `m' moving with a constant acceleration `a'. In a
Potential energy Gravitational potential energy distance `s', the object accelerates from
Potential energy is the ability of an object to do Newton's law of gravitation tells us that all velocity `u' to `v'. Then, by referring to
work as a result of its shape or position. masses attract one another.We rely on force of equations of motion: v2 = u2 + 2as
Types of potential energy gravity to keep us on Earth. When two masses By Newton's second law, the force F giving rise
There are different forms of potential energy. are pulled apart, work is done on them and so to the acceleration `a' is given by F = ma
Elastic potential energy, electric potential energy they gain gravitational potential energy.
Combining these two equations,
and gravitational potential energy are the ones If the masses move closer together, they lose
Upon re-arranging
we will look at in this course. gravitational potential energy.
Elastic / Strain potential energy Gravitational potential energy near Earth's By, definition the term `Fs' is the work done by
In order to wind up a string, work has to be done surface the force moving a distance `s'. Therefore, since
because a force must be moved through a Changes of gravitational potential energy are of `Fs' represents work done, then the other terms
distance. When the string is released, it can do particular importance for an object near to the in the equation must also have the units of work
work. When the spring is wound, it stores the Earth's surface because we frequently do work done, or energy. The kinetic energy Ek of an
ability to do work.Hence, the spring stores raising masses and, conversely, the energy stored object of mass `m' moving with speed `v' is given
energy as it is stretched and releases the energy is released when the mass is lowered again.An by:
Page
as it returns to its original shape. This type of object of mass `m' near the Earth's surface has Test yourself
energy is called elastic potential energy. Elastic weight `mg', where `g' is the acceleration of 19
1. Calculate the kinetic energy of a car
potential energy is stored in objects which have free fall. This weight is the force with which the
whose weight is 9800 N moving at speed
had their shape changed elastically. Earth attracts the mass (and the mass attracts
of 20 m s-1. State the form of energy
Examples: Stretched wires, stretched springs, the Earth).
from which the kinetic energy is
compressed gases If the mass moves a vertical distance Δh,
derived.
Electric potential energy Work done = force × distance moved = mgΔh
2. Which has more k.e., a car of mass
The law of charges states that like charges repel When the mass is raised, the work done is stored
500 kg travelling at 15 m/s or a
and unlike charges attract which means that as gravitational potential energy and thus energy
motorcycle of mass 250 kg travelling at
work has to be done when charges are moved can be recovered when the mass falls.
30 m/s?
relative to one another. If, for example, two Change in gravitational potential energy;
3. Calculate the change in kinetic energy
positive charges are moved closer together, work
ΔEp = mgΔh of a ball of mass 200 g when it
is done and the electric potential energy of the
bounces. Assume that it hits the ground
charges increases. The electric potential energy
with a speed of 15.8 m /s and leaves it
stored is released when charges move apart. Kinetic energy
at 12.2 m/s.
As an object falls, it loses gravitational potential
energy and as a result speeds up. Energy is

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

4. Calculate the increase in kinetic  In everyday life, for a gas stored in a Since, energy cannot be created, efficiency can
energy of a car of mass 800 kg container, the molecules of gas move never be greater than 100% and a `perpetual
when it accelerates from 20 m/s to randomly and possess kinetic energy motion' machine is not possible.
30 m/s.5. A pendulum consists which is proportional to the Test yourself
of a brass sphere of mass 5.0 kg thermodynamic temperature of gas. 1. A man lifts a weight of 480 N
hanging from a long string. The  As molecules of gas exert forces on througha vertical distance of 3.5 m
sphere is pulled to the side so that each other, at any instant there will be using a rope and some pulleys. The
it is 0.15 m above its lowest certain potential energy associated with man pulls on the rope with a force
position. It is then released. How the positions the molecules occupy in of 200 N anda length of 10.5 m of
fast will it be moving when it passes space. rope passes through his hands.
through the lowest point along its  As the molecules will be moving Calculate the efficiency of the
path? randomly, the potential energy of pulley system.
6. Calculate how much gravitational molecules will also vary randomly. 2. An electric heater converts
potential energy is lost by an  But, at given temperature, the total electrical energy into heat energy.
aircraft of mass 80 000 kg if it potential energy of all molecules will Suggest why this process may be
descends froman altitude of 10 000 remain constant. 100% efficient.
m to an altitude of 1000 m. What  Further, the molecules of gas collide
happens to this energy if the pilot with each other and will interchange Power Page
keeps the aircraft‟sspeed constant? kinetic energy during collisions. Power is the rate of doing work and is given by
7. A stone falls from the top of a  In this example, the internal energy is the formula,
20
cliff, 80m high.When it reaches the given by the sum of the potential The unit of power is watt (W) & is equal to a rate
foot of the cliff, its speed is energies and the kinetic energies of all of working 1 joule per second. This means that a
38m/s. the molecules. light bulb of power 1 watt will convert 1 joule of
a) Calculate the proportion of the Efficiency electrical energy to other forms of energy (e.g.
stone‟s initial g.p.e. that is In most energy changes, some energy is `lost' or light & heat) every second.Power, like energy, is a
converted to k.e. `wasted' as heat (thermal) energy. For example, scalar quantity.It is common in everyday language
b) What happens to the rest of the when a ball rolls down a slope the total change in to say that a strong person is `powerful'. In,
stone‟s initial energy? gravitational potential energy is not equal to gain physics, strength, or force or power are not the
Concept of internal energy in kinetic energy because heat (thermal) energy same.Large forces may be exerted without any
Internal energy is determined by the state of has been produced as a result of frictional movement and no work is done.Hence, the power
the system and it can be expressed as the sum of forces. Efficiency gives a measure of how much is zero in that case.Consider a force `F' which
the random distribution of kinetic and potential of the total energy may be used and is not `lost'. moves a distance `s ' at constant speed `v' in
energies associated with the molecules of a Efficiency = the direction of force, in time `t '. The work
system. done `W' by the force is given by W = Fs
Examples for concept of internal energy

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Dividing both sides of this equation by time `t ' 4. a) Explain what is meant by work. the cycle of day and night, the rotation of wheels
gives b i) Explain how the principle of enables easy vehicular motion, and modern
Now, is the rate of doing work , i.e. the power conservation of energy applies to a technology depends on circular motion in a
man sliding from rest down a vertical variety of contexts, from the tiny gears in a
`P' and = v Hence, P = Fv
pole, if there is a constant force of Swiss watch to the operation of lathes and other
Test yourself friction acting on him. machinery. The concepts of angular speed,
1. Calculate the electrical energy ii) The man slides down the pole and angular acceleration, and centripetal acceleration
converted into thermal energy when an reaches the ground after falling a are central to understanding the motions of a
electric fire, rated at 2.4 kW, is left distance h = 15 m.His potential diverse range of phenomena, from a car moving
switched on for a time of 3.0 minutes. energy at the top of the pole is around a circular race track to clusters of
2. A boy of mass 60 kg runs up a flight 1000 J. Sketch a graph to show how galaxies orbiting a common center.
of steps in a time of 1.8 s. There are his gravitational potential energy Ep Rotational motion, when combined with Newton‘s
22 steps and each one is of height 20 varies with h. Add to your graph a law of universal gravitation and his laws of
cm. Calculate the useful power line to show the variation of his motion, can also explain certain facts about space
developed in the boy's legs. kinetic energy Ek with h. travel and satellite motion, such as where to
3. A cyclist pedals a long slope which is at 5. a) Use the equations of motion to show place a satellite so it will remain fixed in position
5.0° to the horizontal. The cyclist that the kinetic energy of an object over the same spot on the Earth. The
starts from rest at the top of the slope of mass m moving with velocity v is generalization of gravitational potential energy
Page
and reaches a speed of 12 m/s after a and energy conservation offers an easy route to
such results as planetary escape speed. Finally, 21
time of 67s,having travelled 40 m down b) A car of mass 800 kg accelerates
the slope. The total mass of the cyclist from rest to a speed of we present Kepler‘s three laws of planetary
and bicycle is 90 kg. 20m /s in a time of 6.0 s. motion, which formed the foundation of Newton‘s
a) Calculate: i) Calculate the average power used to approach to gravity.
i) the loss in gravitational potential accelerate the car in the first 6.0 s. Uniform Circular Motion The motion of an object
energy as he travels down the slope ii) The power passed by the engine of moving in circular path at constant speed with
ii) the increase in kinetic energy as he the car to the wheels is constant. constant angular velocity.
travels down the slope. Explain why the acceleration of the car Angular displacement
b i) Use your answers to a to decreases as the car accelerates. One radian is the angle subtended at the
determine the useful power output centre of a circle by an arc of length equal to
of the cyclist. the radius of the circle. 1 radian =
ii) Suggest one reason why the actual or 1 radian ≈ 57.3°
power output of the cyclist is larger
than your value in (i).
MOTION IN A CIRCLE Radian (rad) is the S.I. unit for angle, θ and it
can be related to degrees in the following way:
Rotational motion is an important part of In one complete revolution, an object rotates
everyday life. The rotation of the Earth creates through 360°, or 2π rad.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

As the object moves through an angle θ, with A body moving in a circle at a constant speed
respect to the centre of rotation, this angle θ is changes velocity {since its direction changes}.In
known as the angular displacement. accordance with Newton‘s 1st law, a body which is
Angular velocity moving in a circle must have a resultant force
Angular velocity (ω) of the object is the rate of acting on it. For a body moving with constant
change of angular displacement with respect to speed, there is no component of this force which
time. where acts in direction of motion. The force must
therefore be perpendicular to the motion of the
θ – angular displacement (rad)
body, ie directed towards the centre. It is known
ω – angular velocity of particle (rad s-1) The normal reaction, R acquires a horizontal
as a centripetal force. Centripetal force is the
t – time taken (s) component (R sin θ).Consider car of mass m
resultant of all the forces that act on a system
The period T, of rotational motion is the time moving with constant speed v round a bend of
in circular motion.
taken to complete one revolution. radius r.
Centripetal acceleration
Centripetal force needs to provide an
By Newton‘s 2nd law, a body acted upon by a
acceleration of
resultant force must have an acceleration. The
acceleration is in the same direction as the force
(towards the centre).It is known as a centripetal
Since no vertical acceleration
acceleration. A body moving with constant
Dividing equations results
Page
angular velocity ω, along a path of radius r,
centripetal acceleration a is given by
22
Linear velocity, v, of an object is its Test yourself
instantaneous velocity at any point in its circular 1. A satellite is moving at 2000 ms-1 in
path. Centripetal force will be given by a circular orbit around a distant
( ) moon.If the radius of the circle
followed by the satellite is 1000
Note:
Banked roads km, find:
The direction of the linear velocity is at
‗Banking‘ roads removes the reliance on friction i) the acceleration of the satellite
a tangent to the circle described at that
having to provide centripetal force for a vehicle ii) the time for the satellite to
point. Hence it is sometimes referred to
going round a bend. complete one full orbit of the moon
as the tangential velocity.
in minutes.
ω is the same for every point in the
2. In each of the following cases,
rotating object, but the linear velocity v
state what provides the centripetal
is greater for points further from the
force:
axis.
a) the Moon orbiting the Earth
Centripetal force b) a car going round a bend on a flat,
rough road

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

c) the weight on the end of a swinging

3.
pendulum.
A car is travelling along a flat road.
The radius of the Earth is 6400 km.
Calculate:
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
Explain why it cannot go around a a) the centripetal force on the space
bend if the road surface is perfectly station
smooth. Suggest what might happen b) the speed at which it orbits
if the driver tries turning the c) the time taken for each orbit
steering wheel. d) the number of times it orbits the
4. An object follows a circular path at a Earth each day.
steady speed. Describe how each of
the following quantities changes as it
follows this path:
speed, velocity, kinetic energy,
momentum, centripetal force,
centripetal acceleration.(Refer to
both magnitude and direction, as We live our lives with the constant experience
appropriate.) of gravity.We know that things fall when we
5. Calculate how long it would take a drop them. The free-fall parachutists above
8. A stone of mass 0.40 kg is whirled Page
ball to orbit the Earth once, just are enjoying the experience of falling through
round on the end of a string 0.50 m the air under the influence of gravity. The 23
above the surface, at a speed of
long. It makes three complete
7920m/s (The radius of the Earth is Earth’s gravitational force extends well beyond
revolutions each second. Calculate: its surface. The Moon stays in its orbit, at a
6400 km.)
a) its speed
6. A stone of mass 0.20 kg is whirled distance of about 400 000 km away, because
b) its centripetal acceleration of the Earth’s gravitational pull .The Earth
round on the end of a string of
c) the tension in the string.
length 30 cm. The string will break orbits the Sun at a distance of 150 000 000
9. Mars orbits the Sun once every 687 km because of the gravitational force between
when the tension in it exceeds 8.0
days at a distance of 2.3 × 1011 m.
N. Calculate the maximum speed at them. According to Newton, all masses create
The mass of Mars is 6.4 × 1023 kg. a gravitational field in the space around them.
which the stone can be whirled
Calculate it‟s:
without the string breaking. This field gives rise to a force on any object
a) orbital speed having mass placed in this field. The Moon
7. The International Space Station
b) centripetal acceleration orbits the Earth because it experiences a
shown below has a mass of 350
c) gravitational force exerted on Mars
tonnes, and orbits the Earth at an gravitational force due to the Earth’s
by the Sun. gravitational field.In physics, the idea of a
average height of 340 km, where the
gravitational acceleration is 8.8 m s-1 field is a very general one. If an object is
placed in a gravitational field, a force will act
on the object because of its mass. You are

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

probably familiar with the idea that a magnet 'g' with distance from the Earth's centre In the diagram the point X is inside the earth at
produces a magnetic field around itself, and .Weight W is the force of attraction of the a distance r from the centre.
that this will produce a force (attractive or Earth on a mass. For a mass m, the weight is From our initial assumptions, the value of gr is a
repulsive) on another magnet placed nearby. given by: W=mg result of the gravity from a sphere of radius r.
The mathematical treatment depends on two If MS is the mass of the sphere, then by
Newton's Law of Gravitation assumptions: comparison with equation (1)
Every particle in the Universe attracts The value of g is the same at a distance
gr (4)
every other particle with a force from a mass, whether the mass is in the
which is directly proportional to the shape of a spherical shell or NB: the effect of matter (in the form of a shell)
product of their masses and inversely concentrated in the centre. above point X has no effect on the value of gr
proportional to the square of the The value of g everywhere inside a Assuming that the Earth has a uniform density ρ
distance between them. spherical shell is zero. (rho) and remembering that m = ρV , the mass
NB :the spherical shell and central mass have MS of the internal sphere and the mass ME of the
uniform density Earth is given by: and
First consider a mass m on the surface of the
Earth. The force of attraction between the mass dividing the two equations, we get :
If the masses are m1 and m2 , with their centres
of mass displaced a distance r apart, then the and the earth is its weight W. This is also equal Substituting for MS from equation (4),
force of attraction F of one mass on the other is to the force F between the mass and the Earth, ( ) ( ) Page
described as: given by Newton's Law.
recalling that we get ( ) 24
mg = (1) Where ME is the
The proportionality can be made into an equation
using a constant of proportionality. This constant mass of the Earth, rE its radius.
we call G, the Universal Gravitational Constant. Now let us consider the value of g at a distance r
where G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2 from the Earth.
Gravitational force is very weak! This can be case where r › rE
shown by considering two 1 kg masses 1 m apart. If this new value is gr,then by similarity with
The gravitational force between them is given equation (1), (2)

by: =6.67 x 10 -11

N !!!! Dividing equation (2) by equation (1),
The gravitational force between everyday objects is ( )( )=( ) ( )g
so small as to be almost irrelevant. case where r < rE
Gravitational Field Strength g
The gravitational field strength is the force
acting per unit mass in a gravitational field. It
has units Nkg-1.Close to the earth‘s surface g =
acceleration of free fall = 9.81 Nkg-1.Variation of

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

NB gr = g when r = rE That is the variation of the force F with the The work done by the gravitational force on the
separation r is as shown below. mass equates to the original (maximum) kinetic
Summary energy of the mass.
So for inside the Earth, gr is directly
proportional to r . The graph is therefore a
straight line through the origin. For outside the Making the velocity v the subject, we get
Earth, gr follows a function similar to y = x-2,
√ This is the escape velocity
where x decreases steadily, approaching zero at
For the Earth, the escape velocity approximates
infinity. ( ) where rE and g are
to 11 kms-1!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!.
constants NB for this theoretical treatment
Escape velocity Since work done = force x distance moved 1. the theory does not apply to continuously
against force , the incremental work δW done by propelled masses
the gravitational field on the mass is given by; 2. escape velocity is independent of the direction
of projection
substituting for F from the first equation,
Satellite orbits
A satellite (mass m) orbits the Earth (mass ME)
Making the expression into an integral, where W at a constant velocity v . Page
Theoretically (neglecting air resistance) to leave is the total work done by the gravitational force The centripetal force keeping the satellite in
25
the Earth and not return, a mass must have between the limits of r = rE and r = : orbit is provided by the gravitational force of
enough kinetic energy to reach a point an infinite (essentially summing the individual slices of F δr attraction F between the mass and the Earth.
distance away, where its velocity (and hence KE) between the limits to obtain the area under the
is zero. The escape velocity is the minimum initial curve)
velocity required to do this. This is a constant
for a particular planetary mass, and is ∫
independent of the projected mass.
Consider a mass m being projected away from Integrating between the limits,we get
the surface of the Earth with velocity v. At a
distance r from the Earth (mass ME ) the force
Thus for an object that travels from one orbit
of gravity F on the mass is given by:
where the radius is rA to another where radius
This equation can be used to calculate the work √
is rB the work done is given by
done by the gravitational force in bringing the
Since G and ME are constants, satellite velocity is
mass m to rest. Consider the mass m moving an
solely dependent on orbital radius.
incremental distance δr away from the Earth.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

The period T of the motion is simply the the satellite must be orbiting in the
circumference of the circular orbit divided by same direction as the Earth is rotating The square of the orbital period of a planet is
the satellite's velocity. proportional to the cube of the mean distance to
its parent star.
T - orbital period
1/2
Thus rM - mean distance

Which can be written as

Kepler's 3rd law derived from Newton's Law of
Since G and ME are constants, orbital period, like Gravitation
orbital velocity, is solely dependent on orbital The centripetal force F keeping a mass m in orbit
radius.
is given by:
Low orbits
and
For satellites in orbit a distance equal or less
1/2
than 200 km above the Earth's surface, the Thus
Substituting G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2,
radius of the orbit approximates to the radius of
ME = 6.0 x 1024kg and T = 24 hrs = 8.64 x 104 s Which can be written as
the Earth:
Height of satellite above the Earth‘s surface is
rE = 6.6 x 106 m r = 6.8 x 106 m Since G and ME are constants, orbital period, like
42400 – 6400 = 36000 km
Making r equal to rE , the equations for orbital orbital velocity, is solely dependent on orbital
Uses of such satellites include relaying TV signals Page
velocity v and period T become: radius.
and telephone messages from one point on the 26
Earth‘s surface to another.
√ the period 1/2 The moon is also a satellite so these equations Gravitational potential - U
apply to it.
The Law of Gravitation predicts that
Kepler‟s third law
lower orbits have higher velocities. So
a satellite should go faster and faster
as it moves closer to the Earth.
Geostationary orbits
A geostationary satellite is one that always
appears in the same place in the sky, no matter
what the time of day. The potential U at a point in a gravitational
The conditions for this to occur are: field is defined as being numerically equal to
the satellite must have an orbital period the work done by the field in bringing a unit
of exactly 24 hours mass from infinity to the point i.e
the satellite must have a circular orbit
where,
above the equator
U is the gravitational potential at a point

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

W is the work done in bringing a mass m from cancelling the mass m gives,
infinity to that point. rearranging, to make -g the subject,
By definition, the potential at infinity is zero. thus

The units for gravitational potential (work/mass)

are Jkg-1 .
The work done in moving a mass m from the
surface of the Earth to infinity was given by:
Derivation of the relation between g and U
Consider a particle of mass m in a gravitational
Now if we make the mass unity (m = 1 kg), the
field.
energy difference between the 1 kg mass on the
In the absence of any applied force, the mass
surface of the Earth and at infinity (zero
would be attracted to the major body producing
potential) is W .
the field.
However, since the highest potential is zero at
Let the mass be held in position by a force F ,
infinity, all potential energies relative to this From the graph it can be seen that the
acting in the opposite direction to the field
level are less than zero (i.e. negative). gravitational field strength g at a radius r is
direction.
Our 1 kg mass on the Earth therefore has a equal to minus the value of the gradient of the
Now if the force F moves the mass a very small Page
potential of - W . gravitational potential U .
distance δx against the field, the work done is
If UE is the potential on the surface of the 27
given by: (work = force x distance force moves) Energy in orbits
earth, then:
assuming that the force F is constant. The energy Er of a satellite of mass m in orbit, of
When the mass is static, the net force is zero. radius r around a large body of mass M, is the
substituting for W from above(remembering that
Forces are balanced. Since forces are vector sum of the satellite's PE and KE respectively,
m = 1kg),
quantities, the minus sign signifies opposite
direction.
F=-mg This equation can be simplified by eliminating v2 .
Therefore in the general case, the potential Ur
Substituting for F into our original equation, Recalling the equation describing the circular
at a point a distance r away from a large mass M
[1] motion of the satellite,
is given by:
By definition, gravitational potential U is given So the total energy Er of the satellite in its orbit
by: U= is given by:
So δU , the increase in U, is given by:
U=
Substituting for δW from equation [1]

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

position. We make use of oscillations in many

QUANTITY GRAVITATIONAL ELECTRIC different ways – for pleasure (a child on a swing),
Field -scalar quantity -vector quantity for music (the vibrations of a guitar string), for
Strength timing (the movement of a pendulum or the
vibrations of a quartz crystal). Whenever we
make a sound, the molecules of the air oscillate,
passing the sound energy along. The atoms of a
Potential Scalar quantity -scalar quantity solid vibrate more and more as the temperature
note: rises.These examples of oscillations and
1. the total energy of the satellite is vibrations may seem very different from one
always negative another. In this chapter,we will look at the
Force characteristics that are shared by all
2. the PE component of the energy is twice
as large in absolute terms as the KE oscillations.
component Oscillatory motion is a periodic motion with a
3. Also, for any particular circular orbit
with radius r , the individual values of
WAVES regular to-and-fro motion.
Examples of such motion include
kinetic and potential energies are simple pendulum,
TOPICS vibrating guitar spring,
constant. Page
 Oscillations e/m waves etc.
By contrast, with elliptical orbits the values of
 Waves mass- spring system 28
potential and kinetic energies are not constant.
 Superposition Oscillations in mechanical systems such as simple
They vary such that when one is large the other
is small and vice versa. It must be remembered Simple Harmonic Motion pendulum, mass spring pendulum are examples of
Simple Harmonic Motion.
that the sum of potential and kinetic energies is Free and forced Oscillations
always constant for a particular orbit. Definition:
Oscillations and vibrations are everywhere. A A body is said to be in simple harmonic motion
Analogy between Gravitational and Electric
bird in flight flaps its wings up and down. An (shm) if its acceleration is directed towards a
fields
aircraft‘s wings also vibrate up and down, but this fixed point in its path and is directly
N.B
is not how it flies.The wings are long and thin, proportional to its displacement from that
Gravitational force unlike electric force
and they vibrate slightly because they are not point.
is always attractive.
perfectly rigid. Many other structures vibrate – The fixed point is called the equilibrium position
Gravitational force does not depend on
bridges when traffic flows across, buildings in i.e. the position at which the body would come to
medium in which the masses are
high winds. A more specific term than vibration is rest if it were to lose all of its energy.
situated.
oscillation. An object oscillates when it moves
back and forth repeatedly, on either side of
some equilibrium position. If we stop the object
from oscillating, it returns to the equilibrium

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

left), and ω2 is a positive constant (in s-2) and is

the acceleration of the body (in ms-2).
To obtain an expression for the velocity, v at any
displacement x from the equilibrium position:
From And
Hence, when the displacement is positive the
acceleration is negative (and vice versa).
Definitions and equations Now using the identity
1.The period, T of the motion is the time Thus ( ) ( )
interval for a complete oscillation. The SHM-circle connection is used to solve
Giving √ problems concerning the time interval between
2.The frequency, f of oscillation is the number
This equation requires that x = x0 when t = 0. particle positions.
of complete oscillations per second. SI unit is
An alternative for x is; this requires x = 0 when t To prove how SHM is derived from circular
Hertz (Hz). f = 1/T
= 0. motion we must first draw a circle of radius 'x0'
3.The amplitude of the motion, x0 is the
A graph of acceleration against displacement or a (max. displacement).
maximum displacement from the equilibrium
position. Then, the projection(x-coord.) of a particle A is
4.The angular frequency of oscillation,  is given made on the diameter along the x-axis. This
by  = 2/T=2f projection, as the particle moves around the
circle, is the SHM displacement about O. Page
5.Vibrating particles are said to be in phase if
they are at the same position and in the same Energy in SHM 29
direction of motion at the same time. Total energy in a free oscillation is conserved.
Graphical representation of s.h.m The total energy, E consists of kinetic energy,
Graphs can be used to represent the motion and potential energy, U
oscillations in shm. E= +U
The graph of displacement against time is a sine Example At any displacement x from the equilibrium
wave.Velocity is found at any instant by taking position, velocity is given by:
A particle displaying SHM moves in a straight
the gradient of the displacement-time graph. line between extreme positions A & B and passes And ( )
Graph of velocity against time is a cosine wave through a mid-position O.If the distance AB = 10 When, the kinetic energy is maximum this is the
with the maximum as m and the maximum speed of the particle is 15 total energy in the system and occurs when x=0
Acceleration is found at any instant by taking the ms-1 find the period of the motion to 1 decimal i.e
gradient of the velocity-time graph. place. The potential energy is given as U=
The motion of a body vibrating with shm can be SHM and Circular Motion The variation of U, Ek and E with displacement is
described by this equation.
shown:
Where is the displacement about a fixed point O
(in m, and is positive to the right, negative to the

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

A car‘s suspension system needs to be slightly

under critical damping.
Forced vibrations
Forced vibration can be illustrated by a simple
experimental setup called Barton's pendulums.
Damped Oscillations
In free oscillations total energy is constant
meaning amplitude is also constant.
In practice this is not usually the case.
Forced Oscillations and Resonance
The amplitude of oscillation gets progressively
In free oscillations the oscillating systems do so Page
smaller.The frequency is also reduced because of
at their natural frequencies. Essentially a large pendulum is used to provide a
damping.These types of oscillations are known as 30
An external periodic force can be used to get driver frequency which will make the other,
damped oscillations. There are three degrees of
the oscillating system at any frequency. smaller pendulums oscillate at the same rate.
damping: light, heavy and critical.In light damping
The system is performing forced oscillations and This driver frequency is in fact the natural
the amplitude of oscillation is gradually reduced.
has the same frequency as the external periodic frequency of the pendulum. The frequency at
The oscillating system stops after a large
force(driver frequency).The amplitude of the which it would oscillate at without the smaller
number of oscillations, eg a simple pendulum.
forced oscillations depends on the driver pendulums. The masses of the smaller pendulums
In heavy damping resistance is so great that the
frequency and the natural frequency of the are insignificant compared to the mass of the
system takes a very long time to return to the
system.When the driver frequency equals the larger. So their effect is not of any consequence.
equilibrium position.When a system is critically
natural frequency of the oscillating system the
damped the damping is sufficient to prevent
amplitude is large.Resonance is said to occur.
oscillation but not too great to delay return to
equilibrium position.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

3) the amplitude of Q (90o) with P, at the natural frequency with which

4) the phase difference between P and Q P oscillates.
Initial graphs(blue) are draw for the amplitude For higher driver frequencies and light damping
of Q and the phase difference of Q against the phase difference rises to a maximum of π
driver frequency. (pi) radians (180o).
Various levels of damping are then applied to Q. Higher driver frequencies and heavy damping
Families of curves are produced. produce a phase difference only slightly above
More damping is produced by decreasing the bob π/2 radians.
mass of Q and/or adding cardboard fins to implications & uses of resonance
increase air resistance. implications:
1. Soldiers must 'break step' when crossing
wooden bridges.
On the graph it should be noted:
2. Cars/aircraft/rockets are carefully designed
1. All the pendulums have the same frequency.
so that parts do not resonate producing
2. Pendulum Y has the same length as P but is not
unwanted noises/dangerous vibrations.
in phase with it. It is approx. 1/4 period behind.
3. Electrical audio circuits are subject to
However, Y does oscillate with greater amplitude
'feedback' . This is the loud howling sound
than the other small pendulums. Y is said to be
produced when a microphone is too close to a
resonating with P. Page
loudspeaker and the amplifier gain is too high.
3. The shorter pendulums, W & X are approx. in
uses: 31
phase with P.
1. clocks & watches - quartz crystals resonate
4. Pendulum Z is approx. 1/2 period behind P.
It can be seen that the amplitude of pendulum Q producing accurate timing frequencies
Using Barton's pendulums to investigate
is maximum (maximum resonance) just before the 2. standing waves in pipes
forced vibrations
natural frequency of the driver pendulum P. 3. ultra-sonic cleaning - dirt particles resonate
If Q is heavily damped the amplitude is much with the applied frequency and are dislodged
less at its maximum and occurs at a much lower 4. crystal radios - circuits resonate at the same
frequency than the natural driver frequency. frequency as a radio station
5. radio antennas (aerials) - resonate when they
interact with radio waves
The method is to keep the length of the WAVE MOTION
dependent pendulum Q the same, while varying A wave is made up of periodic motion, which is
the length of the driver pendulum P. motion repeated at regular intervals.
Measurements are then made of: A wave is a phenomenon where energy is
1) the frequency of P transferred through vibrations.One complete
Whether pendulum Q has light or heavy damping,
2) the frequency of Q motion from one extreme position to another and
it always has a phase difference of π/2 radians

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

back is known as an oscillation/vibration.Waves 8.Phase: Any 2 points are in phase when they Examples are sound wave and pressure waves.
can be formed by moving a rope up and down, move in the same direction, have the speed and They form compressions and rarefactions.
using a ripple tank or using a slinky spring. displacement from rest position. (e.g. 2 crests Compressions are region where the air particles
The source of any wave is a vibration or and 2 troughs) are close together, creating high pressure.
oscillation. There are 2 types of wave motion: Transverse Rarefactions are areas where the air particles
Properties of Wave Motion and Longitudinal. are far apart, creating low pressure
Transverse waves 2 types of graphs used to plot waves:
Displacement-distance graph: Plotting the
displacement of the wave at a certain instant of
time.

Terms used to describe wave motion:

Displacement-time graph: Used to observe the
1.Crests and troughs: The highest and lowest Transverse waves are waves in which the displacement of a specific point on a graph over a
direction of vibration of the particles is n interval of time.
points of a transverse wave respectively. In
longitudinal waves we have compressions and perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
the wave. Page
rarefactions.
2.Wavelength ( λ ) is the horizontal distance Examples of such waves include rope waves and 32
along a wave between 2 successive particles of water waves.
the wave, moving in the same direction. The crest is the highest points of the wave
whereas the trough is the lowest points of the Both the transverse and longitudinal waves are
3.Displacement is the distance of a particle of
wave. progressive waves.
the wave from its equilibrium position at any
Longitudinal waves The wave profile moves along with the speed of
particular time
the wave.
4.Amplitude ( a ) is the maximum displacement
A particle at the origin vibrates according to the
of a particle of the wave from its equilibrium
equation where t is time, and
position.The height of the crest/ depth of a
ω = 2πf
trough from the rest position.
Suppose wave is moving from left to right.
5.Period ( T ) is the time for one complete
A particle at some point a distance from the
oscillation of the wave.
origin will have a different phase of vibration.
6.Frequency ( f ) is the number of complete
A distance λ corresponds to a phase difference
oscillations per second.
Longitudinal Waves are waves in which the of 2π.
7.Velocity ( v ) the velocity of a particle of a
vibration of the particles is travel parallel to the
wave in the direction the wave is travelling.
direction of propagation of the wave.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Thus phase difference, φ at any point P will be Refraction of light The ratio constant is called the relative
given by The bending effect of light as it passes from one refractive index 'n'.
Hence displacement of any particle at a distance transparent material to another of a different The relative refractive index between two media
x from the origin will be given by density is known as refraction. where a light ray travels through one medium
( ) Let Refraction is caused by the change in speed of (#1) and is refracted through the other medium
light. (#2) is given by:
( ), motion to the right
At the boundary of 2 optical media, if there is a
Velocity of a wave
sudden change in the speed of light, it will cause
It is the distance moved per unit time.
the path of light to bend.
Time taken for wave to move a distance equal to
Light travels fastest in air/vacuum. The greater the value of refractive index of a
one wavelength is one period. medium, the greater the bending of light, and the
The normal is a line drawn at right angles to the
Reflection of light material's surface at the ray's point of entry. denser the material is.
The angle of incidence is the angle the light ray Refractive Index
makes with the normal. The refractive index of a single medium can be
The angle of refraction is the angle the defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a
refracted light ray makes with the normal inside vacuum to the speed of light in the medium.
the material. Here nm is defined as the absolute refractive
index
Page
33
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the
normal, at the point of incidence, all lie in the
same plane. where,
co is the velocity of light in a vacuum
cm is the velocity of light in the medium
let us consider our two materials(#1 & #2 from
above). Their absolute refractive indices are
given by:

The incident ray, the refracted ray and the

normal at the point of entry are all in the same
dividing the second equation by the first,
plane.
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to
The angle of reflection equals the angle of the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant
incidence for a particular wavelength (Snell's Law).
that is,

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

 A Level Physics Notes

The image is the same size as the object.

A line joining a point on the image to a
corresponding point on the object is
perpendicular to the mirror.
The image is laterally inverted (sideways upside
down).
Snell's Law equation can now be rewritten as:

or
note: when a light ray travels from a less dense
medium to a denser medium, it bends towards the
normal(and vice versa).
Critical Angle
Common refractive indices
The Critical Angle (co)is the angle of incidence in
Material n (λ = 589.29nm)
a dense medium, such that the angle of
Water 1.33 refraction in the less dense medium is 90o .
Diamond 2.40 As the angle of incidence in the dense medium is Page
Glass 1.48-1.96 increased, the angle of refraction increases We can formulate an equation for the critical 34
Plane mirror images towards 90o. angle using Snell's Law for two media of
All images are virtual: that is, they cannot be During this time a weak reflected ray is also refractive index n1 & n2.
projected on to a screen. observed.
The image produced in a mirror is as far behind
the mirror as the object is in front.
When θ1= 90o and θ2= co ,
object distance = image distance
but sin(90o) = 1, therefore:

from work on relative refractive index,

Only when the angle of incidence in the medium Applications of total internal reflection:
exceeds the Critical Angle does all the light Glass prisms
become reflected internally.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Optical fibres: Made up of plastic fibres that nodes, are in within one
transmit light over long distances through total phase wavelength
internal reflection.An optical fibre has a core of have different
high refractive index, coated with another phases.
material of lower refractive index.Light rays This is used in Polaroid glasses to reduce the Wave Profile The wave The wave
entering the fibre will be internally reflected at amount of light reaching the eye. profile does profile
the boundary between these 2 refractive Polarisation also has to be taken into account not advance. advances.
materials. when transmitting and receiving waves. An aerial
has to be aligned to the plane of the polarised Energy No energy is energy is
waves for it to receive the maximum signal. transported transported
Polarisation can also be achieved by creating by the wave. by the wave.
waves in one plane (for example, a laser).
Longitudinal waves cannot be polarised because
the direction of vibration and direction of
propagation are the same.
Differences between progressive and
stationary waves Electromagnetic Waves
Stationary Progressive
Page
Optical fibre has a number of advantages over Waves Waves
Amplitude Varies from Same for all 35
copper wire:
1. less attenuation maximum at particles in
2. cheaper metre for metre the anti-nodes the wave
3. can carry more information to zero at the (provided no
4. immune to electrical interference nodes. energy is lost).
5. safer - no fire risk as with electric currents Wavelength Twice the The distance
6. wire-tapping more difficult distance between two
Polarisation between a pair consecutive Properties of electromagnetic waves:
Transverse waves can oscillate in any plane. of adjacent points on a Electromagnetic waves are transverse
Polarisation is the process by which the nodes or anti- wave, that are waves.
oscillations are made to occur in one plane only. nodes. in phase. They are electric and magnetic fields that
This is done by passing the waves through a Phase Particles in Particles in oscillate at 90° to each other.
'grid' so that only the waves that can fit through the same adjacent They transfer energy from one place to
the slits can continue through: segment/ segments are another.
between 2 in anti-phase. They can travel through vacuum (do not
adjacent All particles require any medium to travel)

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

They travel at 3.0 x 108 m/s in vacuum. electronic configuration in the atoms of the In X-ray imaging, a beam of high-energy
They will slow down when travelling through metal targets. Electrons are knocked off from photons is produced and passed through
water or glass. their energy level and other electrons fill up the the body structure being examined.
They obey the laws of reflection and energy levels producing electro-magnetic waves The beam passes very quickly through
refraction. called X-rays. Only 1% of the Ek of the electrons less dense types of tissue such as
They carry no electric charge. is converted to x-rays, the other 99% is heat watery secretions, blood, and fat,
Their frequencies do not change when energy. leaving a darkened area on the x-ray
travelling from one medium to another. Most of the x-ray tubes use tungsten as the film.
Only their speeds and wavelength will metal target because it has the highest Muscle and connective tissues
change. efficiency of the production of x-rays. (ligaments, tendons, and cartilage)
appear grey.Bones will appear white.
X-rays X-rays may be taken of any part of the
Production of x-rays by electron bombardment body to detect tumour (or cancer) cells.
on a metal target The use of X-rays as a treatment is
known as radiation therapy and is largely
used for the management (including
palliation) of cancer; it requires higher
radiation energies than for imaging
Page
alone.
36
LASERS
X-rays are produced by bombarding metal Uses of X-rays Laser stands for light amplification by
targets with high speed electrons produced stimulated emission of radiation.
thermo-ionically. X-rays have wavelengths Laser light can be used to remove cancer
varying from 5×10-8m to 5×10-15m and are or precancerous growths or to relieve
produced when very fast moving electrons are symptoms of cancer.
stopped by a heavy metal target. It is used most often to treat cancers
A tungsten filament is heated by the passage of on the surface of the body or the lining
current through it so that electrons are of internal organs.
produced thermo-ionically.A high voltage in the Lasers can focus very accurately on tiny
range of 20kv – 125kv is applied across the anode areas, they can also be used for very
and cathode. This high voltage accelerates the precise surgical work or for cutting
electrons to a very high speed.On colliding with through tissue (in place of a scalpel)
the metal target the electrons decelerates
rapidly, the kinetic energy of the electrons is
converted to heat and disturbance of the

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Uses
Wave Generation Properties Uses Dangers
Radio Waves Electrons oscillating Radio transmitters None
Red-shifted lower wavelengths from Can be modulated for Radar,Television
stars. communication Mobile phones
Microwaves Can be modulated for Microwave ovens Internal heating of body tissue
Red-shifted light from stars and communication Communication system
galaxies Resonance with molecules
Electron energy changes in atoms producing heat.
Infra-red Molecular vibration Transfer of heat energy to Thermal imaging Burns skin
Electron energy level changes materials Remote controls
Modulation for short
distance control(e.g. TV
remotes)
Visible Electron energy level changes in Starts chemical reactions Optic fibres Strong light causes damage to vision.
atoms (egg photosynthesis) Seeing!
Affects photo film
Page
Ultra-violet Electron energy level changes in Produces ionization, Washing powder Skin cancer and blindness 37
atoms fluorescence (whiter than white)
Produces photoelectric Security marking
effect
Affects photofilm
X rays Electron deceleration Ionizing Taking images of the Mutations in cells and severe burns to
Electron energy level changes in Affect photofilm skeleton the skin.
atoms Penetrating
Produces fluorescence
produce photoelectric effect
Gamma Rays Nuclear fission Very penetrating Cancer treatment Cancers and cell mutation
Nuclear fusion Produce weak ionisation Sterilisation of
Radioactive decay Produce weak fluorescence equipment
Affects photo film

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

SUPERPOSITION
OF WAVES
Principle of superposition
The resultant displacement at any point of two Two waves having the same amplitudes approach
There are points where the displacement is
waves travelling through the same medium is each other from opposite directions. permanently zero, these points are called nodes.
given by the algebraic sum of the separate The two waves are 180o out of phase with each
Points along the wave each have different
displacements due to the two waves. other and therefore cancel out (black horizontal amplitudes; those points with the greatest
line).
amplitude are called antinodes.
The phase difference between the two waves At points between successive nodes the
narrows. The resultant grows but is not in phase
vibrations are in phase. The diagram shows how
with either of the two waves. a standing wave moves up and down over time.
The phase difference between the two waves is
narrower still. The resultant is larger but is still
out of phase with the two waves. Page
The phase difference between the two waves is 38
now zero. The resultant has its maximum value
and is in phase with the two waves.
Formation of stationary waves
The conditions for formation of standing waves  separation of adjacent nodes or
are: adjacent antinodes is half a wavelength
Depending on the phase difference between the  two waves travelling in opposite (λ/2)
waves, this resultant wave appears to move slowly directions along the same line of travel  hence separation of adjacent nodes and
to the right or to the left or disappear and in the same plane antinodes is λ/4 the maximum amplitude
completely.  the waves have the same speed is 2a (twice that of a single wave) a
It is only when the phase difference is exactly  the waves have the same frequency standing wave does not transfer energy
zero, that is when the two waves are exactly in  the waves have the same approximate (its two components however, do
phase, that 'standing/stationary waves' occur. amplitude transfer energy in their respective
Properties of stationary waves directions)
Stationary or Standing waves have become very
important in physics in the last hundred years or
so. Understanding them has not only given

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

insights into sound but many other important Young's Double Slit Experiment - Apparatus
topics e.g. AC circuit theory, quantum mechanics,
nanotechnology.
Closed Pipes
In the diagrams, P is the site of a node, while Q
is at an antinode. The diagram above represents the 5th harmonic,
Nodes are always formed at the closed end of a sometimes called the Second Overtone.
pipe, where the air cannot move. Looking at the different wavelengths in terms of
Antinodes are always formed at the open end of the length of the pipe L ,
pipes. Typically distance (D) between the double slits
As with stretched strings, the distance between and the screen is ~ 2 m (200 cm).
node and antinode is 1/4 of a wavelength. we can then make wavelength the subject of each The slit separation is ~ 10-3m (1mm).
equation. The preferred monochromatic light source is a
sodium lamp.
Young's Double Slit Experiment - Display
Interference of waves
In accordance with the principle of superposition
Page
two waves in the same place at the same time,
they produce an effect which is equal to the 39
The diagram above represents the fundamental combined effects of the 2 waves. This The fringes become dimmer from the centre
frequency, where n=1. This is the 1st harmonic. phenomenon is known as interference. travelling outwards.
Certain conditions have to be met however for Young's Double Slit Experiment - theory
the effects of interference to be capable of The separation (y) of bright/dark fringes can be
being observed. calculated using simple trigonometry and algebra.
 The waves from light sources must be Consider two bright fringes at C and D.
coherent with each other. Coherence For the fringe at C, the method is to find the
means that they must be of the same path difference between the two rays S1C and
frequency, with a constant phase S2C . This is then equated to an exact number of
The diagram above represents the 3rd harmonic, difference between them. wavelengths n.
sometimes called the First Overtone.  The amplitude (maximum displacement) A similar expression is found for the fringe at D,
of interfering waves must have the same but for the number of wavelengths n+1 .
magnitude. Slight variations produce lack The two expressions are then combined to
of contrast in the interference pattern. exclude n .

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

 NOTE;For a dark fringe on the

screen,the path difference should be
given as ( )λ where
n=0;1;2;3;…
Hence, ( )
Diffraction grating
Rearranging to make xC the subject, The clear spaces on a diffraction grating act as
equally spaced slits. So light rays diffracted at
With reference to triangle CAS2 , using Similarly for the next bright fringe at D, when
the same angle (θ) and in phase with each other
Pythagoras' Theorem: the path difference is one wavelength longer
will interfere constructively. Whenever this
( ) ( ) ( ) (n+1),
( ) happens, a bright fringe called the principal
substituting for AC and S2A in terms of xC , a
maxima is produced.
and D
( ) ( ) (i hence the fringe separation xD - xC is given by,
( )
also, with reference to triangle CBS1
( ) ( ) ( )
assigning the fringe separation the letter y ,
( ) ( ) ii
Subtracting equation (ii from equation (i ,
y hence
The path difference between successive light
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Diffraction rays must therefore be a whole number (n) of
Page
( ) ( ) is the spreading of waves through a 40
wavelengths (λ).Using simple trigonometry, if d is
narrow slit or around the edge of an
Using 'the difference of two squares' to expand the distance between slits, then the path
obstacle as a result of the superposition
the LHS, difference is dsin(θ).
of wavelets from a plane wavefront.
( ) ( ) ( )( ) Hence,
refers to the spreading {or bending} of
The path difference S2C - S1C is therefore given So discrete bright fringes (principal maxima) are
waves when they pass through an opening
by: produced at specific angles for particular
{gap}, or round an obstacle (into the
wavelengths of light.
―shadow‖ region). {as shown below}
In reality, a ~ 10-3m and D ~ 2 m . The length a is For significant diffraction to occur, the
much smaller than D. The two rays S2C and S1C size of the gap of the wave
are roughly horizontal and each equal to D,
 For a bright fringe at point C the path
difference S2C - S1C must be a whole
number (n) of wavelengths (λ)i.e
λ where n=0;1;2;3;…
Hence,

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

effect – this is because each lightning strike Some substances acquire an electric charge when
usually consists of four or five flashes at rubbed with other substances.For example, an
intervals of 50 milliseconds or so. You will already ebonite rod becomes negatively charged when
know a bit about electric (or electrostatic) rubbed with fur.When ebonite and fur are
fields, from your experience of static electricity rubbed together, some of the electrons originally
in everyday life, and from your studies in science. in the fur experience a stronger attraction from
In this chapter, you will learn how we can make atomic nuclei in the ebonite than they do from
these ideas more formal. We will look at how nuclei in the fur. Consequently, after the rubbing,
electric forces are caused, and how we can the ebonite has an excess of electrons, and the
represent their effects in terms of electric fur has a deficit.
fields. Then we will find mathematical ways of

SECTION 1V: calculating electric forces and field strengths.

There are two types of charge – positive and
negative.
Law of Electrostatics
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM Charging By Induction
Page
A charged rod can induce a charge separation on
Like charges repel, while unlike charges
TOPICS attract. a neutral conductor.In all the methods of 41
Electricity charging, one object gains electrons while the
 There are processes in which charge is
D.C. Circuits other loses the same amount.As a result, the
 transferred from one body to another.
Electric fields total charge is always constant.In fact, the total
 glass rubbed with silk acquires a positive
Capacitance charge in an isolated system is always conserved;
 charge
Electro magnetism this is called the law of conservation of charge
 polythene rubbed with wool acquires a
Electromagnetic Induction The total charge (the difference between the
 negative charge
Alternating Currents amounts of positive and negative charge) within
 The decision to make the charge acquired by
Analogue Electronics an isolated system is conserved.
 glass positive, and the charge acquired by
 Digital electronics ebonite negative was completely arbitrary.

ELECTROSTATICS Later experiments showed that electrons were

transferred to the silk from the glass.
The lower surface of a thundercloud is usually Electrons adopted a negative charge and protons
negatively charged. When lightning strikes, an a positive charge.
intense electric current is sent down to the Charging By Friction
ground below. You may have noticed a ‗strobe‘

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

The Laws of Electric Charges Electrostatics in everyday life

Unlike electric charges attract each other. When you take off a pullover over a Electrostatic precipitators are air pollution
Like electric charges repel each other. nylon shirt there is a crackling sound control devices that remove tiny particles from
Charged objects attract some neutral objects. A pen rubbed with a piece of cloth will the emissions (flue gas) of processing and power
pick up small pieces of paper plants that burn fossil fuels.By relying directly
A television screen easily collects dust on the properties of electric fields, these
You sometimes get a small electric shock devices are capable of removing almost all (about
when getting out of a car 99%) of the tiny particles of soot, ash, and dust.
If you roll over in bed you can sometimes Dirty flue gas is passed through a series of
see small flashes of light between the positively charged plates and negatively charged
sheets wires.When a very large negative charge is
You can sometimes get a small electric placed on the wires, the electric field near the
shock from a cat that has rolled on a wire is so strong that the air near it becomes
Electrical conductors and Insulators synthetic carpet ionized.Electrons freed in the region of
An electric conductor is a solid in which electrons In a thunder storm there are huge ionization move toward the positive plates and
are able to move easily from one atom to another. flashes of lightning attach themselves to the tiny waste particles in
(Most metals, such as silver, gold, copper, and Book covering film can be difficult to the flue gas moving through the plates.
aluminium, are conductors.)Some of the outer work with These waste product particles will now be
electrons in these conductors have been called negatively charged and are attracted to the Page
Applications of Electrostatics
―conduction electrons‖ for the way they can move plates where they collect on the surface of the 42
1.Electrostatic precipitation
about within the atomic framework of the solid. plate. The plates are shaken periodically to
A charged mesh in a chimney acts as an
An insulator is a solid in which the electrons are remove the soot, ash, and dust in a collection
electrostatic dust collector, cleaning the
not free to move about easily from atom to atom. hopper.
smoke.
Plastic, cork, glass, wood, and rubber are all 2.Spray painting
excellent insulators. Paint sprays can be charged and the object they
are spraying earthed to attract the paint
towards it.Spray painting is a painting technique
where a device sprays a coating (paint, ink,
varnish, etc.) through the air onto a surface.
In electrostatic spray painting or powder coating,
the atomized particles are made to be
electrically charged, thereby repelling each
Charges introduced on conductors spread out other and spreading themselves evenly as they
whereas in an insulator they remain in the exit the spray nozzle.
positions where they were introduced.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Charging by friction typically builds up around 10 b) Describe the electric field between the
nC for every square centimetre of surface area. plates.
Since the Earth is so large, it actually stores a c) An oil droplet of weight 6.4 × 10-15 N is held
huge charge, roughly 400 000 C, and releases stationary between the two plates.
approximately 1500 C of charge every second in i. State whether the charge on the droplet is
storm-free areas to the atmosphere. positive or negative.Explain your answer. [2]
The balance of charge is maintained on Earth by ii Determine the charge on the oil droplet. [2]
other objects dumping excess charge through 5. A proton is travelling at right angles to an
grounding and when lightning strikes Earth. electric field of strength 2.40 × 10-6 V/ m.
A bolt may transfer up to 20 C of charge. a) Calculate the force on the proton due to the
Test yourself electric field. [2]
1. State two possible SI units for electric field b) Calculate the acceleration of the proton in the
The object being painted is charged oppositely or
strength. direction of the field.
grounded. The paint is then attracted to the
2. A +5.0 × 10-8 C point charge experiences a c) Write down the acceleration of the proton at
object giving a more even coat than wet spray
force of 1.5 × 10-3 N when placed in a uniform right angles to the field.
painting, and also greatly increasing the
electric field. Calculate the electric field 6. A pair of parallel plates are 5.0 cm apart and
percentage of paint that sticks to the object.
strength. [2] are connected to a 200 V supply. A particle of
This method also means that paint covers hard to
3. Calculate the force experienced by an oil dust between the plates experiences a force, due
reach areas. Car body panels and bike frames are Page
droplet with a charge of 3.2 × 10-19 C due to a to the field, of 3.2 × 10-4 N.Calculate the
two examples where electrostatic spray painting 43
uniform electric field of strength 5.0×105V/m. charge on the dust particle.
is often used.
4. The diagram shows two parallel, horizontal
3.Post-atomization charging: The atomized fluid
plates separated by a vertical distance of 3 cm.
comes into contact with an electrostatic field
downstream of the outlet nozzle. The
The potential difference between the plates is Current Electricity
600 V.
electrostatic field may be created by
An electrical current is a net movement or flow
electrostatic induction or corona, or by one or
of charge in a given direction. In a metal, this
more electrodes (electrode ring, mesh or grid).
charge is negative and is due to the movement of
Hazards associated with charging by friction
free electrons within the structure of the metal.
Care must be taken when emptying oil tankers
You can imagine current as behaving in a similar
and refuelling aircraft to avoid a build up of
way to cars in a nose-to-tail traffic queue or as
static charge due to friction that could make a
molecules in an incompressible fluid. Cars at the
spark and result in an explosion. Charging by
rear of a traffic queue can only move forwards if
friction also depends on size of object so when
the cars at the front do - otherwise they have no
the plane is also in flight there is also a build-up
a) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the space to move in to. In a similar way you cannot
of charge due to friction with the air molecules.
electric field between the plates. [3] depress the plunger of a water-filled, plastic
syringe if the other end is blocked - the water

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

molecules have nowhere to go. For this reason it positive terminal lose electrical potential energy, whose resistance lies somewhere between that
is necessary to have a complete circuit loop, with and it is this electrical potential energy that is of metallic conductors and insulators. A
no breaks, for a current to flow. We will examine transferred into heat. semiconductor is made from covalently bonded
circuit loops in more detail later on. This also Resistance in a metal is due to the presence of materials. Electrons in the outermost orbits only
means that current will be the same at any point fixed, positive ions which inhibit the flow of have a small ‗jump‘ to make to move to the next
around a series circuit - again more later on. electrons through the metal. As electrons collide orbit a little further away. When an electron
Remember conventional current (the with the positive ions, the electrons give up does this it has two implications. As there are
direction we assume the charge travels in a energy and it is transferred to the structure of not many electrons in these higher levels it can
current) is in the opposite sense to the the metal, normally resulting in an increase in jump into a vacant site in the adjacent atom and
direction of electron travel (the direction temperature, which causes heat to be in so doing move through the element. Secondly,
they actually travel).Conventional current transferred to the surroundings. Fundamentally when it jumps up it leaves a vacant site below it
flows from positive to negative, electrons this is how an electric heater and filament lamp known as a hole, these holes act as though they
travel from negative to positive. You should function. were positively charged and move the opposite
always mark conventional current on diagrams In brief, an electromotive force causes electrons way through the metal, so we get double the
unless specifically asked to do otherwise. to move around a complete circuit giving up current we would expect. Silicon and Germanium
energy as they progress. The current transfers are examples of semi-conductors.Liquids can also
Potential difference/voltage energy from the cell to components in the circuit. conduct as they long as they contain charged
• A voltage is a measure of how much potential Conduction electrons particles.For instance, impure water will conduct
as the impurities in it exist in the form of ions, Page
energy a unit charge has at a point, specifically Electricity can seem very abstract and difficult
here in an electric circuit. to understand. The key to grasping the subject, which move through the liquid. Pure water will not 44
• A potential difference exists between two like so many in Physics, is to build up a picture of as the water molecules are neutral.Current is the
points if a charge has a differing value of what is happening and follow the concepts rate of flow of charge.If the current is
potential energy at each of the points. A voltage through logically. An electric current is nothing constant, we have: I = where
drop means the charge has lost energy; an emf more than a net movement or flow of charge in a I = current (amps, A) Q = charge flowing past a
(electromotive force) means the charge has been certain direction. In a conducting metal the point (coulombs, C)
supplied with energy. charge carriers are free electrons; these t = time taken for the amount of charge Q to
The easiest type of p.d. to understand is that electrons originate from the rigidly bonded metal flow (seconds, s).
produced by a cell – which contains a surplus of atoms that form the structure of the conductor. This formula will also give average current if the
electrons in the negative terminal and a lack in Their outer electrons are only weakly bonded to current is variable.
the positive terminal. Electrons in the negative the atom and so many escape and are free to If the current is not constant, then the gradient
side of the terminal are repelled by the like move throughout the structure of the metal. As of a charge (y-axis) against time (x-axis) graph
charge surrounding them and pushed out into the the metal atoms have lost electrons they are no would give the current at a particular time
circuit to fill the gaps left by electrons drawn longer neutral but are now positively charged. Current and electrons
towards and into the positive terminal. Good metallic conductors include silver and We now know that current is rate of flow of
Just as a mass falling to earth loses gravitational copper.Metals are not the only materials that charge. The flow of charge in solids depends on
potential energy, electrons moving towards a conduct; semiconductors are a group of materials
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

the movement of charge carriers; these are In an insulator there are no free charges
generally electrons. available to carry current, therefore
Current therefore depends on the number of n = 0m-3 and therefore, from the equation, I =
free (meaning "able to move") charge carriers in 0A.
the material and how quickly they move - the Typical Exam Question:
more charge carriers there are and the faster Calculate an average value for the drift
they move, the higher the current will be. velocity of free electrons moving through a
Drift velocity wire of area 1.5mm2, when they form a Why does current flow?
All free electrons move around due to their current of 6.1A. Copper contains 1.0x1029 By now you should have a picture of a conductor,
thermal energy even if there is no current free electrons per m3. The charge on an for instance a metal, as structure of fixed
present. However as this motion is completely electron is 1.6x10-19 C [3] positive ions surrounded by a sea of free
random then the net effect is no overall We are going to use the equation I = nAvQ, so we electrons, colliding and rebounding with these
movement. To be part of a current they have to need to convert the cross-sectional area into the ions as they flow, but gradually making their way
exhibit a drift velocity in a given direction correct units: from one end of the wire to the other. These
When the overall effect on all the electrons is Substitute in to our equation: electrons behave much as an incompressible liquid
taken into account this small drift shown by each v = I/(nAQ) which explains why current starts to flow
electron provides a current, whilst when all = 6.1/(1 x1029´x 1.5x10-6 x 1.6x 10-19 ) immediately when a switch is closed and the rate
electrons in the first example are considered the = 0.00025 m/s (= 0.25 mm/s) of flow is the same throughout, just like water
net movement of charge is zero. I-V Characteristics flowing along a pipe.
Page
Current can be calculated from: 1.Ohmic conductor The question is; what causes charged particles to 45
I = nAQv flow?
I = current (amps, A) The answer – electromotive force (EMF) or
n = number of free charge carriers per m3 voltage. Voltage is one of most fundamental
Q: Charge on each charge carrier. (coulombs, C) yet widely misunderstood quantities in
A: Cross-sectional area (m2) electricity. It is a difference in potential
v : Drift velocity (m/s) 2.filament lamp between two points in an electrical circuit.
If I, A and Q are constant, then v is inversely You can compare this to gravitational potential
proportional to n. In other words, to carry the energy. Imagine a ball held above the ground. The
same current, if there are fewer charge carriers ball has more potential energy because it is above
they must move at a higher speed. the ground. It tends to fall towards the point
Metallic conductors have a far higher value of n; with lower potential energy.
for a metal and semiconductor of the same Similarly, a positive charge will "fall" from the
3.junction diode
dimensions, carrying the same current, v must be higher (more positive) potential to the lower
higher in the semiconductor typically around m/s, (more negative) potential. Negative charges –
as opposed to mm/s for a metal. like electrons - behave in the opposite way, and
move from a lower potential to a higher potential
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

(this is where the analogy with a ball falling fails of the battery-as having 0V potential and then the random component of their motion, with the
to work any more). measure all other potentials relative to this. applied emf imposing the drift. When they collide
Current is conventionally said to be in the Remember current is a flow and therefore is with the positive ions they transfer some of
direction that a positive charge would move. So always through something. their kinetic energy to it. This explains why their
electrons move in the opposite direction to the Potential difference is a difference between two kinetic energy does not increase as they lose
conventional current. points and is therefore always across something. potential energy - it is transferred to the wire,
The cell imposes an EMF on the circuit - its Now you should have a picture of free electrons and also how energy is transferred to a
negative terminal contains extra electrons and travelling through the structure of the metal component or wire by a current. The more the
its positive terminal lacks them. As soon as a delivering energy to any component they pass ions get in the way of the electrons, the higher
complete circuit is formed the free electrons in through. Imagine the electrons as a traffic jam the resistance and the lower the current that
the wire are attracted towards the positive in which the traffic is nose to tail; if there is a will flow. If the current transfers energy to a
terminal and repelled from the negative so they break in the circuit no current can flow as the component faster than it can dissipate the heat
start to drift and are replaced by the extra front electrons have nowhere to flow to, meaning to the surroundings, its temperature will
electrons from the cell. electrons throughout the circuit increase. As the fixed positive ions gain thermal
V =W/Q are stationary. If the traffic moves we will get KE their vibration around their fixed equilibrium
V: Potential difference between two points. the same number of cars past every point in the positions increases and they get in the way more.
W: Energy dissipated in moving between those road, as they all travel as fast as the cars at the The electrons find it harder to get through the
two points. front allow. In more Physical terms the sea of metal hence the resistance increases. In all
Q: Total charge that has moved between the two free electrons behaves as an incompressible metals resistance goes up as temperature Page
points. liquid, with any EMF providing a push but the increases.We define resistance by 46
An EMF is also a difference in potential but it liquid only flows if the pipe it is travelling in is R=
causes the current to flow. not blocked. R: Resistance in ohms (W)
For the EMF, W would be electrical work done on Resistance V: potential difference across component (V)
the charge by the supply (i.e. energy supplied) Resistance in metals has its origins in the atoms I: current across component (A).
instead of a measure of work done by the charge that make up the material. Ohm‘s law states that for a metallic conductor I
on a component (i.e. energy dissipated). In solid form the atoms are tightly bound into a is directly proportional to V as long as its
Remember p.d. is relative: two points that are at lattice structure. It is their outermost electrons temperature is constant, in other words if we
10,000 and 9998V and two points that are at 4 that escape to form a sea of free electrons. double the voltage then the current will also
and 2V both have p.d.s of 2V across them. A bird When the electrons escape they leave their double. As a semiconductor‘s temperature
standing on a high voltage power line does not get atoms as fixed positive ions. increases more electrons are promoted so they
electrocuted as both its feet are at the same, When we apply an emf, free electrons are pushed are free to conduct. This increase in the number
albeit very high potential. If there is no p.d. then away from the negative terminal and towards the of charge carriers more than compensates for
no current flows and it survives to fly another positive, so they try to flow from one end of the the increased vibrations in the material. We say
day. When dealing with circuits we are able wire to the other. As they try to get past the it has a negative coefficient of resistance - as
define one point - usually the negative terminal fixed positive ions they collide repeatedly, its temperature increases its resistance falls.
rebounding after each collision, this generates This can be seen from I = nAvQ. If the number
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

of charge carriers per unit volume increases, A heating coil made from 11 metres of wire is (b)i) A constantan wire has a diameter of
than the size of current for a given p.d. connected to a 240V mains supply. The wire 0.4mm and a length of 150cm. Find its
increases. has diameter of 0.25mm and resistivity of resistance given the resistivity of constantan
Resistivity 1.0x10-6 Ωm . is 5x10-7 Wm. [5]
Different metals will inhibit currents by (a) Calculate its resistance [4] ii)What would happen to the resistance if the
different amounts due to differences in their (b) How much current will flow in it? [1] diameter and length were both doubled? [4]
structures. We call this resistivity. We use Now you should be able to understand current as (c) A semiconductor of the same dimensions is
resistivity for the same reason we use the Young a flow of charged particles under the influence connected into a circuit
Modulus - it is independent of a material‘s of a potential difference. In a metal electrons Energy transfer in the cell.
dimensions.Using our previous diagram, if the drift from one end of the wire to the other with At GCSE level you learned that in a cell, chemical
length of the conductor is increased then its fixed positive ions impeding their progress. It is energy is transformed into electrical energy. At
resistance must also increase as the electrons this resistance to their motion that causes the A level you should recognise this process as
have further to travel and therefore have more electron‘s loss in potential energy to be working, as opposed to heating, because it is an
ions to get past. If we increase the cross- transferred to the component the current moves ordered process and not due to a temperature
sectional area, then resistance falls because through. Ohm‘s law links the quantities of difference.The e.m.f., ε, of the cell is defined to
there are more gaps for the electrons to pass potential difference, current and resistance and, be the energy transformed in moving a unit
through. The relationships are directly and at a constant temperature, R remains constant. charge across the cell between the plates. So the
inversely proportional respectively, i.e: Typical Exam Question e.m.f, ε (in Volts) is the work done (in Joules) per
R a L/A A 12 cm length of copper wire of area 4x10-7 unit charge (in coulombs). Page
The constant of proportionality is resistivity and m2 is connected across a potential difference ε = 47
it is constant for a any amount of a given metal. of 2V. A current of 4A is measured flowing ε = e.m.f of the cell (V)
For a conductor it is defined as the product of through the wire. Charge carrier density for ΔW = work done (J)
resistance and cross-sectional area per unit copper = 1.0x1029 m-3 .Calculate q = unit charge (Q)
length. (a) The resistivity of copper. [4] If the e.m.f drives a current, I, then I coulombs
R= (b) The drift velocity of the electrons in the of charge are moved across the cell per second,
R: Resistance (Ω ) wire. [3] and if the current continues for t seconds, then
: Resistivity (Ωm) (c) If the area of the wire is doubled what the work done = ε × I × t. This is the chemical
A: Cross-sectional area (m2 ) effect will this have on the drift velocity, energy transformed, however, the cell offers
L: Length of conductor (m) provided the current is unchanged? [3] some resistance to the flow of charge, so not all
Remember whilst resistance depends on (d) The current in the wire is increased to a of the energy is transformed into electrical
dimensions resistivity, depends only on the type point where the wire begins to heat up. What energy. The potential difference appearing
of metal. Sometimes you will be asked to effect does this have on the resistance of the across the terminals of the cell (the terminal P.D.
calculate conductivity, this is just the inverse of wire and why? [3] V) is less than the e.m.f. and the difference is
resistivity. Exam Workshop described as the ―lost volts‖.
Typical Exam Question: (a) Define potential difference. [2]

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

This is the energy per s dissipated as heat in the

resistor. 2.A negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
P = I × R × R = I2 R thermistor and its connecting leads are coated
Energy wasted by the internal resistance with a high-resistivity plastic material.The
Applying these ideas to the internal resistance thermistor is placed in a beaker containing hot
The cell is usually drawn as if it had a resistor in gives the energy per second wasted by the water The temperature of the water is kept
series with it, though the resistance is actually internal resistance as I2 r. constant at 80 °C. The I–V characteristic of the
within the body of the cell. This resistance is Energy wasted per second by the internal thermistor is shown below.
described as the ―internal resistance‖ (r) of the resistance = I2 r a Calculate the resistance of the thermistor.
cell.
b State and explain the change, if any, to the
The ―lost volts‖ depends on the current drawn
Test yourself shape of the graph of I against V when the
from the cell, since the lost volts will be I × r.
1. The graph shows the I–V characteristics of a temperature is lowered and maintained at 30 °C.
This leads to the equation:
V = ε - Ir where V = terminal p.d (Volts) filament lamp.
ε = e.m.f of cell (Volts) a Does the lamp obey Ohm‘s law? Explain your
Ι = curremt (amps) answer.
r = internal resistance (Ω) b Calculate the resistance of the lamp at 4.0 V.
A graph can be ploted to show the variation of c Describe how the resistance of the lamp
the terminal p.d V with the current I as shown depends on the current. Page
below. 48

3.A wire is made of a material of resistivity ρ.

Write an equation for the resistance R of a wire
of length L and diameter d. [2]
Energy transfer in a load resistor 4. A manganin wire of radius 0.15 mm has a
The P.D, V across a resistor gives the energy resistance of 5.33 Ω per metre of length.
transfer per unit charge. The current, I, through a Calculate the resistivity of manganin. [4]
the resistor gives the number of coulombs of b Explain how your answer to a would change if the
charge per s, so V × I gives the energy change manganin wire had twice the radius. [2]
per second. – the power. Combining this with 5. Calculate the charge which passes through a
Ohm‘s Law V = I × R gives P = I × R × R = I 2R. lamp when there is a current of 150 mA for 40
minutes.
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
 A Level Physics Notes

6. A generator produces a current of 40 A. How Semi-conductor, silicon. computers can be programmed with the
long will it take for a total of 2000 C to flow b Explain why the resistance of a metallic equations which describe how current and
through the output? conductor increases with temperature while that voltage behave in a circuit. These equations,
7.In a lightning strike there is an average current of a semiconductor decreases. which include Ohm‟s law and Kirchhoff ‟s two
of 30 kA, which lasts for 2000 μs. Calculate the laws, were established in the 18th century,
charge which is transferred in this process. but they have come into their own in the 21st
8. a A lamp of resistance 15 Ω is connected to a
battery of e.m.f. 4.5 V. Calculate the current
through the lamp.
D.C. Circuits century through their use in computer-aided
design (CAD) systems.
Kirchhoff's Laws
b) Calculate the resistance of the fi lament of an Current/1st Law - The sum of the currents
electric fi re which takes a current of 6.5 A when entering a node/junction equals the sum of the
it is connected across a mains supply of 230 V. currents leaving.
c. Calculate the voltage which is required to drive
a current of 2.4 A through a wire of resistance
3.5 Ω.
9. A battery of e.m.f. 6 V produces a steady
current of 2.4 A for 10 minutes. Calculate:
a the charge which it supplies I1 + I 2 + I 3 = I4 + I 5
b the energy that it transfers.
Page
I1 + I 2 + I 3 - I4 - I5 = 0
10. Calculate the energy gained by an electron 49
This can also be expressed as the algebraic sum:
when it is accelerated through a potential Over the years, electrical circuits have Σ I = 0
difference of 50 kV. (Charge on the electron = become increasingly complex, with more and This can also be derived on the basis of the
1.6 × 10-19 C.) more components combining to achieve very conservation of charge.
11. A student connects a NTC thermistor to a precise results (see diagram above). Such 2nd Law - Around any closed loop in a circuit,
battery and an ammeter. He places the thermistor circuits typically include power supplies, the algebraic sum of the individual p.d's is
in a beaker of water and gradually heats the water sensing devices, potential dividers and output zero.This can also be described as:
from 10 °C to its boiling point, recording the devices. At one time, circuit designers would Around any closed loop in a circuit, the sum of
value of the current as he does so. He then plots a start with a simple circuit and gradually the emf's equals the sum of the p.d's across
graph of the current through the thermistor modify it until the desired result was resistive elements.
against the temperature of the water. achieved. This is impossible today when Kirchhoff‘s second law is a consequence of the
a Sketch the graph you would expect the student circuits include many hundreds or thousands of principle of conservation of energy.If a charge,
to obtain from the experiment. components. Instead, electronic engineers rely say 1 C, moves around the circuit, it gains energy
b Explain how the student could now use the on computer-based design software which can as it moves through each source of e.m.f. and
thermistor as a thermometer. work out the effect of any combination of loses energy as it passes through each p.d. If the
12. a Describe the difference between the components. This is only possible because charge moves all the way round the circuit, so
conduction process in copper and in the
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

that it ends up where it started, it must have the Solve the simulataneous equations:
same energy at the end as at the beginning. I1 = 0.100A; I2 = −0.033A and I3 = 0.067A
(Otherwise we would be able to create energy Resistors in series
from nothing simply by moving charges around The basic idea of a "series" connection is that
circuits.) components are connected end-to-end in a line
So:energy gained passing through sources of to form a single path for electrons to flow:
e.m.f.=energy lost passing through components
with p.d.s
You should recall that an e.m.f. in volts is simply
the energy gained per 1 C of charge as it passes Consider three resistors, R1 R2 R3 with the same
V1 + V2 + V3 - V4 - V5 = 0
through a source. Similarly, a p.d. is the energy current flowing through each.
The convention is that clockwise p.d.'s are
lost per 1 C as it passes through a component. If the p.d. across each one respectively is, V1; V2
positive. This is a conservation of energy law.
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb or and V3 then the total p.d. Vtotal across the
Worked Example: Calculate the currents
1V = kg arrangement is:
Hence we can think of Kirchhoff‘s second law as: through all the resistors.
By Ohm's law, V=IR, therefore:
energy gained per coulomb = energy lost per ; ; ;
coulomb around loop around loop. substituting for Vtotal ;V1 ;V2 ;V3 into the equation
Here is another way to think of the meaning of for p.d., =
e.m.f. A 1.5 V cell gives 1.5 J of energy to each Page
Hence =
coulomb of charge which passes through it. The 50
Resistors in parallel
charge then moves round the circuit, The defining characteristic of a parallel circuit
transferring the energy to components in the is that all components are connected between
circuit. The consequence is that, by driving 1 C of the same set of electrically common points.
charge around the circuit, the cell transfers 1.5
J of energy.
Hence the e.m.f. of a source simply tells us
the amount of energy (in joules) transferred
Solution
by the source in driving unit charge (1 C)
around a circuit. Using Kirchhoff‘s 1st Law:

Using Kirchhoff‘s 2nd Law on loop :

3= Consider three resistors R1 R2 R3 with the same
Using Kirchhoff‘s 2nd Law on loop : p.d. (V) across each of them.
2=30I3 Using Kirchhoff's 1st law, we can write:
Using Kirchhoff‘s 2nd Law on loop :
3 − 2 = 10I1

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

By Ohm's law, V=IR and I=V/R , therefore : For two resistors in parallel,the effective approximately exponentially as shown in the
resistance is given as temperature characteristic below.
which is
known as the product over sum rule
NOTE:
Potential Dividers
Solving problems with parallel circuits A potential divider divides the supply voltage into
Here are some useful ideas which may prove smaller parts.
helpful when you are solving problems with
parallel circuits (or checking your answers to see
whether they seem reasonable).
When two or more resistors are connected in
parallel, their combined resistance is smaller
In a potential divider circuit like the one below,
than any of their individual resistances. For
the p.d.'s VR and VT are in the ratio of the
example, three resistors of 2 Ω, 3 Ω and 6
resistors they appear across.
Ω connected together in parallel have a Assuming the power supply has a negligible
combined resistance of 1 Ω. This is less than internal resistance,
even the smallest of the individual ( ) and
resistances. This comes about because, by Page
Therefore, i.e:
connecting the resistors in parallel, you are
providing extra pathways for the current. Use of special resistors in potential 51
Since the combined resistance is lower than divider circuits
the individual resistances, it follows that 1.The Thermistor
connecting two or more resistors in parallel A thermistor is a bipolar semiconductor circuit
will increase the current drawn from a supply element that is temperature dependent. It is in
When components are connected in parallel, effect a temperature dependent resistor.It is
they all have the same p.d. across them. This represented in circuits using the symbol When the thermistor is hot its resistance is low
means that you can often ignore parts of the and of the order of 100's of ohms. In this case,
circuit which are not relevant to your most of the 5V p.d. falls across the 10kΩ
calculation. resistor. As the temperature decreases, the
Similarly, for resistors in parallel, you may resistance of the thermistor increases.When its
be able to calculate the current in each one resistance reaches 10kΩ the p.d. is shared
individually, then add them up to find the equally between it and the series resistor. At
total current. This may be Thermistors have negative temperature really cold temperatures the resistance
easier than working out their combined coefficients (i.e temperature decreases with increases to the order of MΩ's, when most of
resistance using the reciprocal formula. increase in resistance).The resistance decreases the p.d. falls across it and not the series
resistor.
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

2.The Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) micro-amps. There comes a point when the p.d. is
The LDR is also a bipolar semiconductor circuit so high that 'breakdown' occurs. A large current
element. LDR's are made from high resistance passes and the diode is destroyed. To avoid this,
semiconductor material, whose resistance an LED always has a 'limiting resistor' placed in
decreases with increasing incident light intensity. series to limit the current.The level of current
The circuit symbol and the variation of the designed for is just enough to trigger light from
resistance with intensity are shown below the device.

3.Light Emitting Diode (LED)

An LED is essentially a modified junction diode
(or p-n diode) so that it gives out light when
current flows through it. The device only allows
current to flow in one direction. The circuit
symbol is

The potentiometer
It is primarily used to measure potential
The I-V characteristic for the diode is shown Page
difference. It is however also used for:
Typically effect of light on a LDR is to reduce its Comparing EMFs (since it draws no current 52
resistance from ~ 106 Ω to ~ 102 Ω.In the from the p.d it is measuring),
potential divider below, the p.d.'s VR and VLDR are Comparing resistances,
in the ratio of the resistors they appear across. Measure currents.
In the dark, the resistance of the LDR is of the
order of MΩ's. So most of the 5V p.d. falls
across it and not the series resistor. With more
illumination, the resistance of the LDR
decreases. When it reaches 10kΩ the p.d. is
shared equally with the series resistor.
On the I-V curve, the top right quadrant shows
In bright light, its resistance is of the order of
how a very small forward p.d. causes the diode to
100's of Ω's. Then, most of the p.d. falls across
conduct. There is a high current for a small p.d.
the series resistor.
increase. The bottom left quadrant shows what
happens when the diode is reverse biased.Notice
for increasing p.d. there is a constant 'leakage
current'.This is very small, being of the order of

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Terminals A and B are connected across the p.d b the current in the lamp. [2]
being measured. A is connected to positive 5. Calculate the charge passing a point in a wire
13 A solar cell delivers an average current of 80
terminal driver cell E1 so it is also connected to carrying a current of 1.2 A for 3.0 minutes. mA over a 6-hour period. Calculate the total
positive terminal of p.d being measured. 6. Calculate the current for a calculator battery
charge that flows from the solar cell. [3]
Potentiometer is said to be balanced when the delivering a charge of 3.8 × 10-3 C in 120 s. 14 A resistance wire carries a current of 2.0 A.
jockey is at a position on XY such that no current 7. A component is connected to a d.c. supply. The
Calculate the number of electrons flowing past a
flows through the galvanometer. supply has negligible internal resistance. At 6.0 V, point in the wire per second. [3]
the current in the component is 0.023 A. When
At balance, IG = 0 applying Kirchhoff‘s first law 15 During a thunderstorm, a lightning strike has a
the p.d. is doubled, the current in the component current of 9000 A and transfers a charge of
at C, I1 = I so I2 = 0.
increases to 0.100 A. 18 C to the ground. Calculate:
Therefore: potential at A = Potential at X
a Calculate the resistance of the component at a the duration of the lightning strike [3]
And, potential at B = Potential at C
6.0 V. b the number of electrons transferred to the
Therefore, p.d between A and B = p.d between X
b Does the component obey Ohm‘s law? Explain ground. [2]
and C i.e. E2 = Il2r where
your answer. 16 A 100 Ω resistor can safely dissipate 0.25 W.
r = resistance per unit length of XY
8. The diagram shows the I–V characteristics of
Replacing E2 by E3 results in E3 = Irl3 dividing the Calculate the maximum current in the resistor. [3]
two components A and B. 17 A filament lamp in a small torch is labelled as
equations gives,
‗1.5 V, 400 mA‘. The filament lamp transfers
5.0% of the electrical energy into light and the
Thus the respective measurements of balance remainder is dissipated as heat. Calculate:
Page
lengths enable the comparison of two p.d‘s. a the power rating of the lamp [2] 53
b the power radiated as light [2]
c the resistance of the filament lamp. [2]
Test yourself
1. There is a current of 0.24 A through a lamp for
40 minutes. How much charge passes through the
ELECTRIC FIELDS
lamp? Electric field strength
2. When a resistor is connected across a battery An electric field is the region around a charge
of 2.8 V there is a current of 0.35 A. where another charged body or object
What is the resistance of the resistor? Calculate the resistances of A and B. [2] experiences a force.The electric field strength
3. A car headlamp when connected to a 12 V 11 Calculate the potential difference across a at a point is equal to the force on a unit positive
battery converts energy at a rate of 50 W. component that transfers 15 J of energy when a charge at the point.
How much energy is converted when it is switched charge of 4.2 C flows through it. [2] Electric field direction at a point is the
on for 5 minutes? 12 A 12 V, 36 W lamp is operated for 1 hour direction of a small free moving positive charge
4. A current of 2.0 A passes through a component (3600 s). Calculate: if placed at the point.
of resistance 24 Ω. What is the rate of energy a the energy dissipated by the lamp [2] Point charge electric field patterns:
transfer?
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

t is the time of acceleration

a is the acceleration
Substituting for u ,
From Newton's 2nd Law of Motion,
F=ma, equating forces we get

Rearranging to make the acceleration a the

A uniform electric field: subject,
Two oppositely charged and parallel metal Returning to the expression for vertical
plates(X & Y) will produce a uniform electric field displacement and substituting for a , ( )
E between them. Note, at the edges the field From our definition of field strength (E = F/Q) , The expression for horizontal displacement SX
lines are not evenly spaced. So the field there is making the force F the subject of the equation, can be rearranged to give an expression for t .
not uniform. for a small charge q related to a particle :

By substituting for t into the Sy equation we

Deflection of ion beams obtain our final expression :
( )( )
Therefore Page
( ) 54
The equation is of the form y = kx2, where k is a
constant.The curve of the function is therefore
a parabola.
The potential difference between the plates is
Coulomb‟s Law
constant along their length.
The potential gradient (the drop in pd with
distance) is the electric field strength E.
Since the p.d V and the plate separation d are
constant, E is also constant. i.e The force F is constant at right angles to the
original velocity v. The force F between two point charges Q1 & Q2
Lines of the same potential are called equi-
The vertical displacement Sy of the particle can is directly proportional to the product of the
potentials.
be found from one of the 'equations of motion' charges and inversely proportional to the square
These are placed at right angles to the electric
field lines. Since field is uniform, the used in mechanics : of the distance r between them.
equipotential lines are equally spaced. where,u is the original vertical velocity, in this
case u = 0

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Making the proportionality into an equation by unit positive test charge from infinity to the Therefore the total work W done in bringing the
introducing a constant k : point in the electric field. charge Q2 from infinity to a point a distance r
The value of k is given by : from S (where x = r) is given by:
W ( )∫ ( )
Hence the Coulomb's Law equation becomes :
integrating between the limits of r and infinity,

The quantity ε0 is called the permittivity of

free space and has a value of And hence the electric potential V is given as
ε0 . From Coulomb's law, the force between two point
Electric field strength charges Q1 and Q2 is given by : ,
From Coulomb's Law,
where,
Q1 is a unit test charge (+1 C )
Q is any charge at a point
By definition, electric field strength is force per
Q1 is positive at point S. Q2 is also positive but
unit charge.
at point T.
So at the point where charge Q1 is positioned
Q1 exerts a repulsive force F on Q2.
the field strength E is given by : Page
Q2 exerts a repulsive force F on Q1 .
Relation between E and V 55
Substituting for F in the initial Coulomb's Law Consider an external force moving Q2 at T an
Consider a charge +Q being moved by a force F
equation, we get infinitesimal distance δx towards Q1 at S.
from an arbitrary point A to another point B
Because the distance δx is so small, the repulsive
We can now see how electric field strength E against an electric field of strength E.
force F may be considered to be constant during
varies with distance r from the point.
the movement.
Using, work = force x distance force moves
the work done δW is given by :

The negative sign indicates that work is done

against the field, the motion is in the opposite
direction to the direction of repulsion. The distance moved, δx , is very small, such that
Substituting into this equation for F, from the the force F may be considered constant.
Coulomb's Law equation (above) : Hence the work done δW by the force is :
( )
Electric potential V The force is equal to the force exerted by the
at a point in an electric field is defined as being field on the charge, but in the opposite direction.
numerically equal to the work done in moving a F=-EQ

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Substituting in the original equation for F gives:

Test yourself
From the definition of potential difference, 1. Calculate the force experienced by an oil
W = QV. droplet with a charge of 3.2 × 10-19 C due to a
Therefore, if the potential difference between uniform electric field of strength 5.0 × 105 V/m.
A & B is δV : ( VB > VA ) 2. The diagram shows two parallel, horizontal
plates separated by a vertical distance of 3.0 cm.
Substituting for δW ,
The potential difference between the plates is
600 V.

In the limit as δx tend to zero,

hence
The E-r and V-r graphs below show the a) Calculate the force acting on the electron due
relation clearly. to the magnetic field. [3]
The gradient of the V-r graph is b) What is the centripetal acceleration of the
negative. electron? [2]
So the negative of its gradient gives a a) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the c) Use your answer to b to determine the radius
positive value for E in the E-r graph. electric field between the plates. [3] of the circular path described by the electron. Page
b) Describe the electric field between the plates. 5. The diagram shows the trajectory of an 56
c) A charged oil droplet of weight 6.4 × 10-15 N electron travelling into a region of uniform
is held stationary between the two plates. magnetic field of flux density 2.0 mT. The
i. State whether the charge on the droplet is electron enters the region of magnetic field at
positive or negative. Explain your answer. [2] 90°.
ii. Determine the charge on the oil droplet. [2]
3. Calculate the force experienced by an electron
travelling at a velocity of 4.0 × 106m/s at right
angles to a magnetic field of magnetic flux density
0.18 T. [3]
4. The diagram shows an electron moving at a
constant speed of 8.0 × 106 m/s in a plane
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of
a) Draw the direction of the force experienced
magnetic flux density 4.0 mT.
by the electron at points A and B.
b) Explain why the electron describes part of a
circular path while in the region of the magnetic
field.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

CAPACITANCE
c) The radius of curvature of the path of the
electron in the magnetic field is 5.0 cm. Calculate
the speed v of the electron. [7]
d) Explain how your answer to c would change if
the electron described a circular path of radius
2.5 cm. [2]
6. A proton of kinetic energy 15 keV travelling
at right angles to a magnetic field describes
a circle of radius of 5.0 cm. The mass of a Capacitance
proton is 1.7 × 10-27 kg. Capacitance is the measure of the extent to
a) Show that the speed of the proton is which a capacitor can store charge.
1.7×106 m/s. [3] Most electronic devices, such as radios, The larger the capacitor the more charge can be
b) For this proton, calculate the centripetal computers and MP3 players, make use of stored per volt of p.d. across the plates. It is
force provided by the magnetic field. [3] components called capacitors. These are given as where,
c) Determine the magnetic flux density of the usually quite small, but we also have giant C is the capacitance in Farads (F)
magnetic field that keeps the proton moving capacitors, specially constructed to store Q is the charge in Coulombs (C)
in its circular orbit. [3] electrical energy at the Fermilab particle V is the p.d. between the plates
d) How long does it take for the proton to accelerator in the United States. Capacitors The unit of capacitance is called the Farad.
complete one orbit? [2] are used to store electrical charge (and By definition, a capacitor has a capacitance of 1
Page
8. An electron describes a circular orbit in a energy) in electrical and electronic circuits. Farad when 1 Coulomb of charge is stored with a 57
plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field. This means that they have many valuable p.d. of 1 volt across the plates. Hence the units
a) Show that the time T taken by an electron to applications. For example, capacitors are used of Farads are Coulombs per volt (CV-1)
complete one orbit in the magnetic field is in computers; they are charged up in normal One Farad is too large a unit for ordinary
independent of its speed and its radius, and is use, and then they gradually discharge if circuits, instead smaller derivative units are
given by: T = where B is the magnetic flux there is a power failure, so that the computer used, eg microfarads (μF) and picofarads (pF).
will operate long enough to save valuable data. Capacitors in parallel
density of the magnetic field, e is the charge on
an electron and m is the mass of an electron. [5] Capacitors in parallel have the same p.d. across
b) Explain in words how a faster electron takes Capacitors and Capacitance them.
the same time to complete one orbit as a slower Capacitors are electrical components used to
electron. [1] store charge. Their construction is simply two
equal area conducting plates, with an insulator
(dielectric) sandwiched in between.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

 work done in adding electrons to the Charging & discharging a capacitor

Writing Q = CV for each capacitor and adding : negative plate When the switch is turned to the left, there is
 work done in removing electrons from an instantaneous flow of current. By the action
the positive plate of the battery electrons move in a clockwise
Hence, Consider a partially charged capacitor, with a p.d. sense. In a very short time all motion ceases.
Capacitors in series of V volts across it and charge Q on it plates. The p.d. across the plates is now the same as
The battery removes charge Q- from plate 'a' that across the battery, but in the opposite
and deposits it on plate 'f'. Plate 'a' is therefore direction. The positive of the battery is
left with a charge Q+ on its plates. Each charged connected to the positive of the capacitor; no
plate then induces an opposite charge in its p.d. exists, so no current flows. In this state the
opposing plate. The central capacitor C2 has a capacitor is said to be 'fully charged'. Charges on
positive charge on plate 'c' because electrons upper and lower plates are of opposite type and
are removed from it to make plate 'b' negative. equal in quantity. Discharging is usually done
Plate ‘d‘ is made negative by induction with 'c'. through a resistor, as shown in the simplified
circuit below. When the switch is closed charge
Now during charging, consider a small charge δQ from the capacitor flows through the resistor.
moving from one plate to another. If δQ is very The resistance R has the effect of limiting this
small then the increase in p.d. is also very small. flow. For a fully charged capacitor of capacitance
So V may be considered approximately the same.
Page
C let the p.d. be Vo and the charge Qo .
Hence the work done δW , is given by : 58
Recalling the equation for capacitance C and
rearranging to make V the subject :
Making the p.d. V the subject for each capacitor Substituting for V in our original equation.
and adding:
The total work done is the area under the curve
for 0 to Qo, where Qo is the maximum charge
stored. ∫
Integrating between the limits gives the result:
Hence

NOTE:
Energy stored in a capacitor The work done/energy stored by the Consider the p.d. around the circuit at a time t
The energy stored in a capacitor is in the form capacitor is also the area under the Q-V seconds from the start of the discharge. Since
of electrical potential energy. This is has two
graph
components:
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

there is no net p.d. in the circuit, by Kirchhoff's = =37% of the initial Test yourself
2nd law (relating to p.d. in a circuit) : charge remaining 1 A 30 μF capacitor is connected to a 9.0 V
The p.d. across the resistor VR and the current I battery.
Substituting for V in our initial equation,
through it are given by: ; a Calculate the charge on the capacitor. [2]
[1] b How many excess electrons are there on the
Note the minus signs in these equations.
The current I is defined as the rate of charge of negative plate of the capacitor? [2]
This is a consequence of Kirchhoff's 2nd law.
charge with time, 2 The p.d. across a capacitor is 3.0 V and the
Remember how the p.d. across the resistor and
Remember the Ohm's Law equation, V=IR charge on the capacitor is 150 nC.
the capacitor are related.
Now, substituting for V and I into equation [1], a Determine the charge on the capacitor when
If VR is taken to the other side of the equation it
the p.d. is:
becomes negative. Hence one p.d. is negative of
Separating the differential operators dQ and dt i 6.0 V [2]
the other. The second equation (I) is obtained
ii 9.0 V. [2]
from the first by substituting VR = IR and
b Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. [2]
Since Q = Qo when t = 0 and Q = Q when t = t , rearranging.
3 A 1000 μF capacitor is charged to a potential
integrating between these limits : The curve of Q vs t for charging is :
difference of 9.0 V.
∫ ∫
( ) a Calculate the energy stored by the
capacitor
Hence,[ = b Determine the energy stored by the
Page
Therefore, and, capacitor when the p.d. across it is doubled.
5 The diagram shows an electrical circuit. 59

Rearranging into a more familiar form, Summary

When a charge Q coulombs moves through a
Substituting for Q = VC and Qo = VoC , cancelling potential difference of V volts,the work
done is QV. Only half of this stored in the
the C's we get
capacitor! What has happened to the other
So both the charge and the p.d. decrease at an
half? It is hard to believe, but the answer
exponential rate.
is that the „missing‟ half is lost as heat in
the connecting leads. In charging the
capacitor there is a current for a short
time. This current passes through the a Calculate the total capacitance of the two
resistance of the leads and gives the joule capacitors in parallel. [2]
heating effect (I2 ×R). Note that the b What is the potential difference across
When the elapsed time t = CR the charge
resistance of the leads is usually very small each capacitor? [1]
remaining is approx. 37% of the original amount
and consequently is ignored in most cases.
as shown

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

 A Level Physics Notes

capacitor.
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
c Calculate the total charge stored by the
6 A 10 000 μF capacitor is charged to its
circuit. [2]
maximum operating voltage of 32 V.
d Calculate the total energy stored by the
The charged capacitor is discharged through a
capacitors. [2]
filament lamp. The flash of light from
c Calculate the potential difference across the
the lamp lasts for 300 ms.
capacitors. [3]
a Calculate the energy stored by the d Calculate the total energy stored on the capacitors.
capacitor. [2] e Suggest where the energy has been lost.
b Determine the average power dissipated in A capacitor of capacitance 330 μF is charged to a
the filament lamp. [2] potential difference of 9.0 V. It is then
7 The diagram shows a 1000 μF capacitor discharged through a resistor of resistance 470 kΩ.
charged to a p.d. of 12 V. Calculate
a Calculate the charge on the 1000 μF capacitor. (a) the energy stored by the capacitor when it is
fully charged,
(b) the time constant of the discharging circuit, In developed countries, mains electricity is a
(c) the p.d. across the capacitor 60 s after the supply of alternating current (a.c.). The first
discharge has begun. A 680 μF capacitor is mains electricity supplies were developed
charged fully from a 12 V battery. At time t = 0 towards the end of the 19th century; at that
time, a great number of different voltages and
Page
the capacitor begins to discharge through a
resistor. When t = 25 s the energy remaining in frequencies were used in different places. In 60
the capacitor is one quarter of the energy it some places, the supply was direct current (d.c.).
b The 1000 μF capacitor is connected across an stored at 12 V. Nowadays this has been standardised across
uncharged 500 μF capacitor by closing (a) Determine the pd across the capacitor when much of the world, with standard voltages of 110
the switch S. The charge initially stored by the t = 25s. V or 230 V (or similar), and frequencies of 50 Hz
1000 μF capacitor is now shared with the 500 μF (b) (i) Show that the time constant of the or 60 Hz.In this chapter we will look at some of
capacitor. discharge circuit is 36 s. the reasons why a.c. has been chosen as
i Calculate the total capacitance of the (ii) Calculate the resistance of the resistor standard. First, however, we must take a close
capacitors in parallel. [2] look at the nature of alternating currents.
ii Show that the p.d. across each capacitor is When polarity of an EMF changes with time it is
8.0 V. [2] known as an alternating EMF. Current caused by
9 A capacitor of capacitance 200 μF is such an EMF is called an alternating current.
connected across a 200 V supply. Most common type varies sinuisoidally with time
a Calculate the charge stored on the plates. [1] and the e.m.f can be represented by the equation
b Calculate the energy stored on the capacitor. E = E0 sin ωt
The capacitor is now disconnected from the where :E is the EMF value at time t
power supply and is connected across a 100 μF

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

E0 is the peak value (ie maximum value) Also Irms = I0/√2

of E Irms is the equivalent D.C. current that
Pmean = = P0/2
ω is the angular frequency of the supply dissipates the same heat in a resistor as the
Thus mean power = half peak power
(ω = 2πf) A.C supply.
The period is the time taken to complete a cycle. Here is a graph of an A.C. sinusoidal waveform: The transformer
The number of complete cycles is the frequency where, Is a device that makes use of mutual induction to
of the ac. Io is the maximum current produce a large alternating EMF from a small one
In Zimbabwe the frequency is 50 Hz ω is the angular frequency or vice versa. Presence of soft iron core ensures
Energy for direct current (D.C) & alternating that all the flux associated with one passes
current (A.C.) through the other.
Direct current does not vary with time and it is
always in one direction. On a plot of power
against time, D.C. is a horizontal line. The area
under the plot gives the work done/energy used.
This is simply the product of the constant power
( Pconst.) and the time interval that the power is √
used for( t' ) i.e E = Pt
Consider the primary coil. There are two opposing
EMF's working here : the applied EMF (Ep ) and
Page
the back EMF (EB ).If I is the current flowing in 61
the primary and R is its resistance, then from
Kirchhoff's law for pd's in a circuit:

However, for A.C. the situation is more complex. Recalling the A.C. energy/work done equation,
Neumann's equation states that EB is given by :
Here not only does the current value vary, but its
direction varies too.The power through the and substituting for Irms we get ( )

resistor is given by: POWER Substituting for EB in the Kirchhoff relation,

( )
But we must average of this power over time 't' Assuming that the coil resistance R is so low as
to calculate the energy/work, so the to be negligible, we have ( ) (i)
energy/work done is given by, ( ) Both primary and secondary coils have the same
The root mean square (r.m.s) current is defined flux passing through them.
as: √( ) So the rate of flux change dφ/dt will also be the
Irms is the square root of the average of the Max power, P0 = I0V0 = I02R same. It follows that the back EMF Es in the
current squared. therefore energy/work done is Mean power, Pmean = Irms2R secondary is given by: ( ) (ii)
given by,
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i) The power loss P is given by P = I2R , As a result of imperfections in the
(iii) where R is coil resistance and I the windings, not all the flux that passes
current. through the primary coil passes through
There are two types of transformer.
This can be reduced by choosing wire the secondary.
A step-up transformer is when Ns > Np
thickness according to current. This means that not all the energy is
and Es > Ep
Between the primary and the secondary, transferred between the coils.
For a step-down transformer, the
the coil with the smaller number of Power transmission
inequality is reversed and Np > Ns and
turns carries the larger current. Most large power-distribution systems are AC.
Ep > Es .
Therefore this coil is made from thicker Moreover, the power is transmitted at much
The applied EMF in the primary coil must be
wire. higher voltages than the 240-V AC we use in
alternating in nature. A changing magnetic field is
A small cross-sectional area gives a homes and on the job. There are several reasons
a requirement for transformer action.
higher resistance. A higher resistance for preferring alternating voltages for a national
Power in a transformer gives a greater power loss. electricity supply system. The most important
Consider a load resistance R connected to the Eddy Currents reason is that a.c. can be transformed to high
secondary coil. Eddy Currents are unwanted induced voltages, so that the current flowing is reduced,
Quoting the power equation for a circuit, currents formed in the body of a metal and this leads to lower power losses in the
P=IE object. transmission lines. Typically, the generators at a
where P is power, I current and E e.m.f. Much heating results from high currents power station produce electrical power at a
If we assume that there are no power losses (ie induced from low EMFs. Page
voltage of 25 kV. This is transformed up to a
that the transformer is 100% efficient) we can To counteract eddy currents the core is voltage of perhaps 400 kV (and as much as 1 MV 62
write :power input = power output laminated. in some countries). The power is then
If Ip and Is are the currents flowing in the It is constructed of very thin (approx. transmitted along many kilometres of high-
primary and secondary coils, then: 1mm) sheets of soft iron.Each sheet is voltage power lines before being transformed
rearranging, we get varnished and insulted from the next. down to a lower voltage for supply to the millions
Hysteresis of consumers.This high voltage brings problems:
The core material offers some the lines must be suspended high above the
Transformer efficiency resistance to the changing strength and ground between pylons, and high-quality
In reality the efficiency of a transformer is not direction of the magnetic field(called insulators are needed to prevent current passing
100%. However efficiency is still high, being in hysteresis loss). from the cables to the pylons. As current flows
the range 95-99%. This resistance manifests itself as heat through transmission lines (wires), it loses power
within the core. because of the resistance of the lines. The wires
The remedy is to make the core of become warm; this is resistive or Ohmic heating.
Ways that power is lost within a transformer : specialist metal (eg permalloy, silicon The smaller the current,the smaller the power
Coil Heating steel) where hysteresis loss is minimal. losses.
Energy is lost in the coils by resistive Flux
heating.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Many electronic devices use DC rather than AC. The way in which this works is as follows:
AC can be converted into DC (rectification) by • During the first half of the a.c. cycle, terminal
use of rectifiers such as diodes.These allow A is positive. Current flows through diode 2,
current to pass in only one direction. For these, downwards through R and through diode 3 to
the alternating mains must be converted to d.c. terminal B. In this half of the cycle, current
by the process of rectification. cannot flow through diodes 1 or 4 because they
Half-Wave Rectification are pointing the wrong way.
A simple way to do this is to use a diode, which is • In the second half of the cycle, terminal B is
a component that will only allow current to flow in positive. Current flows through diode 4,
one direction. The diagram shows a circuit for downwards through R, and through diode 1 to
doing this, together with a graph to show the terminal A. Diodes 2 and 3 do not conduct
effect. You will see that the output voltage is because they are pointing the wrong way.
A given amount of power can be always positive, but it goes up and down. This is
transmitted at high voltage and low still technically direct current, because the
current or low voltage and high current. current only flows in one direction. This type of
Heat energy dissipated in cables is given rectification is known as half-wave rectification.
as W = I2Rt For one half of the time the voltage is zero, and
This shows that energy wasted is this means that the power available from a half-
proportional to the square of the wave rectified supply is reduced. Page
current in the cables 63
Most efficient way is to transmit power
is therefore at high voltage and low
Note that in both halves of the cycle, current
current.
flows the same way (downwards) through R, so
Another advantage is that low currents
the top end of R must be positive.
require thinner and therefore cheaper
You can construct a bridge rectifier using light
cables.
emitting diodes (LEDs) which light up when
For safety reasons, the voltage at the
current flows through them. By connecting this
user is reduced to familiar values.
bridge to a slow a.c. supply (for instance 1
The crucial factor is that transformers
Hz from a signal generator), you can see the
are the most efficient way to convert Full wave rectification
sequence in which the diodes conduct during
high voltages to low voltages and vice To overcome this problem of reduced power, a
rectification.
versa, and these work on AC voltages bridge rectifier circuit is used. This consists of
Smoothing
than DC. four diodes connected across the alternating
In order to produce steady d.c. from the ‗bumpy‘
Rectification voltage, as shown in the diagram. The resulting
output voltage across the load resistor R is full-
d.c. that results from rectification, a smoothing
capacitor must be incorporated in the circuit, in
wave rectified.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

parallel with the load resistor R. The idea is that null method of measuring potential difference, so of the cell is connected to the point C, no current
the capacitor charges up and maintains the that when a balance is reached and the reading is will flow. The calibration procedure is to locate
voltage at a high level. It discharges gradually being taken, no current is drawn from the source this point C using a standard cell whose emf is
when the rectified voltage drops, but the voltage to be measured accurately known (emf = 1.0186 volts). You then
soon rises again and the capacitor charges up know that at this point C the potential
again. The result is an output voltage with ‗ripple‘. difference relative to point A is exactly 1.0186
The amount of ripple can be controlled by careful volts.
choice of the values of C and R. A large capacitor Since the wire is uniform, the length of wire
discharges more slowly than a small capacitor, so spanned is proportional to the potential drop and
will give less ripple. Similarly, if R has a large the wire can now be calibrated in volts per cm.
value, C will discharge more slowly. In practice, The emf of an unknown cell is then found by
the greater the value of the quantity R × C, the finding a new point C whose potential is exactly
smoother the rectified a.c. However, if R and C equal to the emf of the unknown cell and
have large values, it will be difficult to change multiplying this new distance AC times the
the value of the voltage quickly. calibration factor determined using the standard
THE POTENTIOMETER: cell. It is crucial in this experiment that the
Internal Resistance of a Test Cell This is the basic circuit diagram for a current flowing through wire AB remain constant
AIM potentiometer. Point C is the sliding contact throughout the experiment. If the current varies
To calibrate a one meter slide wire then the potential at all points along the wire will Page
which can be adjusted for zero current
potentiometer using a standard cell and then to deflection through the galvanometer. vary and you cannot trust your calibration. An 64
use this potentiometer to measure the emf of a In this method (refer to Figure 1) a uniform, ammeter is included in series with wire AB so
test cell. The terminal voltage of the same test bare slide wire AB is connected across the power that you can monitor this current. The circuits
cell is then measured as different load resistors supply. If you were to connect a voltmeter used in this experiment are shown below in
are connected across the test cell and these between the + power supply terminal and point A In this photograph, the apparatus used for the
data are used to determine the internal you would measure essentially zero volts. If you potentiometer is shown: an adjustable resistor,
resistance of the test cell. were to now connect the voltmeter between the + test cell, standard cell, galvanometer, ammeter,
THEORY power supply and point B you would measure a direct-current source, and the bare wire above a
The electromotive force (emf) of a cell is its voltage equal to the terminal voltage of the meter stick along which the potential drop is
terminal voltage when no current is flowing power supply which is approximately 2.5 volts. measured.
through it. The terminal voltage of a cell is the The potential relative to point A then varies This circuit diagram shows the location of the
potential difference between its electrodes. A from zero at A to approximately 2.5 volts at B. standard cell for calibrating the potentiometer.
voltmeter cannot be used to measure the emf of The cell whose emf is to be determined is then In this circuit diagram, the location of the test
a cell because a voltmeter draws some current connected so that its emf opposes the potential cell is shown for measuring the voltage across
from the cell. To measure a cell's emf a along the wire. At some point C the potential the load resistor R.
potentiometer is used since in a potentiometer difference between A and C is exactly equal to Here Es is the standard cell (emf = 1.0186 volts),
measurement no current is flowing. It employs a the emf of the cell so that if the other terminal and E x is the unknown cell whose emf is to be

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

measured. G is the galvanometer which has an Test yourself 4. Calculate the value of the average power
internal resistor R1 in series with the meter to dissipated in a resistor when the alternating
1. An alternating voltage is given by the equation V =V0
decrease its sensitivity. Once the potentiometer supply to the resistor has a peak current of
sin 2πft where V0 = 5.0V and f = 10 Hz.
is balanced by adjusting point C until there is no 2.5A and a peak voltage of 6.0 V. [2]
deflection of G, switch K1 (a pushbutton on top a) Calculate the period of the alternating voltage. [2]
5. The diagram shows the trace obtained on
b) Calculate the values of t during the first cycle of the
of the galvanometer) is closed to increase the the screen of an oscilloscope connected to a
sensitivity of G by shorting out R1. Point C is then voltage (from t = 0) for which the value of V is:
signal generator. The time-base of the
i 0 ii +V0 iii –V0 iv +Vrms [5]
further adjusted with K1 closed until there is no oscilloscope is set at 20 ms per division and
2. The graph shows how an alternating voltage V and
deflection of G. Since the electromotive force of the Y-gain at 1.5 V per division.
an alternating current I change with time t.
the standard cell is equal to the potential drop in a) For the signal generator, calculate:
a) V and I are in phase with each other. Explain what is
the length of wire spanned (measured from A) i. the frequency [2]
for a condition of balance and the same is true meant by in phase.
ii. the r.m.s. voltage. [2]
for the unknown cell, the emf of each cell is b) Copy the graph and add a waveform to show how the
b) The equation of the waveform can be
power dissipated varies with t. [4]
proportional to the lengths of wire spanned. Thus written in the form V = V0 sin (ωt).
Determine the values of V0 and ω.
[2]

and the unknown emf is given by

Page
65
3. An electric drill is marked 230Vr.m.s, 690W.
Calculate:
a) i. the r.m.s. current in the wire connecting the drill
where E x is the unknown emf and, Es is the emf to the mains . [2]
of the standard cell, Lx is the length of wire (AC) ii. the peak current in the wire connecting the drill to
used for balancing the unknown cell, and Ls is the the mains supply
length of wire used for balancing with the (iii)the peak value of the potential difference across
standard cell. the drill. 6. The diagram shows a step-down
If we have a test cell of emf, E and internal b Sketch a graph of the power drawn by the drill over transformer.The primary coil has 1150 turns
resistance r supplying current to a variable load one cycle of the current. and the secondary coil has 30 turns.The ends
resistor R , then we will measure a terminal Mark on the graph the values of peak power and of the secondary coil are connected to a lamp
voltage V which is a function of the load average power. [5] labelled „6.0 V, 24 W‟. The ends AB of the
resistance R. primary coil are connected to an alternating
voltage supply. The potential difference across
the lamp is 6.0V.
a) Calculate the current in the lamp. [2]
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

b) Calculate the input voltage to the primary when the transformer is switched on. [2] The elastic region has the unique property that
coil. 8. A consumer receives 1000 W of power at allows the material to return to its original shape
c) Calculate the current in the primary coil, 100 V r.m.s. through a 5.0 Ω cable. when the stress is removed. As the stress is
assuming the transformer is 100% efficient.[2] a) Calculate the rate of heat production in the removed it will follow the same line back to zero.
d) Calculate the maximum p.d. across the lamp cable. [2] One may think of stretching a spring and then
during one cycle of the a.c. [2] b) Explain why transmitting the same amount letting it return to its original length. When a
e) A student suggests that to avoid the of power at a higher voltage produces less heat stress is applied in the linear region, the material
production of heat in the transformer the dissipation in the cable. [2] is said to undergo elastic deformation. When a
wires should be coated in a material that is a stress is applied that is in the non-linear region,
poor conductor of heat. Explain why this is not the material will no longer return to its original
a sensible suggestion. shape. This is referred to as plastic deformation.
SECTION V: If you have overstretched a spring you have seen
that it no longer returns to its initial length; it

MATTER has been plastically deformed. The stress where

plastic behaviour begins is called the yield
strength. When a material has plastically
TOPICS deformed it will still recover some of its shape
 Phases of Matter (like an overstretched spring). When a stress in
the non-linear region is removed, the stress- Page
 Deformation of Solids
strain graph will follow a line with a slope equal to 66
 Temperature
the modulus of elasticity.The plastically
 Thermal Properties of Materials deformed material will now have a linear region
7. An electrician uses a transformer to step Ideal gases
 that follows the dashed line.Greater stresses in
the 230 V r.m.s. mains voltage down to 115
 Non-viscous Fluid Flow the plastic region will eventually lead to fracture
Vr.m.s. The secondary coil has 500 turns and
 Transfer of Thermal Energy (the material breaks).The maximum stress the
is connected to a resistor of 5000 Ω.
material can undergo before fracture is the
a) Calculate the number of turns on the DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS ultimate strength.
primary coil.
b) Calculate the current in the secondary coil. STRESS AND STRAIN Hooke's Law
Stress is the force per unit cross sectional area. Hooke's Law states that the extension(x) of a
c) Calculate the current in the primary coil.
Stress has units of Nm-2 = Pa spiral spring (or other elongated body) is
Assume that the transformer is 100 %
When the stress applied results in an increase in proportional to the applied force (F), provided
efficient.
length it is known as a tensile stress. If it results the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
d) The electrician connects cables to the
in a reduction in length it is a compressive stress. where k is the constant of
secondary coil that break down when the p.d.
Breaking stress (or ultimate tensile stress) is the proportionality(a measure of 'stiffness')
between the wire and earth is larger than 130
V. Explain whether the cables will break down maximum tensile stress that produces fracture.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

So force-extension curves of different materials applied to the crystal, the void moves across The stiffness of a body is the measure of its
are straight lines through the origin, with lattices in the opposite direction to the force. resistance to changes in size and/or shape.
gradient k. 4.Ductility 10.Strain(ε)
This is the property a material has whereby it Strain is the ratio of change in length to original
can be permanently stretched. length. It can also be considered as the
5.Elastic limit extension per unit length. Strain has no
This is the maximum force a body can endure and dimensions. It is given by
still regain its original shape and size, when the
force is removed.
6.Elasticity 11.Stress(σ)
Elasticity is the property a material has whereby Refers to the ratio of the force acting per unit
it regains its original size and shape when a area i.e stress= .The S.I unit for
deforming force is removed. stress is Pa or Nm -2

7.Fatigue 12.Strength
Important definitions
Fatigue is the weakness induced in a material by Strength relates to the maximum force that can
1.Brittleness
it repeatedly being stressed in opposite be applied to a body before it breaks.
Brittle materials cannot be permanently
directions. It can also occurr when a material is 13.Yield point
stretched. They break after the elastic limit is
repeatedly stressed and the stress being For a body being extended by an applied force,
exceeded. Page
removed. Material will fracture even if maximum the yield point is when a large extension is
2.Creep
stress applied in any cycle could have been produced for a very small increase in force. The 67
Creep occurs when a material is under constant
indefinitely sustained if applied steadily. material of the body is said to show 'plastic'
stress over time. Strain gradually increases,
Approximately 90% of failures which occur in behaviour.
causing eventual fracture. Is used to describe
aircraft components are due to fatigue. 14.Young's Modulus(E)
the gradual increase in strain which occurs when
Mild steel and many ferrous metals can safely This is a typical stress-strain curve of a ductile
a material is subjected to stress for a long
undergo an infinite number of stress cycles if material. A brittle material would have a much
period of time.Unlike fatigue it occurs even when
maximum stress is below the fatigue limit. smaller strain value before breaking (making EB
stress is constant.It is greater at higher
Fatigue fractures usually start in the surface at shorter). The Young modulus of a material
temperatures and may result in fractures in the
points of high stress, e.g. at sharp corners and describes its stiffness. This only relates to the
material if it is severe.Turbine blades in jet
around rivet holes. initial, straight-line section of the stress–strain
engines are particularly susceptible to creep.
8.Hooke's law graph. In this region, the material is behaving
Soft metals e.g. lead and most plastics show
The extension of a stretched spring (or wire) is in an elastic way and the straight line means that
considerable creep even at room temperature.
directly proportional to the extending force, the material obeys Hooke‘s law. However, if we
3.Dislocation
provided the limit of proportionality is not continue to increase the force beyond the elastic
A dislocation is the movement of a broken bond
exceeded. limit, the graph may cease to be a straight line. A
through a crystal. The broken bond creates a
9.Stiffness typical stress-strain graph is shown below.
small void between molecules. When a force is

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Metals are not very elastic. In practice, they can for rubber is not a straight line.This means the
only be stretched by about 0.1% of their original value of the Young modulus found is not very
length.Beyond this, they become permanently precise, because it only has a very small linear
deformed. As a result, some careful thought region on a stress–strain graph.
must be given to getting results that are good Plasticity
enough to give an accurate value of the Young A perfectly plastic material is one which shows
modulus. no tendency to return to its original size and
First, the wire used must be long. The increase in shape when the load which has been deforming it
length is proportional to the original length, and is removed.
so a longer wire gives larger and more measurable
Strain Energy
extensions.Typically, extensions up to 1 mm must
L - limit of proportionality To obtain an expression for the strain energy
be measured for a wire of length 1 m. To get
E - elastic limit (work done) in stretching a wire, consider a wire
suitable measurements of extension there are
Y - yield point of original length l0 where a force F produces an
two possibilities: use a very long wire, or use a
X - stress removed here, body has extension x. It is assumed that the wire obeys
method that allows measurement of extensions
permanent strain 0X' Hooke's Law.
that are a fraction of a millimetre.The apparatus
B - breaking stress shown below can be used with a travelling
For a given material, by definition, Young's microscope placed above the wire and focused on
Modulus (E) is the ratio of stress to strain, the sticky tape pointer. When the pointer moves, Page
provided the limit of proportionality is not the microscope is adjusted to keep the pointer at 68
Now, let the force F cause a further extension
exceeded. The gradient at any point on a stress - the middle of the cross-wires on the microscope. δx, where δx is so small that F may be considered
strain graph is the Young's Modulus (E). The distance that the pointer has moved can constant.
On a stress-strain graph the Young's Modulus is then be measured accurately from the scale on Since work done = force x distance force moves
constant for the portion of the graph where the microscope.In addition, the cross-sectional
Hooke's Law applies. This can be easily shown by area of the wire must be known accurately.The The total work done when the wire is stretched
substituting for stress and strain as shown:
diameter of the wire is measured using a from 0 to x is the area under the F- x curve
( ) micrometer screw gauge. This is reliable to between these two limits. ∫
within ±0.01 mm. Once the wire has been loaded Since the wire obeys Hooke's Law, F=kx
( )
in increasing steps, the load must be gradually Substituting for F in the integral expression
Thus decreased to ensure that there has been no (above):
where F-applied force ;l-original length ; permanent deformation of the wire.
∫
e-extension and A-cross-sectional area Other materials such as glass and many plastics
E is a constant because l, A and F are all are also quite stiff, and so it is difficult to
constant. measure their Young modulus. Rubber is not as
Determining the Young modulus stiff, and strains of several hundred per cent can
be achieved. However, the stress–strain graph

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

examples of cubic cells: (e.g. resistivity, linear expansion) are different

for different directions along crystal axes.
Amorphous Solids
Unlike crystals, amorphous solids have no
definite structure. Further, they melt not at one
temperature, like crystals, but over a range of
As can be seen from the graph, the area under temperatures.
the curve is half the product of F and x
Elastic Hysteresis The physical properties of solids are governed to
a large extent by their crystal structure (e.g.
graphite & diamond).It is a basic rule of physics
that systems tend towards the lowest level of
Examples of amorphous solids:
potential energy:-Such is the case with crystals,
 wax,
where regular arrangements of atoms have a
 glass,
lower potential energy than the same atoms all
 ice,
jumbled up, with no structure.
 toffee,
The graph illustrates how for a given force, the In a large single crystal similar planes of atoms
 polythene Page
extension is greater for unloading than loading. are parallel to each other. So the crystal can be
Amorphous solids behave more like liquids with
Looking at this another way, for a given cleanly cut or cleaved along these planes. 69
high viscosities. For example, over time, a
extension the loading force is greater than the vertical pane of glass is observed to be thicker
unloading force.The stretching produces an at the bottom than at the top.
increase in temperature (loading), but when the
strain is reduced (unloading) the temperature
Glasses
drops. However, some heat is retained to keep Glasses are electrical insulators and transmit I.R.
the material above its initial temperature. For a radiation. Manufacture is by melting mixtures of
complete cycle, the increase in heat energy is the their components and cooling so that an
This is not the case with polycrystalline solids. In amorphous solid is produced.
area of the hysteresis loop. The graph is for
this case, a solid consists of many small crystals
rubber, but metals also exhibit this property, Types of glass:
called crystallites (or grains).
though the effect is considerably smaller. Soda-Lime
Soda-lime glass is the commonest type of glass
Types of solids and is made from a mixture of silica SiO2,
Crystalline Solids calcium oxide CaO and sodium oxide Na2O.
A crystal is a regular 3D arrangement of atoms, Its main uses are window panes and bottles.
Large single crystals display a property called
ions or molecules. All crystals are made from Lead Crystal
anisotropy. This means that physical properties
identical sub units called cells.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Lead crystal glass has a high refractive index and constant k of the spring. [2]
a relatively soft surface that can be easily cut. b) Calculate the energy stored (elastic potential
3. The diagram shows the stress–strain graphs
For these reasons it is used for wine glasses, energy) in the spring when its extension is
for two wires A and B made from different
decanters, flower vases, bowls etc. In the 5.0 cm. [3]
materials.
manufacture of lead crystal, lead oxide PbO is 5. A length of cable of diameter 1.2 mm is
used instead of calcium oxide CaO and potassium under a tension of 150 N. Calculate the stress in
oxide K2O is used instead of sodium oxide Na2O. the cable. [3]
Borosilicate 6. A metal wire of diameter 0.68 mm and
Borosilicate glass is heat-resisting and has many natural length 1.5 m is fixed firmly to the ceiling
uses in the kitchen, laboratory and in industry. It at one end. When a 6.8 kg mass is hung from the
is familiarly known under its trade name Pyrex. free end, the wire extends by 2.8 mm. Calculate:
Fused Quartz a) the stress in the wire [3]
Fused quartz is manufactured by melting pure b) the Young modulus of the material of the wire.
quartz crystals at temperatures around 2000 °C. The wires have the same length and cross-
It transmits U.V. and has low expansivity. sectional area. Explain which of the materials is:
Applications include: a) brittle
 optics (lenses & mirrors), b) stiffer
 halogen lamps, c) stronger. THERMAL PROPERTIES
 optic fibre, Page
 acid glassware,
4. A graph of force F against extension x is OF MATERIALS 70
shown for a spring.
 high temperature industrial use.
Thermal physics deals with the changes that
occur in substances when there is a change in
Test yourself temperature.
Internal energy
1. Springs and wires obey Hooke‘s law. State
When you heat up a material, it may change
Hooke‘s law. [1]
state. The increased kinetic and potential (from
2. A spring has a natural length of 2.5 cm. A
their greater separation) energy of the particles
force of 4.0 N extends the spring to a length
is an increase in what we call internal energy.
of 6.2 cm.
Internal energy is defined as:
a) What is the extension of the spring? [1]
The internal energy of a system is the sum of
b) Determine the force (spring) constant k for
the randomly microscopic distributed kinetic
the spring in N /m. [3]
and potential energies of its molecules.
c) Calculate the extension of the spring when a
Therefore, an increase in temperature for a
tensile force of 6.0 N is applied. You may
material means an increase in its internal energy.
assume that the spring has not exceeded its
a) Use the graph to determine the force (spring) Heat (thermal) Capacity C
elastic limit.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Heat capacity (C) is the heat energy required to

raise the temperature of a body by one degree
(oC or K).
where,
ΔQ is the heat energy added to the body
Δθ is the temperature rise of the body
C is the heat capacity of the body
The units of heat capacity are Joules per degree.
Since Kelvin and Celsius degrees are equivalent
the units are: JK-1 or J 0C-1 The heat energy supplied by the electrical
Specific Heat Capacity c element is given to the liquid and its container,
By definition, specific heat capacity (c) is the producing a temperature rise Δθ.
The heating current (I) and voltage (V) are The method is very similar to that for a liquid
heat energy required to raise the temperature of
monitored for a time (t). except that there is no container.
unit mass by one degree (oC or K).
energy supplied by heater = VIt The solid under test is a lagged cylinder with
energy absorbed by liquid and container = mLcLΔθ holes drilled for the thermometer and the
where, + mCcCΔθ heater element.
ΔQ is the amount heat energy concerned where, A little glycerine is added to the thermometer
m is the mass of the body mL mass of liquid hole to improve thermal contact. Page
Δθ is the temperature rise of the body mC mass of container Heat energy supplied by the electrical element is 71
c is the specific heat capacity of the body cL specific heat capacity of liquid given directly to the solid, producing a
This can be put more conveniently as cC specific heat capacity of container temperature rise Δθ.
The units of specific heat capacity are Jkg-1K-1 Equating the two quantities,
or Jkg-1C-1 where,
Relationship between C and c is mL , mC , cC are known and V, I, t, Δθ are all ms- mass of solid
cs - specific heat capacity of solid
Determination of Specific Heat measured. So the specific heat capacity of the
liquid (cL) can be calculated. ms is known and V, I, t, Δθ are measured. So the
Capacity by experiment specific heat capacity of the solid (cs) can be
Specific Heat Capacity of a solid by an
These two methods concern the heating up a calculated.
electrical method
known mass and measuring the temperature rise
note: more accurate results can be obtained by
for a known amount of electrical energy used.
applying a 'cooling correction'.
Specific Heat Capacity of a liquid by an
electrical method Melting and Boiling
Change of phase from solid to liquid (melting)
occurs when the bonds between the solid
molecules are broken.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

 A Level Physics Notes

Heat energy provided is used to break these There are a number of different methods for
bonds and hence there is no increase in the finding l for different substances and different
kinetic energy of the molecules.Change of phase phase changes.
of liquid to gas (boiling) occurs when the The specific latent heat of ice by the 'method
intermolecular bonds are completely broken. of mixtures'
Heat energy provided is used to increase the
potential energies of the molecules and also to do
work against the external pressure as the liquid
expands to become a gas. The temperature thus Note that the changes of state occur in the flat
during a phase change is constant. areas. There is no temperature rise here and
Latent Heat hence no increase in kinetic energy latent heat
Latent heat is the energy involved when a must be absorbed from the surroundings (and
substance changes state. given to the substance) for the substance to
Latent heat energy (L) has two components: melt or boil. Ice cubes are added to hot water of known
ΔU - the increase/decrease in internal PE Latent heat is given out to the surroundings temperature in a copper calorimeter.
ΔW - the external work involved in expansion (from the substance) when the substance The mixture is stirred until all the ice has melted
(+ΔW) and contraction (-ΔW) condenses or freezes. and a final reading of temperature taken.
This can be summarized as: Specific Latent Heat Capacity l
Page
the latent heat of fusion of a substance is the
The phase changes involving latent heat energy 72
energy involved in changing the state of unit
are:
mass of the substance at the melting/freezing
phase change action symbol point.
solid to liquid melting LF the latent heat of vaporization of a substance is
the energy involved in changing the state of unit
liquid to solid fusion LF mass of the substance at the boiling point.
liquid to vapour vaporization LV This may be summarized by the equation:
( ) ( )
vapour to liquid condensation LV
where,ΔQ is the amount heat energy concerned ( )
solid to vapour sublimation LS m is the mass of substance where,
vapour to solid sublimation LS l specific latent heat of fusion/vaporization mw mass of water
The units of specific latent heat capacity are mi mass of ice
The graph illustrates the temperature changes
Jkg-1. mc mass of calorimeter
when a solid (e.g. ice) is heated from below its
Determination of Specific Latent heat cl specific heat capacity of liquid water
melting point, to above boiling.
Capacity by experiment cc specific heat capacity of calorimeter
θhigh temperature of the hot water
θfinal temperature of mixture
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

l specific latent heat of fusion of ice Consider a body at a high temperature in contact *Only internal energy changes can be measured.
Hence l can be calculated from the known with a body at a low temperature. Heat is Absolute values of internal energy are not
quantities and measured values. transferred from the high temperature body to defined.
The specific latent heat of vaporization of a the lower temperature body until the This can be stated as the equation:
liquid temperatures are equalized. When these equal, a
constant temperature is reached and maintained,
the two bodies are said to be in thermal Note:
equilibrium. +ΔQ - heat is absorbed by the system
-ΔQ - heat is lost by the system
+ΔW - work is put into the system
-ΔW - work is done by the system
Water is heated electrically until it boils.
+ΔU – increase in internal energy
The condensed water (m) is collected over time
-ΔU – decrease in internal energy
(t). Heating element readings of voltage (V) and
current (I) are recorded. In the steady state, Consider three bodies, X, Y and Z. Consider a mass of gas in a piston arrangement
electrical energy supplied = heat energy to Z is in thermal equilibrium with Y. (frictionless piston, an ideal gas in the cylinder).
produce steam X is in thermal equilibrium with Y.
Then Z is in thermal equilibrium with X.
Cooling effect of Evaporation To try to visualize this further, consider a hot Page
Collisions between molecules cause a transfer of cup of tea. After about twelve hours, the saucer, 73
energy, where some molecules gain and some lose the cup and the tea will all be at the same
energy. If the fast moving molecule is near the temperature.
surface it will have enough energy to escape the The saucer is in equilibrium with the cup.
force of attraction of the other molecules. From work done = Force x displacement
The cup is in equilibrium with the tea.
The lower energy molecules are left behind. But we get W=pAs
Therefore the tea is in equilibrium with
A liquid with less Ek has a lower temperature. Now As=change in volume =
the saucer.
Thus evaporation provides cooling. Hence Work done= or
They are each in thermal equilibrium
OR Latent heat of vaporisation e.g. for sweat is with each other. When heat energy ΔQ is supplied to the gas :
provided by the body.The body becomes cooler The First Law of Thermodynamics the temperature of the gas increases
having lost heat energy. The change in the internal energy* (ΔU) of a work ΔW is done by the gas expanding
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to move the piston the internal energy
If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with (ΔQ) to the system, minus the amount of work of the gas increases ΔU the volume of
a third system, they are also in thermal (ΔW) performed by the system on its the gas increases ΔV
equilibrium with each other. surroundings.
To understand this concept we must first
appreciate what thermal equilibrium is.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

TRANSFER OF THERMAL
ENERGY
Heat is transferred from the high temperature
body to the lower temperature body until the
temperatures are equalized. When these equal, a
constant temperature is reached and maintained,
Note ΔW is negative - work is removed
the two bodies are said to be in thermal
from the system
equilibrium. To keep a building or a house at a
When no heat is applied and work is done
comfortable temperature in winter and in
externally by pushing the piston inwards to
summer, if it is to be done economically and
compress the gas:
efficiently, requires a knowledge of how heat
the temperature of the gas increases
travels.There are several ways in which heat is
work ΔW is done compressing the gas
transferred:
the internal energy of the gas increases
Convection
+ΔU Conduction
Convection is the method by which all fluids
the volume of the gas decreases ΔV The handle of a metal spoon held in a hot drink
transfer heat. as a fluid (liquid or gas) warms up,
When heat energy ΔQ is taken from the gas : soon gets warm. Heat passes along the spoon by Page
the particles which are warmer become less
conduction. 74
dense and rise. They then cool and fall back to
the heat source, creating a cycle called a
Conduction is the flow of thermal energy
convection current. As particles circulate they
(heat) through matter from places of higher
transfer energy to other particles. If a cooling
temperature to places of lower temperature
object is above a fluid it will create a convection
without movement of the matter as a whole.
current (like the freezing compartment at the
top of a fridge).Convection is the heat transfer
Heat is conducted faster through a rod if it has
by the macroscopic movement of a fluid. When
a large cross-sectional area, is short and has a
Note: most fluids are heated they expand becoming
large temperature difference between its ends.
ΔW is positive - work is done on the less dense, than that which is above it. It
Most metals are good conductors of heat;
system therefore rises to the top and the cooler to the
materials such as wood, glass, cork, plastics and
ΔQ is negative - heat is removed from bottom.The cycle continues as this cooler fluid is
fabrics are bad conductors: in non-metals - when
the system heated and also rises setting up convection
heat is supplied to something, its atoms vibrate
currents.
faster and pass on their vibrations to the
adjacent atoms. In metals – conduction happens
in the previous way and in a quicker way – some

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

electrons are free to move, they travel randomly temperatures emit waves of longer wavelengths. It cools down the air which then sinks.
in the metal and collide with atoms and pass on (less energy).Objects at higher temperatures Any warm air rises to the top and then is
the vibrations. The arrangement in the diagram emit waves of longer wavelengths (more energy. cooled.
below can be used to show the difference Thermal radiation is mainly infra-red waves, but metals are used in cooking pans because
between brass and wood. If the rod is passed very hot objects also give out light waves. Infra- they conduct the heat well
through a flame several times, the paper over red radiation is part of the electromagnetic Consequences
the wood scorches but not the paper over the spectrum. The table compares the a metal spoon in a hot drink will warm up
brass. The brass conducts the heat away from absorbing/emitting abilities of various colours because it conducts the heat
the paper quickly, preventing the paper from Matt White Silver Convection currents create sea breezes.
reaching the temperature at which it burns. The Black During the day the land is warmer and
wood conducts the heat away only very slowly. emitter best worst acts as heat source. During the night the
These experiments show which metal is the best reflector worst best sea acts as the heat source.
conductor (copper and A), and which is the worst absorber best worst a black saucepan cools better than a
(steel and D) An emitter sends out thermal radiation. A white one,
reflector reflects thermal radiation, therefore white houses stay cooler than dark ones.
is a bad absorber. An emitter will cool down
quickly, an absorber will heat up more quickly and
a reflector will not heat up quickly.
Page
75

And the results are shown in the diagram below:

Radiation
Radiation is the heat transfer without the Consequences of energy transfer
presence of any medium that is it can occur in Applications
vacuum. Radiation is the flow of heat from one solar panel:the sun‘s thermal radiation

IDEAL GASES
place to another by means of electromagnetic is absorbed by a matt black surface and
waves. Thermal radiation is emitted by all bodies warms up the pipes containing water
with a temperature above absolute 0.It consists refrigerator:the freezer compartment
of a number of wavelengths; objects at low is located at the top of the refrigerator.
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

pressures, gases start to deviate from these 6. extremely large numbers of molecules
laws as the gas atoms exert significant electrical mean that statistical methods can be
forces on each other. For example, Figure 22.6 applied
shows what happens when nitrogen is cooled down 7. between collisions molecules move in
towards absolute zero.At first, the graph of straight lines at constant speed
volume against temperature follows a good 8. the motion of molecules is random
straight line. However, as it approaches the 9. gravitational effects are negligiible
temperature at which it condenses, it deviates 10. the time for each collision is negligible
from ideal behaviour, and at 77 K it condenses to
become liquid nitrogen. Thus we have to attach a
condition to the relationships discussed above. Assumption Explanation/comment
The idea of a gas We say that they apply to an ideal gas. When we A gas contains a very A small ‗cube‘ of air
The diagram above shows a weather balloon being are dealing with real gases, we have to be aware large number of can have as many as
launched. Balloons like this carry instruments that their behaviour may be significantly spherical particles 1020 molecules
high into the atmosphere from where different from the ideal. (atoms or molecules).
measurements of pressure, temperature, wind V/m3 The forces between If the particles
speed and other variables are transmitted back Ideal behaviour particles are attracted each other
to the ground.The balloon is filled with helium so
negligible, except strongly over long
that its overall density is less than that of the Page
during collisions. distances, they would
surrounding air. The result is an upthrust on the 76
all tend to clump
balloon, greater than its weight, so that it rises
together in the middle
upwards. As it moves upwards, the pressure of
of the container.
the surrounding atmosphere decreases so that
The particles travel in Most of the time, a
the balloon expands.The temperature drops,
straight lines between particle moves in a
which tends to make the gas in the balloon 77 100 300 T/K collisions. straight line at a
shrink. In this chapter we will look at the Main assumptions of the Kinetic Theory constant velocity.
behaviour of gases as their pressure, 1. all the molecules of a particular gas are
The volume of the When a liquid boils to
temperature and volume change. equal
particles is negligible become a gas, its
Real and ideal gases 2. collisions between molecules and their
compared to the particles become much
The relationships between p, V and T that we container are completely elastic
volume occupied by farther apart.
have considered above are based on experimental 3. collisions between molecules themselves
the gas.
observations of gases such as air, helium, are completely elastic
The time of collision The particles collide
nitrogen, etc., at temperatures and pressures 4. the size of actual molecules is negligible
with another particle with the walls of the
around room temperature and pressure. In compared to molecular separation
or with the container container and with
practice, if we change to more extreme 5. the laws of Newtonian mechanics apply
walls is negligible each other, but for
conditions, such as low temperatures or high

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

compared with the most of the time they 5. At what temperature would 1.0 kg of oxygen Since speed = distance/time, then
time between are moving occupy 1.0 m3 at a pressure of 1.0 × 105 Pa? time = distance /speed
collisions. with constant velocity (Molar mass of O2 = 32 g /mol.) Therefore the time (t) it takes for the
The collisions of Kinetic energy cannot molecule to traverse this distance 2L is given
by:
particles with each
other and with the
be lost.
Derivation of equations The rate of momentum change in this time
container are The first step in understanding this theory is to
interval is given by:
perfectly elastic, so appreciate the momentum change when a particle
that no kinetic energy rebounds from a collision with a wall.
is lost. Thus
The internal energy There are no
of the gas is the intermolecular forces From Newton's 2nd Law, applied force is equal to
total kinetic energy between particles the rate of change of momentum.The molecule
of the particles. therefore exerts a force F on the wall, given by:
The ideal gas equation is, where, F
initial momentum. in the x-direction = mu1
n is number moles of gas
final momentumm. in the x-dir. = m(-u1) =-mu1 Since pressure (p) = force/area , the pressure on
R is the Universal Gas Constant
momentum change. = mu1-(-mu1) = 2mu1 wall A produced by a single molecule is,
T is the temperature in kelvin
Consider a volume of gas in a cuboidal shape of Page
Test yourself Hence
side L. 77
For the questions which follow, you will need Now, consider all the molecules (N) in the cube
thefollowing value:R = 8.31 J /mol/K
and each of their x-component velocities (u1 u2 u3
1. At what temperature (in K) will 1.0 mol of a . . . uN). The pressure on wall A becomes:
gas occupy 1.0 m3 at a pressure of 1.0 × 104 Pa?
2. Nitrogen consists of molecules N2 . The where,
molar mass of nitrogen is 28 g /mol. For 100 g is the mean square velocity of molecules in the
of nitrogen, calculate: x-direction
a the number of moles The density ( ρ ) of the gas is given by:
b the volume occupied at room temperature We have seen how the change in momentum Hence
and pressure? (r.t.p. = 20 °C , 1.01 × 105 Pa.) of a molecule of gas when it rebounds from
Substituting for Nm/L3 into the equation for
3. Calculate the volume of 5.0 mol of an ideal one face , is 2mu1 .
pressure p we get
gas at a pressure of 1.0 × 105 Pa and a The distance the molecules travels between
Up to now we have considered the velocity of a
temperature of 200 °C. collisions is 2L.
molecule in one direction. Now, let us consider
4. A sample of gas contains 3.0 × 1024 atoms. It collides with face A. Moves a distance L
the resultant velocity of a molecule in three
Calculate the volume of the gas at a to collide with opposite face B, before
dimensions.
temperature of 300 K and a pressure of 120kPa. returning to face A .

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

substituting for ρV into the Kinetic Theory

equation (i , Test yourself
[2]
1 Determine the number of atoms or molecules
With some simple arithmetic and a more detailed in each of the following.
description of M, this equation can be amended a 1.0 mole of carbon
into a more useful form : b 3.6 moles of water
In the diagram, molecule velocity (c1) is resolved
If N is the total number of molecules and m is c 0.26 moles of helium [3]
into x, y and z directions. The value of each 2 The molar mass of helium is 4.0 g.
the mass of one molecule: m=Nm
component is respectively, u1, v1 and w1.Replacing
Now, substituting for 1/3 and M into equation [2] Determine the mass of a single atom of helium
the three components of the velocity with just in kilograms. [2]
( )
one resultant we get: 3 The molar mass of uranium is 238 g.
The ideal gas equation is, pV=nRT
Eliminating pV between the last two equations, a Calculate the mass of one atom of uranium.[2]
The equation represents component velocities b A small rock contains 0.12 g of uranium. For
for one molecule. ( )
this rock, calculate the number of:
Replacing these velocities with mean square Making the subject of the equation, i moles of uranium [2]
velocities, the equation now applies for all ii atoms of uranium. [1]
[3]
molecules. 4 Explain what is meant by the absolute zero
We make the assumptions that there are very The Avogadro Number NA is by definition the
number of molecules per mole. It is obtained by of temperature. [3] Page
large numbers of molecules and their motion is 5 a Write the ideal gas equation in words. [1]
random. So we can say that mean square velocity dividing the total number of molecules by the 78
b One mole of an ideal gas is trapped inside a
components are equal to one another. number of moles of matter:
rigid container of volume 0.020 m3.Calculate the
We can now modify equation [3] to include NA
pressure exerted by the gas when the
So molecular velocity c in terms of components temperature within the container is 293 K. [3]
becomes, By definition the Boltzmann's constant k is given 6 A fixed amount of an ideal gas is trapped in a
Substituting for into the equation for by: where k is the Boltzmann constant container of volume V.The pressure exerted by
pressure previously obtained,we get So the final form of the equation is: the gas is P and its absolute temperature is T.
a Using a sketch of PV against T, explain how
you can determine the number of moles of gas
Molecular KE and temperature
is called the average translational KE of a within the container. [4]
Multiplying the Kinetic Theory equation b Sketch a graph of PV against P when the gas
molecule
for pressure by V, (the volume of the gas) we is kept at a constant temperature.Explain the
So the average kinetic energy of gas molecules is
obtain: [1] shape of the graph. [3]
directly proportional to the temperature.
Substituting for density density ρ (rho) is given This can also be said in the converse: 6 A rigid cylinder of volume 0.030 m3 holds 4.0
by: making the mass M the subject, temperature is a measure of the average kinetic g of air. The molar mass of air is about 29 g.
(where M is the mass of gas) energy of gas molecules a Calculate the pressure exerted by the air

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

when its temperature is 34 °C. [4] a Explain what is meant by random motion. [1] nitrogen to 42 dm3.
b What is the temperature of the gas in b i Calculate the mean translational kinetic a Calculate the pressure of the nitrogen after
degrees Celsius when the pressure is twice your energy of a hydrogen nucleus on the surface of compression.
value from part a? [4] the Sun. [2] b Explain the effect on the temperature and
7 The diagram shows a cylinder containing air ii Estimate the mean speed of such a hydrogen pressure of the nitrogen if the piston were
at a temperature of 5.0 °C.The piston has a nucleus. pushed in very quickly.
cross-sectional area 1.6 × 10-3 m2 .It is held (The mass of hydrogen nucleus is 1.7 × 10-27 kg.) 14 A lorry is to cross the Sahara desert. The
stationary by applying a force of 400 N applied 10 a Calculate the mean translational kinetic journey begins just before dawn when the
normally to the piston.The volume occupied by energy of gas atoms at 0 °C. [2] temperature is 3 °C. The volume of air held in
the compressed air is 2.4 × 10-4 m3.The molar b Estimate the mean speed of carbon dioxide each tyre is 1.50 m3 and the pressure in the
mass of air is about 29 g. molecules at 0 °C. tyres is 3.42 × 105 Pa.
a Calculate the pressure exerted by the (The molar mass of carbon dioxide is 44 g.) [5] a Explain how the air molecules in the tyre
compressed air. [2] c Calculate the change in the internal energy of exert a pressure on the tyre walls. [3]
b Determine the number of moles of air inside one mole of carbon dioxide gas when its b Calculate the number of moles of air in the
the cylinder. [3] temperature changes from 0 °C to 100 °C. tyre. [3]
c Use your answer to b to determine: 11 a State how many atoms there are in: c By midday the temperature has risen to
i the mass of air inside the cylinder [1] i a mole of helium gas 42 °C.
ii the density of the air inside the cylinder. [2] ii a mole of chlorine gas i Calculate the pressure in the tyre at this new
iii a kilomole of neon gas. temperature. You may assume that no air
Page
b A container holds four moles of carbon escapes and the volume of the tyre is 79
dioxide. Calculate: unchanged. [2]
i the number of carbon dioxide molecules there ii Calculate the increase in the average
are in the container translational kinetic energy of an air molecule
ii the number of carbon atoms there are in the due to this temperature rise. [2]
container 15 a Explain what is meant by Brownian motion
iii the number of oxygen atoms there are in the and how it provides evidence for the existence
8 The mean speed of a helium atom at a container. of molecules. [3]
temperature of 0 °C is 1.3 km s–1. Estimate the 12 A bar of gold has a mass of 1.0 kg. Calculate: b The density of air at room temperature and
mean speed of helium atoms on the surface of a a the number of moles of gold in the bar pressure, r.t.p. (20 °C and 1.03 × 105 Pa),
star where the temperature is 10 000 K. [6] b the number of gold atoms in the bar is 1.21 kg /m3. Calculate the average speed of
9 The surface temperature of the Sun is about c the mass of one gold atom. air molecules at r.t.p. [4]
5400 K. On its surface, particles behave like (Relative atomic mass of gold = 197.) c State and explain the effect on the average
the atoms of an ideal gas. The atmosphere of 13 A cylinder holds 140 dm3 of nitrogen at speed of the air molecules of:
the Sun mainly consists of hydrogen nuclei. room temperature and pressure. Moving slowly i raising the temperature of the air [2]
These nuclei move in random motion. so that there is no change in temperature, a ii going to a higher altitude (but keeping the
piston is pushed to reduce the volume of the temperature constant). [1]
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

that the temperature of the thermometer B whose temperature is allowed to change. If we

was rising. allow heat to move between the two bodies we
TEMPERATURE Energy is transferred from a hotter object
to a cooler one. The temperature of the
say they are in thermal contact.First let us
consider what happens if B is cooler than A.
water was greater than the temperature of Remember { we have fixed the temperture of A
What is temperature? the thermometer, so energy transferred so we need only worry about the temperature of
Temperature is a measure of the average from one to the other. B changing. An example of such a situation is an
kinetic energy of the particles making up the When two objects are at the same ice cube being dropped into a large pan of boiling
substance being examined.Temperature must not temperature, there is no transfer of energy water on a stove. The water temperature is fixed
be confused with heat. between them. That is what happened when i.e. does not change, because the ¯re keeps it
Heat is the amount of vibrational energy the thermometer reached the same constant. It should be obvious that the ice cube
contained in a particular mass. temperature as the water, so it was safe to will heat up and melt. In physical terms we say
say that the reading on the thermometer that the heat is flowing out of the (warmer)
The meaning of temperature
was the same as the temperature of the boiling water, into the (cooler) ice cube. This flow
Picture a beaker of boiling water. You want to
water. of heat into the ice cube causes it to warm up
measure its temperature, so you pick up a
From this, you can see that temperature tells us and melt. In fact the temperature of any cooler
thermometer which is lying on the bench. The
about the direction in which energy flows. If two object in thermal contact with a warmer one will
thermometer reads 20 °C. You place the
objects are placed in contact (so that energy can increase as heat from the warmer object flows
thermometer in the water and the reading goes Page
flow between them), it will flow from the hotter into it.The reverse would be true if B were
up … 30 °C, 40 °C, 50 °C e.t.c. This tells you that
to the cooler. Energy flowing from a region of warmer than A. We can now picture putting a 80
the thermometer is getting hotter; energy is
higher temperature to a region of lower small amount of warm water in to a freezer. If
being transferred from the water to the
temperature is called thermal energy. (Here, we we come back in an hour or so the water will have
thermometer. Eventually, the thermometer
are not concerned with the mechanism by which cooled down and possibly frozen. In physical
reading reaches 100 °C and it stops rising.
the energy is transferred. It may be by terms we say that the heat is °owing out of the
Because the reading is steady, you can deduce
conduction, convection or radiation.) (warmer) water, into the (cooler) air in the
that energy is no longer being transferred to the
When two objects, in contact with each other, freezer. This flow of heat out of the ice cube in
thermometer and so its scale tells you the
are at the same temperature, there will be no to the air causes it to cool down and (eventually)
temperature of the water.
transfer of thermal energy between them. We freeze. Again, any warm object in thermal
This simple, everyday activity illustrates several
say that they are in thermal equilibrium with contact with a cooler one will cool down due to
points:
each other heat flowing out of it.
We are used to the idea that a thermometer
Thermal equilibrium There is one special case which we have not yet
shows the temperature of something with
Now that we have defined the temperature of an discussed {what happens if A and B are at the
which it is in contact. In fact, it tells you its
isolated object (usually referred to as a body) we same temperature? In this case B will neither
own temperature. As the reading on the
need to consider how heat will move between warm up nor cool down, in fact, its temperature
scale was rising, it wasn‘t showing the
bodies at different temperatures. Let us take will remain constant. When two bodies are at the
temperature of the water. It was showing
two bodies; A which has a fixed temperature and same temperature we say that they are in

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

thermal equilibrium. Another way to express this temperatures in that many different scales exist coldest salt mixture temperature attained higher
is to say that two bodies are in thermal to measure them. fixed point 100 deg. (100oF) - horse blood
equilibrium if the particles within those bodies This is usually achieved by defining the temperature
have the same average kinetic energies. You temperature of some physical process, e.g. the The Kelvin (Absolute) temperature scale
should notice that heat always °ows from the freezing point of water. This scale uses the triple point of water as the
warmer object to the cooler object, never the Armed with our knowledge of temperature we upper fixed point and absolute zero (zero
other way around. Also, we never talk about can see that Celcius's scale has a big problem { it molecular motion) as the lower fixed point.
coldness moving as it is not a real physical thing, allows us to have a negative temperature.} The triple point of water is assigned the
only a lack of heat. Most importantly, it should be For any temperature scale, it is necessary to temperature 273.16K while the ice point is
clear that the flow of heat between the two have two fixed points.These are temperatures at 273.15K and the steam point 373.15K.
objects always attempts to bring them to the which particular physical properties manifest
same temperature (or in other words, into themselves e.g. melting, boiling.
thermal equilibrium). Common fixed points:
The logical conclusion of all this is that if two ice point - temperature when pure water ice
bodies are in thermal contact heat will flow from is in equilibrium with liquid water at standard
the hotter object to the cooler one until they atmospheric pressure (76mm Hg).
are in thermal equilibrium (i.e. at the same steam point - temperature when pure liquid
temperature).We will see how to deal with this if water exists in equilibrium with water vapour
the temperature of object A is not fixed in the at standard atmospheric pressure. Page
section on heat capacities. triple point* - temperature when pure water 81
Fixed Points ice, pure liquid water and pure water vapour
Temperature scales are often confusing and exist in equilibrium.
even university level students can be tricked into * there are triple points for many other
using the wrong one. For most purposes in physics substances besides water
we do not use the familiar Celcius (often Temperature scales are divided into a specific By definition one degree Kelvin is: 1 / 273.16
innaccurately called centigrade) scale but the number of degrees between the two fixed points. (approximately 0.00366) of the difference
closely related absolute (or kelvin) scale { why?} The gap between the upper and lower fixed between absolute zero and the triple point of
Let us think about the Celcius scale now that we points is called the fundamental interval. water.
have defined temperature as a measure of the The Celsius temperature scale
average kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules The Celsius scale was defined by using the ice
in a body.A scale is a way of assigning a number point and the steam point.These were designated
to a physical quantity. Consider distance { using a as 0oC and 100 oC resp.The Celsius scale is closely
ruler we can measure a distance} and find its related to the Kelvin scale.
length. This length could be measured in metres, As a matter of historical interest, the By definition one degree Celsius is: 1 / 273.16
inches, or miles. The same is true of Fahrenheit scale was founded on the following (approximately 0.00366) of the difference
fixed points: lower fixed point 0 deg. (0oF) - the between absolute zero and the triple point of

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

water.This is the same definition as for a degree affect the temperature they are trying It is portable Less accurate
Kelvin. So a temperature change of 1K equates to measure. Easily and quickly read Easily broken
to a change of 1oC. This is how the two liquids used in thermometers,
The two scales are also defined by the equation: alcohol and mercury compare: Thermocouple
Alcohol:
Where - temperature in 0C  transparent, must be used with a dye
T-temperature in Kelvin  heat conduction poor
TYPES OF THERMOMETERS  sticks to glass - concave meniscus
There are various types of thermometers.  temperature range ~ 150oC to -114.9 oC
However each type uses a particular Mercury:
thermometric property (i.e. a property whose  opaque
value changes linearly with temperature.) E.g. a  is a metal and therefore a good heat
liquid in glass makes use the change in length of a conductor
column of liquid confined in a capillary tube of  does not stick to glass - convex meniscus
uniform bore as shown.  temperature range: -39oC (fp of
Thermocouples work on a principle called the
Liquid in glass mercury) to ~356oC just below its b.p
thermoelectric or Seebeck Effect.When two
The temperature on a liquid in glass
different metal wires are twisted together at a
thermometers can be calculated by making
junction, an EMF (electromotive force) is Page
certain measurements.
generated across the loose ends.The magnitude 82
of this EMF relates to the temperature at the
junction.

These are simple to use and are cheap.

The thermometer works by an expanding liquid in
a vacuum, moving against a scale. There are a
number of disadvantages to this instrument:
The glass itself expands and contracts
and leading to under and over reading of
temperatures.
Where: – temperature at any length
Parallax errors mean readings are only
- length at ice point
accurate to about 0.1oC.
-length at steam point
The diameter of the bore is not
Advantages Disadvantages
consistent.
It suitable for normal It has limited range On the graph, the value of T where the EMF is
Their large thermal capacity means that
room temperature maximum is called the 'neutral temperature'.
they do not react quickly and they may

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

chromel/alumel ~1100 max. The general equation for calculating a

Advantage Disadvantage temperature is thus
Pt/Pt-Rh 1100 - 1700
It is accurate Not suitable for
measuring rapidly Fe/Constantan 95 - 760
changing Cu/Constantan 200 - 350
temperatures NON-VISCOUS FLUID FLOW
Suitable for measuring
Platinum-Resistance thermometer
constant temperature Definition of terms
The property of metals that their resistance is
Used as a standard 1.Fluid: A fluid is a substance that flows and
temperature-dependent makes them ideal as
thermometer for takes the shape of its container.Both liquids and
thermometers. The metal of choice is platinum as
temperature of 180-630 gases are fluids, with water and air being common
a result of its high melting point (1773oC) and
degrees examples.
large resistance temperature coefficient.
The gradient (d(EMF)/dT) anywhere on the curve 2.An ideal fluid is
Platinum-resistance thermometers are both
is called the thermoelectric power . Measured Incompressible – the density is constant
sensitive and useful over large ranges of
with a high resistance millivoltmeter, EMF values Irrotational – the flow is smooth, no
temperature.The range is -200 oC to 1200 oC
are in the range 1mV - 4mV/100oC.This simpler turbulence
Main disadvantage is that they have large heat
arrangement has a disadvantage in that there are Non-viscous – fluid has no internal
capacities and cannot follow rapidly changing
three EMFs set up and the temperature reading friction (η=0)
temperatures.In practice resistance Page
is therefore not consistent.A more convenient Steady flow – the velocity of the fluid
thermometers are either thin films of platinum 83
and efficient setup is to have two junctions at each point is constant in time.
on a substrate or platinum wire wound around a
instead of one, but still have just two metals. 3.Steady flow:
former.
The reference cold temperature is usually
melting ice.

(Also known as streamline flow, uniform flow,

lamina flow ,etc.)This is when all the fluid
particles pass any given point follow the same
path at the same speed (i.e. they have the same
velocity).Opposite of this is turbulent flow.
Streamlines"
Typical pairs of metals and temperature ranges: - in steady flow,a bundle of streamlines makes a
flow tube.
metals temperature range oC

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

-An individual fluid element will follow a path In a time interval Δt the fluid at x will
called a flow line."Steady flow is when the move forward a distance vXΔt.
pattern of flow lines does not change with time. The volume AXvXΔt will enter the tube
4.Incompressible flow: at X.
A fluid in which changes in pressure produce no The mass of fluid entering at X in time
change in the density of the fluid is known as an Δt is ρXAXvXΔt
incompressible fluid.Incompressible flow is flow similarly the mass leaving at Y in the
of an ideal fluid.Liquids can be considered to be 9.A tube of flow same time will be ρYAYvYΔt since mass
incompressible, and gases subject to small A tubular region whose boundaries are defined leaving is equal to mass leaving at Y,
pressure differences can be taken to be such. by a set of streamlines. ρXAXvXΔt = ρYAYvYΔt
5.Non-viscous fluid flow: Equation of continuity for an ideal fluid ρX = ρY i.e
A viscous fluid offers resistance to the motion In steady flow the mass of fluid entering one end AXvX = AYvY Thus Av = constant
through it of any solid body or to its own motion of tube is equal to mass leaving the other end Av is known as the flow rate, or volume flux of
past a solid body.In non-viscous fluid flow we during the same time interval. the fluid.
consider the flow of a fluid without any internal Consider an ideal fluid undergoing steady flow; Bernoulli‟s Equation
friction of adjacent layers. consider a section XY of a tube of flow within States that for an incompressible, non-viscous
6.Laminar flow the fluid. fluid undergoing steady flow, the pressure plus
A special case of steady flow in which the Let: the kinetic energy per unit volume plus the
velocities of all the particles on any given AX and AY be the cross-sectional areas
Page
potential energy per unit volume is constant at all
streamline are the same. Different streamlines of the tube of flow at X and Y 84
points on a streamline, i.e.
may have different speeds. respectively.
7. Laminar flow ρX and ρY be the densities of the fluid at
Uninterrupted flow in a fluid near a solid in which X and Y respectively. where P is the absolute pressure, ρ is the fluid
the direction of flow at every point remains vX and vY be the velocities of the fluid density, v is the velocity of the fluid, h is the
constant particles at X and Y respectively as height above some reference point, and g is the
shown acceleration due to gravity.
For a horizontal tube of flow there is no
potential energy therefore the Bernoulli equation
becomes:

A small volume of fluid along its path, various

8. Turbulent Flow quantities in the sum may change, but the total
A fluid flow in which the velocity at a given point remains constant.
varies erratically in magnitude and direction Bernoulli‘s equation becomes

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Derivation of Bernoulli‟s equation Work energy theorem can be stated It is used to measure the volume of a gas or
liquid per second flowing through gas pipes or oil
States that: An increase in the For horizontal tube flow and pipes.
speed of fluid flow results in a therefore Atomizers
decrease in the pressure. (In an Hence: ( ) A stream of air passing over an open tube
dividing by V throughout and reduces the pressure above the tube. This
ideal fluid.) reduction in pressure causes the liquid to rise
substituting we get
into the airstream. The liquid is then dispersed
into a fine spray of droplets. This atomizer is
used in perfume bottles and paint sprayers. The
Consequences of Bernoulli equation same principle is used in the carburetor of a
gasoline engine. In this case, the low-pressure
Whenever a flowing fluid speeds up, there is a
region in the carburetor is produced by air drawn
corresponding decrease in the pressure.
in by the piston through the air filter. The
1.Filter pump
Consider the flow of an ideal fluid gasoline vaporizes, mixes with the air, and enters
Has a narrow section in the middle section in the
through a non-uniform tube in a time Δt. the cylinder of the engine for combustion.
middle so that a jet of water flows faster here.
The force on the lower end is P1A1. Work The pressure drop caused forces or sucks in air
done on the lower end of the fluid by from the pipe connected to the side. Page
the fluid behind it is
85
Similarly the work done on the fluid at
the top in time Δt is

 Note that this work done is negative

since force is opposite to displacement.
Venturi meter
The net work done by these forces in Δt Air stream passing over an open tube reduces
is pressure above the tube.This reduction causes
 Part of the work is used to change the liquid to rise into the air stream. Liquid is the
kinetic energy and part to change dispersed into a fine spray of droplets. A spray
potential energy of the fluid element. gun is as shown below:
If m is mass passing through pipe in time
Δt then change in kinetic energy is
( )
Change in potential energy is

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

several factors, such as the speed of the When a pitcher throws a curveball, he will throw
airplane, the area of the wing, its curvature, and it such that the axis of rotation is not
the angle between the wing and horizontal. As perpendicular to the ground, as it is in a fastball.
this angle increases, turbulent flow can set in Because it is spinning in a skewed axis, the
above the wing to reduce the lift. The lift on Magmus force will force the ball to curve in a
the wing is consistent with Bernoulli's horizontal direction instead of vertical "curve" of
equation. The speed of the airstream is a fastball.
greater above the wing, hence the air For a Burnsen burner,:
pressure above the wing is less than the
pressure below the wing, resulting in a net
upward force.

Aerofoil

A Bunsen burner, named after Robert Bunsen, is

a common piece of laboratory equipment that
An object experiences lift by any effect that produces a single open gas flame, which is used Page
causes the fluid to change it's direction as it for heating, sterilization, and combustion. The
flows past the object. Some factors that
86
gas can be natural gas (which is mainly methane)
influence the lift are the shape of the object, its or a liquefied petroleum gas, such as propane,
Design of aircraft wings speeds up air molecules orientation with respect to the fluid flow, butane, or a mixture of both.
above the wing.This ensures a lower pressure spinning motion (spinning baseball). And the How does a Bunsen burner work?
above than that below, and results in a dynamic texture of the object's surface. Parts and Diagram
upward lift force. For a spinning ball,: A Bunsen burner is made entirely of metal. In
Airplane Wing: assume that the airstream -the stitches on the ball will cause pressure on order to function properly, Bunsen burners must
approaches the wing horizontally from the right one side to be less than on its opposite side. This have a barrel (A) that's approximately five
with a velocity v1. The tilt of the wing causes the will force the ball to move faster on one side inches long, a collar (B) with air holes (C), a gas
airstream to be deflected downward with a than the other and will force the ball to "curve." intake (D) and gas valve (E) and a stand (F) to
velocity v2. Because the airstream is deflected This is the Magnus Effect. keep all of the pieces from making contact with a
by the win, the wing must exert a force on the work surface.
airstream. According to Newton's third law, the
airstream must exert an equal and opposite force
F on the wing. This force has a vertical
component called the lift and a horizontal
component called drag. The lift depends on
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

Real life applications (i) an input sensor or input transducer,

Qn:In a storm how does a house lose its roof? (ii) a processor and
Ans. (iii) an output transducer.
Air flow is disturbed by the house. The A ‘transducer’ is a device for converting a
"streamlines" crowd around the top of the roof. non-electrical input into an electrical signal or
⇒ faster flow above house vice versa.
⇒ reduced pressure above roof to that  The input sensor detects changes in the
inside the house environment and converts them from their
⇒roof lifted off because of pressure present form of energy into electrical
difference. energy.
Function
Qn:Why do rabbits not suffocate in the  Input sensors or transducers include LDRs
Once connected to a source of fuel, usually
burrows? (light dependent resistors), thermistors,
methane, the Bunsen burner can be ignited with a
Ans: microphones and switches that respond, for
spark. Incoming gas reacts with oxygen in a one-
Air must circulate. The burrows must have two instance, to pressure changes.
to-three ratio to produce a blue flame that
entrances.Air flows across the two holes is The processor decides on what action to
comes out of the top of the barrel.
usually slightly different take on the electrical signal it receives from
Adjusting the gas valve on the Bunsen burner
⇒ slight pressure difference the input sensor. It may involve an operation
changes the volume of gas flow; the more gas
⇒ forces flow of air through burrow. such as counting, amplifying, timing or
entering the burner, the larger the flame. The Page
One hole is usually higher than the other and the storing.
collar at the base of the barrel contains air holes 87
a small mound is built around the holes to  The output transducer converts the
to control the amount of oxygen reacting with
increase the pressure difference. electrical energy supplied by the processor
the gas. The collar can be rotated to adjust
into another form.
oxygen intake. In general, the more oxygen
 Output transducers include lamps, LEDs
present, the more intense and blue the flame will
(light emitting diodes), loudspeakers, motors,
be. Less oxygen lends to a weaker yellow flame.
heaters, relays and cathode ray tubes.
The more oxygenated blue flame is both hotter
In a radio, the input sensor is the aerial that
and more controlled than the oxygen-deprived
sends an electrical signal to processors in the
flame; scientists generally prefer a controlled
radio. These processors, among other things,
blue flame.
amplify the signal so that it can enable the
Adjusting the gas valve on the Bunsen burner
output transducer, in this case a loudspeaker, to
changes the volume of gas flow; the more gas
produce sound.
entering the burner, the larger the flame. The
Input transducers
collar at the base of the barrel contains air holes
a) Light-dependent resistor (LDR)
to control the amount of oxygen reacting with
Any electronic system can be considered to The action of an LDR depends on the fact that
the gas. The collar can be rotated to adjust
consist of the three parts shown in the block the resistance of the semiconductor cadmium
oxygen intake
diagram , i.e.
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

sulphide decreases as the intensity of the light oxides whose resistance decreases markedly operated switch or other device. Relays
falling on it increases. when the temperature rises. The temperature controlled by a switching circuit can also be used
may rise either because the thermistor is to switch on the mains supply for electrical
directly heated or because a current is in it. appliances in the home.
The diagram shows the symbol for a thermistor
Note the circuit symbol for an LDR, sometimes
in a circuit to demonstrate how the thermistor
seen without a circle. When light from a lamp
works.
falls on the ‗window‘ of the LDR, its resistance b) Light-emitting diode (LED)
decreases and the increased current lights the An LED, shown, is a diode made from the
lamp. LDRs are used in photographic exposure semiconductor gallium arsenide phosphide.
meters and in series with a resistor to provide an When forward biased, the current in it makes it
When the thermistor is heated with a match, the
input signal for a transistor or other switching emit red, yellow or green light. No light is
lamp lights.
circuit. emitted on reverse bias (when the anode A is
connected to the negative terminal of the
voltage supply). If the reverse bias voltage
exceeds 5 V, it may cause damage.

The diagram shows how a thermistor can be used

to switch a relay. The thermistor forms part of a
In use an LED must have a suitable resistor R in Page
potential divider across the d.c. source. When
the temperature rises, the resistance of the series with it (e.g. 300 Ω on a 5 V supply) to limit 88
The LDR forms part of a potential divider across thermistor falls, and so does the p.d. across it. the current (typically 10 mA). LEDs are used as
the 5 V supply. When light falls on the LDR, the The voltage across resistor R and the relay indicator lamps on computers, radios and other
resistance of the LDR, and hence the voltage increases. When the voltage across the relay electronic equipment. Many clocks, calculators,
across it, decreases. There is a corresponding reaches its operating p.d. the normally open video recorders and measuring instruments have
increase in the voltage across resistor R and the contacts close, so that the circuit to the bell is seven-segment red or green numerical displays
relay; when the voltage across the relay coil completed and it rings. If a variable resistor is Each segment is an LED and, depending on which
reaches a high enough p.d. (its operating p.d.) it used in the circuit, the temperature at which the have a voltage across them, the display lights up
acts as a switch and the normally open contacts alarm sounds can be varied. the numbers 0 to 9. LEDs are small, reliable and
close, allowing current to flow to the bell, which have a long life;their operating speed is high and
rings. If the light is removed,the p.d. across
Output transducers their current requirements are very low. Diode
resistor R and the relay drops below the a) Relays lasers operate in a similar way to LEDs but emit
operating p.d. of the relay so that the relay A switching circuit cannot supply much power to coherent laser light; they are used in optical
contacts open again; power to the bell is cut and an appliance so a relay is often included; this fibre communications as transmitters.
it stops ringing. allows the small current provided by the Analogue and digital signals
b) Thermistor switching circuit to control the larger current An analogue quantity is one that can have any
A thermistor contains semiconducting metallic needed to operate a buzzer as in a temperature- value, for example the height of a person. A

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

digital quantity has only a few values, usually just emitted by a mobile phone nearby, and even by Candidates should be able to show an
two; for example a person is either male or the random thermal motion of electrons in a wire understanding of the change in
female. So far, the signals we have dealt with in or by vibrating atoms. You may have noticed a resistance with light intensity of a
this book have been analogue signals. For background hiss on telephone conversations. This light-dependent resistor (LDR).
example, the voltage signal generated by a also is an example of noise. A light-dependent resistor (LDR) may be made by
microphone is an analogue signal; the output Noise is the random, unwanted signal that sandwiching a film of cadmium sulphide between
voltage from the microphone can have any value, adds to and distorts a transmitted signal. two metal electrodes. Typically, in moonlight, its
within limits, and is an exact representation of Amplification of a signal amplifies the noise at resistance is about 1 MΩ and in sunlight, 100 Ω.
the pressure variation in a sound wave. the same time as the signal. The symbol for an LDR is shown
A digital signal on the other hand looks There is little improvement possible for the
completely different and consists of a series of analogue signal; amplification will not remove the
zeros (0) and ones (1). A 1 in a digital signal is noise. However, regeneration will remove the
just the presence of a voltage pulse, usually a noise from a digital signal. The signal is ‗cleaned‘ The resistance of an LDR is constant at constant
voltage value of a few volts.A 0 in a digital signal of the noise and returned to its initial shape. light intensity.
is the absence of a pulse and is a voltage close to At the end of a long-distance transmission, an An LDR is sensitive to changes in light intensity.
0 V. A typical digital electronic system will electronic circuit, the regeneration amplifier, Note that the change in resistance with change
interpret any voltage below about 0.3 V as a 0 receives the digital signal. This electronic circuit in light intensity is not linear.
and any voltage above about 1.5 V as a 1. Small expects to receive a pulse of a few volts or no Candidates should be able to sketch
fluctuations in voltage will not be noticed. pulse at all; any small variations added to the the temperature characteristic of a Page
Advantages of digital signals pulse or the 0 V make no difference. The negative temperature coefficient 89
Most devices such as microphones or thermistors regeneration amplifier can only give a 0 or a 1 as thermistor.
produce analogue voltage signals. However, digital an output. As long as the noise does not The resistance of most substances does change
signals have advantages and it is often completely change the shape of the signal, then slightly with a change in temperature. However, a
worthwhile to change an analogue signal into a the regeneration amplifier returns the digital thermistor is a device that is manufactured in
digital signal. The major advantage is that digital signal various shapes and sizes using the oxides of
signals can deal with ‗noise‘ produced over long Other advantages of using digital signals are: different metals so that there is a significant
distances. All signals, both analogue and digital, • digital signals are compatible with modern change in resistance with temperature. The
become weaker as they travel and they pick up technology and can be stored and processed symbol for a thermistor is shown
electrical noise. The decrease in strength is more easily, for example in a computer or on a
known as attenuation, and can be corrected by compact disc (CD);
amplifying the signal at regular intervals during • digital electronic systems are, in general, more
long-distance transmission. Noise is electrical reliable and easier to design and build;
interference, caused in a number of different • digital signals build in safeguards so that if
ways; by the spark from a car ignition, by induced there is an error in reception it is noticed and Negative temperature coefficient thermistors
voltages from the magnetic fields caused by parts of the signal can be sent again. have a resistance that becomes less as the
currents around the home, by the radio signals temperature of the thermistor rises.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

 A Level Physics Notes

A thermistor is made from semi-conductors. As of the pressure applied to the crystal. The area is negligible, the new resistance will be given
V increases, temperature increases. This polarity of the voltage depends on whether the by
releases more charge carriers (electrons and crystal is compressed or expanded (increase or (R + ΔR) = ρ(L +ΔL) /A,
holes) from the lattice, thus reducing the decrease in the applied pressure).A sound wave where ΔR is the change in the resistance.
resistance of the thermistor. Hence, resistance consists of a series of compressions and Subtracting these two expressions,
decreases as temperature increases. rarefactions. If the wave is incident on a ΔR = ρΔL /A or, ΔR ΔL.
It can be seen that there is a comparatively piezoelectric crystal, a varying voltage across Thus the strain which is proportional to the
large change in resistance with temperature but the crystal will be produced. This voltage can be extension ΔL is also proportional to the change in
this change is non-linear. amplified.The crystal and its amplifier act as a resistance ΔR.
simple microphone. Note that the cross-sectional area A is assumed
Candidates should be able to describe to be constant.
the structure of a metal-wire strain Candidates should be able to show an
gauge and relate extension of a strain understanding that the output from
gauge to change in resistance of the sensing devices can be registered as a
gauge. voltage.
A strain gauge is made by sealing a length of very It was stated that a sensing device is usually
fine wire in a small rectangle of thin plastic, as connected to an electrical circuit. This circuit is
Candidates should be able to show an shown designed to provide a voltage that will control an
understanding of the action of a output device .Where a sensing device gives rise Page
piezo-electric transducer and its to a change in resistance, this change in 90
application in a simple microphone. resistance can be converted into a voltage
A transducer is any device that converts energy change using a potential divider.The cell of e.m.f.
from one form to another.Piezo-electric crystals E and negligible internal resistance is connected
such as quartz have a complex ionic structure. When the plastic is stretched (the plastic
in series with a fixed resistor of resistance
When the crystal is unstressed, the centres of experiences a strain), the wire will also be
and the sensing device of resistance R2. The
charge of the positive and the negative ions stretched. This causes the wire‘s length to
output voltage V is given by
bound in the lattice of the piezo-electric crystal increase and its cross-sectional area to decrease
coincide. If, however, pressure is applied to the slightly. Both these changes cause the resistance
crystal, the crystal will distort and the centres of the wire to increase. Strain gauges are usually
of charge for the positive and negative ions will glued very securely to the material that is under
no longer coincide. A voltage will be generated test.The resistance R of a wire of length L and
across the crystal. The effect is known as the of uniform cross-sectional area A is given by the
piezo-electric effect. Electrical connections can expression R = ρL /A, where ρ is the resistivity
be made to the crystal if opposite sides of the of the material of the wire.
crystal are coated with a metal.The magnitude of Assuming that, when the wire extends by a small
the voltage generated depends on the magnitude amount ΔL, the change in the cross-sectional

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

The magnitude of the output voltage V0 at any of the effects of this is to reduce the terminal but it cannot help amplifying any noise that is
particular value of resistance R2 of the sensing p.d. when a current is supplied. The infinite input present in its input.In some applications, the
device is dependent on the relative values of R1 resistance of an op-amp means that no current is change in output voltage from the potential
and R2. A change in R2 will give rise to a change in drawn from the supply, there are no ‗lost volts‘ divider may be small. Any small change can be
V0. If the resistance R2 decreases, then the and the input voltage to the op-amp is as large as amplified using an electrical circuit incorporating
output V0 will also decrease. However, connecting possible. The resistance for an alternating an operational amplifier (op-amp).
the output across the fixed resistor would mean voltage is known as impedance, so the ideal op-  An operational amplifier is an integrated
that V0 increases when R2 decreases. amp has infinite impedance and no current passes circuit of about twenty transistors
Candidates should be able to recall into the input terminals. The input impedance of together with resistors and capacitors,
the main properties of the ideal an op-amp may be as high as 1012 Ω, but 106 Ω is all formed on a small slice of silicon. The
operational amplifier (op-amp). typical. slice is sealed in a package from which
The properties of an ideal op-amp Zero output resistance (or impedance) emerge connections to the external
The ideal op-amp has the following properties. The output from an op-amp is a voltage. The op- circuit. Some of these connections and
Infinite open-loop voltage gain amp is itself acting as a voltage supply to the the op-amp symbol are shown
This means that when the op-amp is used on its next part of a circuit. If the op-amp has zero
own, with no feedback loop, then a small input output resistance it is acting just like an
signal will become an ‗infinite‘ output signal. electrical battery with zero internal resistance.
Clearly this is not possible (the output cannot This means that there will be no ‗lost volts‘ when
exceed the supply voltage) and at its maximum current is supplied by the op-amp. A typical op- Page
output the amplifier is said to be saturated with amp has an output resistance of 75 Ω. 91
output value +Vs or −Vs. However, when a Infinite bandwidth
feedback loop is applied, the overall gain of the The bandwidth of an op-amp is the range of
circuit is reduced to a sensible value. The infinite frequencies that are amplified by the same
open-loop voltage gain makes sure that signals of amount. The ideal op-amp will amplify signals of
a wide range of frequencies have the same gain all frequencies and should have an infinite
when the feedback is applied. A typical op-amp bandwidth. However, in some op-amps the
has an open loop gain of 105 but this can be much bandwidth can be as low as a few kilohertz.
When connected to appropriate power supplies,
higher. Infinite slew rate
an op-amp produces an output voltage Vout that is
Infinite input resistance (or impedance) An ideal op-amp should change the output
proportional to the difference between the
The input to an op-amp is a voltage. If, for immediately the input is changed. The slew-rate
voltage V+ at the non-inverting input and the
example, a piezo-electric microphone is measures the time delay between input and
voltage V- at the inverting input.
connected to the op-amp, then the microphone is output and an infinite slew rate means that there
Vout = A0 (V+ – V-),
acting as the voltage supply.It acts just like an is no time delay.
where A0 is the open-loop gain of the op-amp.
electrical battery but the voltage it produces Zero noise contribution
The real operational amplifier (op-amp) has
changes with time. Any voltage supply has an Any signal includes a small amount of noise. The
the following properties:
internal resistance. You may remember that one ideal op-amp should not produce any noise itself,

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

high input impedance (i.e. very little The terminal characteristics of the ideal op
current enters or leaves either of the amp satisfy four conditions. These are as
inputs); In practice, the input impedance follows:
is usually between 105Ω and 1012 Ω The current in each input lead is zero.
high open-loop gain (i.e. if there is only The output voltage is independent of
a very slight difference between the the output current.
input voltages, the output will be The voltage gain A is independent of
saturated - the output will have the It is usual to connect a potential divider to each frequency.
same value as the supply voltage); The of the two inputs. One potential divider provides The voltage gain A is very large,
open-loop gain is usually about 105Ω a fixed voltage at one input while the other approaching infinity in the limit. The
for constant voltages. potential divider provides a voltage dependent on first condition implies that the
low output impedance (i.e. the whole of light intensity. resistance seen looking into both input
the output voltage is provided across In the diagram, the resistors of resistance R will terminals is infinite. The second implies
the output load); give rise to a constant voltage of ½VS at the that the voltage gain is independent of
very high bandwidth (i.e. all frequencies inverting input.The LDR, of resistance RLDR is the output current. This is equivalent to
are amplified by the same factor); connected in series with a fixed resistor of the condition that the output resistance
very high slew rate (i.e. there is no resistance F. is zero. The third implies that the
delay between changes in the input and If V-> V +, the output is negative and bandwidth is infinite. The fourth implies
consequent changes in the output). The the opamp is an inverting opamp. that the difference voltage between Page
slew rate (about 10Vμs-1) and If V- V +, the output is positive and the two input terminals must approach 92
bandwidth are not infinite. the amplifier acts as a non-inverting zero if the output voltage is finite.
Candidates should be able to deduce, from opamp. For it to act as an amplifier, the op amp must
the properties of an ideal operational If V- V +,then the output is zero have feedback applied from its output to its
amplifier, the use of an operational and there is no amplification inverting input. That is, part of the output
amplifier as a comparator. It can be seen that by suitable choice of the voltage must be sampled by a network and fed
The opamp as a comparator resistance , the comparator gives an output, back into the inverting input. This makes it
The circuit incorporating the op-amp compares either positive or negative, that is dependent on possible to design an amplifier so that its gain is
the two inputs and is known as a comparator. light intensity. The light intensity at which the controlled by the feedback network.When an
A comparator for use with an LDR is shown circuit switches polarity can be varied if the operational amplifier is used in a circuit, it is
resistor of resistance F is replaced with a usually connected to a dual, or split, power supply.
variable resistor. Such a supply can be thought to be made up of
The LDR could be replaced by other sensors to two sets of batteries, as shown
provide alternative sensing devices. For example,
use of a thermistor could provide a frost-warning
device.
Transfer characteristics
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

V+ = 3.652 V ; V-= 3.654 V The overall voltage gain of the amplifier with
solution
feedback is then given by
Substituting,
Vout = 105 × (3.652 – 3.654) = –200 V If the fraction β is negative, then the
Again, the amplifier will be saturated denominator must be greater than unity. This
and the output will be –6.0 V. produces an amplifying system with an overall
The examples show that, unless the two inputs gain that is smaller than the open-loop gain A0 of
are almost identical, the amplifier is the op-amp itself.
The common link between the two sets of
saturated. Furthermore, the polarity of the This can be achieved by feeding back part of the
batteries is termed the zero-volt, or earth, line.
output depends on which input is the larger. output to the inverting input, as illustrated
This forms the reference line from which all
Candidates should be able to show an
input and output voltages are measured.
understanding of the effects of
Connecting the supplies in this way enables the
negative feedback on the gain of an
output voltage to be either positive or negative.
operational amplifier.
The diagram shows an input V – connected to the
The process of taking some, or all, of the output
inverting input and an input V + connected to the
of the amplifier and adding it to the input is
non –inverting input. The output voltage Vout of
known as feedback. The basic arrangement is
the op-amp is given by
illustrated
Vout = A0 (V + – V -), where A0 is the open-loop Page
gain (typically 105 for d.c. voltages).
93
Consider the examples below.
Example 1: Calculate the output p.d given Although negative feedback may seem to make
the following information: +V S= the process of amplification rather fruitless,
+9.0 V;-VS = –9.0 V there are some important reasons for using
V + = 1.4 V ;V – = 1.3 V negative feedback. The reduction in amplification
solution A fraction β of the output voltage of the is a small price to pay for the benefits. These
Substituting into the above equation, amplifier is fed back and added to the input benefits include
Vout = 105 (1.4 – 1.3) = 10 000 V voltage. an increase in the range of frequencies
Obviously, this answer is not possible The amplifier itself amplifies by an amount A0 over which the gain is constant
because, from energy considerations, whatever voltage is present at its input. (increased bandwidth),
the output voltage can never exceed its The output voltage Vout is given by less distortion,
power supply voltage. The output voltage Vout = A0 × (input to amplifier) greater operating stability.
will be 9.0 V. The amplifier is said to be = A0 × (Vin + βVout). Less noise
saturated. Re-arranging, Vout (1 – A0 β) = A0 × Vin.
Example 2: +ve supply line = +6.0 V;–ve
supply line = –6.0 V

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

current in the input resistor Rin is Iin

and the current in the feedback
When an op-amp is connected as an inverting resistor Rf is If , then Iin = - If because
amplifier : point P is at 0 V:
the non-inverting input (+) is connected
to the 0 V line;
part of the output voltage (or signal) is In order that the amplifier is not saturated, the
connected to the inverting input (−); two input voltages must be almost the same. The
the input voltage (or signal) is connected input impedance of the op-amp itself is very
Candidates should be able to recall to the inverting input. large and so there is no current in either the non
the circuit diagrams for both the To understand how the inverting amplifier works, inverting or the inverting inputs. This means that
inverting and the non-inverting you need to understand the concept of the the current from, or to, the signal source must
amplifier for single signal input. virtual earth approximation. In this go to, or from, the output.The negative sign
Candidates should be able to show an approximation the potential at the inverting input shows that when the input voltage is positive
understanding of the virtual earth (−) is very close to 0 V. Why is this true? There then the output voltage is negative and when the
approximation and derive an expression are two steps in the argument. input is positive the output is negative. If the
for the gain of inverting amplifiers. The op-amp multiplies the difference in input voltage is alternating then there will be a
Candidates should be able to recall potential between the inverting and non- phase difference of 180° or π rad between the
and use expressions for the voltage inverting inputs, V- and V+ , to produce input and the output voltages. Page
gain of inverting and of non-inverting the output voltage Vout. Because the The non-inverting amplifier 94
amplifiers. open-loop voltage gain is very high, the
In order to simplify the analysis of the circuits, difference between V - and V + must be
the power supplies to the op-amps have not been almost zero.
shown.It is assumed that the op-amps are not The non-inverting input (+) is connected
saturated. to the zero volt line so V + = 0. Thus V −
The inverting amplifier must be close to zero and the inverting
The circuit for an inverting amplifier is shown input (−) is almost at earth potential. Because the
Point P is known as a virtual earth. It inverting input is at zero volts, a positive input
cannot actually be 0 V but it is very gives rise to a positive output and vice versa.
close to 0 V. This approximation is true This is why the arrangement is given the name
as long as the op-amp is not saturated non-inverting amplifier.
and for frequencies where the open- Referring to the diagram, since the input
loop voltage gain is high.The virtual resistance of the op-amp is infinite,current in Rin
earth approximation can be used to find = current in Rf and the input p.d is provided by
an expression for the gain of an the potential divider as
inverting amplifier, as follows. If the

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Rearranging we get be used to write V0 = −(RF /R1 ) Vin . It follows by A light-emitting diode (LED) is a diode that emits
The voltage follower superposition that the total output voltage is light only when it is forward biased. LEDs are
given by available that emit different colours of light,
Candidates should be able to show an including red, green, yellow and amber. They are
understanding of the use of relays in commonly used as ‗indicators‘ because they have a
electronic circuits. low power consumption. Furthermore, since LEDs
Circuits incorporating op-amps produce an output are solid-state devices, they are much more
An intuitive grasp of op amps in feedback can be
voltage. This output voltage can be used to robust than filament lamps.
found by examining the voltage follower circuit
operate warning lamps, digital meters, motors A resistor is frequently connected in series with
shown. The input voltage is applied at the plus
etc. However, the output of an op-amp cannot an LED so that, when the LED is forward biased
terminal while the output voltage is fed back into
exceed a current of more than about 25 mA. (the diode is conducting), the current is not so
the minus terminal. The voltage follower will
Otherwise, the op-amp would be destroyed. In large as to damage the LED. A typical maximum
replicate the input voltage at its output while
fact, op-amps generally contain an output forward current for an LED is 20 mA.
isolating disturbances at the output from
resistor so that, should the output be ‗shorted‘, Furthermore, the LED will be damaged if the
affecting the input. The voltage follower circuit
the op-amp will not be damaged. In order that reverse bias voltage exceeds about 5 V. An LED
functions in the follow way: if the negative
electronic circuits may be used to switch on and is essentially a modified junction diode (or p-n
terminal (also the output) is lower than the
off appliances that require large currents to diode) so that it gives out light when current
positive terminal, the gain of the amplifier will
operate them, a relay may be used. A relay is an flows through it.
make the output more positive and thereby Page
electromagnetic switch that uses a small current The device only allows current to flow in one
bringing the negative terminal closer to the
to switch on or off a larger current. The small direction. 95
positive terminal. If the negative terminal is
current energises an electromagnet that
above the positive terminal, the gain of the
operates contacts, switching on or off the larger
amplifier will make the output more negative and
current.
thereby bringing the negative terminal closer to
The symbol for a relay is shown
the positive terminal. From this crude analysis, it
is possible to see that regardless of the output
starts higher or lower than the input, the
feedback mechanism will make the output
approach the input voltage. On the I-V curve, the top right quadrant shows
The Inverting Summing amplifier how a very small forward p.d. causes the diode to
The inverting summer is the basic op amp circuit conduct. There is a high current for a small p.d.
that is used to sum two or more signal voltages, increase. The bottom left quadrant shows what
to sum a dc voltage with a signal voltage, etc. An happens when the diode is reverse biased.
Candidates should be able to show an
inverting summer with three inputs is shown Notice for increasing p.d. there is a constant
understanding of the use of light-emitting
below. If all inputs are grounded except the V1 'leakage current'. This is very small, being of
diodes (LEDs) as devices to indicate the state
input, the equation for the inverting amplifier can the order of micro-amps. There comes a point
of the output of electronic circuits.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

when the p.d. is so high that 'breakdown' occurs. outputs and inputs are represented by 1 and 0,
A large current passes and the diode is respectively, and are referred to as logic levels
destroyed. To avoid this, an LED always has a 1 and 0.
'limiting resistor' placed in series to limit the a) NOT gate or inverter
current.The level of current designed for is just This is the simplest gate, with one input and one
enough to trigger light from the device. output. It produces a ‗high‘ output if the input is
Candidates should be able to show an ‗low‘, i.e. the output is then NOT high, and vice
understanding of the need for calibration versa. Whatever the input, the gate inverts it.
where digital or analogue meters are used as The symbol and truth table are given in the table
output devices. below.
An LED may be used to indicate whether an b) OR, NOR, AND, NAND gates
output is positive or negative. If the output is All these have two or more inputs and one output.
from a comparator, then LEDs can give The truth tables and symbols for 2-input gates
information as to, for example, whether a are shown in the diagrams below. Try to
temperature is above or below a set value. remember the following.
However, the LED does not give a value of the OR: output is 1 if input A OR input B OR
temperature reading. Many sensors, for example, both are 1
a thermistor or an LDR, are non-linear. It was NOR: output is 1 if neither input A NOR Logic gate control systems
seen in that the sensor could be connected into a input B is 1 Page
Logic gates can be used as processors in
potential divider circuit so that the output of the AND: output is 1 if input A AND input B electronic
96
potential divider varied with some property, for are 1 control systems. Many of these can be
example temperature or light intensity. This NAND: output is 1 if input A AND input B demonstrated by connecting together commercial
variable voltage could be measured using an are modules
analogue or a digital voltmeter. NOT both 1 a) Security system
Digital electronics Note from the truth tables that the outputs of A simple system that might be used by a jeweller
Logic gates the NOR and NAND gates are the inverted to protect an expensive clock as shown below .
Logic gates are switching circuits used in outputs of the OR and AND gates, respectively. The clock sits on a push switch which sends a 1 to
computers and other electronic systems. They They have a small circle at the output end of the NOT gate, unless the clock is lifted when a 0
‗open‘ and give a ‗high‘ output voltage, i.e. a signal their symbols to show this inversion. is sent. In that case the output from the NOT
(e.g. 5 V), depending on the combination of gate is a 1 which rings the bell.
voltages at their inputs, of which there is usually b) Safety system for a machine operator
more than one.There are five basic types, all A safety system could prevent a machine (e.g. an
made from transistors in integrated circuit form. electric motor) from being switched on before
The behaviour of each is described by a truth another switch had been operated, for example,
table showing what the output is for all possible by a protective safety guard being in the correct
inputs. ‗High‘ (e.g. 5 V) and ‗low‘ (e.g. near 0 V) position. In the diagram, when switches A and B
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

are on, they supply a 1 to each input of the AND 5 Give warning if the temperature of a room much faster and can respond to a wider range of
gate which can then start the motor. falls during the day and also allow a test switch signals than other systems.
c) Heater control system to check the alarm works. b) Some areas of impact
The heater control has to switch on the heating 6 Give warning of frosty conditions at night to a At home devices such as washing machines,
system when it is: gardener who is sometimes very tired after a burglar alarms, telephones, cookers and sewing
(i) cold, i.e. the temperature is below a certain hard day and may want to switch off the alarm. machines contain electronic components. Central
value and the output from the temperature ●Electronics and society heating systems and garage doors may have
sensor is 0, and Electronics is having an ever-increasing impact on automatic electronic control. For home
(ii) daylight, i.e. the light sensor output is 1. all our lives. Work and leisure are changing as a entertainment, DVD players, interactive digital
With these outputs from the sensors applied to result of the social, economic and environmental televisions or computers with internet
the processor in the diagram, the AND gate has influences of new technology. connections and electronic games are finding
two 1 inputs. The output from the AND gate is a) Reasons for the impact their way into more and more homes.
then 1 and will turn on the heater control. Why is electronics having such a great impact? Medical services have benefited greatly in
Any other combination of sensor outputs Some of the reasons are listed below. recent years from the use of electronic
produces a 0 output from the AND gate, as you (i) Mass production of large quantities of instruments and appliances. Electrocardiograph
can check. semiconductor devices (e.g. ICs) allows them to (ECG) recorders for monitoring the heart,
d) Street lights be made very cheaply. ultrasonic scanners for checks during pregnancy,
A system is required that allows the street lights (ii) Miniaturisation of components means that gamma ray scanners for detecting tumours,
either to be turned on manually by a switch at even complex systems can be compact. hearing aids, heart pacemakers, artificial Page
any time, or automatically by a light sensor when (iii) Reliability of electronic components is a kidneys, limbs and hands with electronic control 97
it is dark. The arrangement in Figure 42.8a feature of well-designed circuits. There are no and ‗keyhole‘ surgery are some examples.
achieves this since the OR gate gives a 1 output moving parts to wear out and systems can be In industry microprocessor-controlled equipment
when either or both of its inputs are 1. robust. is taking over. Robots are widely used for car
●Problems to solve (iv) Energy consumption and use of natural assembly work, and to do dull, routine, dirty jobs
Design and draw block diagrams for logic control resources is often much less than for their such as welding and paint spraying. In many cases
systems to indicate how the following jobs could non-electronic counterparts. For example, the production lines and even whole factories, such
be done. If possible build them using modules. transistor uses less power than a relay. as sugar refineries and oil refineries, are almost
1 Allow a doorbell to work only during the day. (v) Speed of operation can be millions of times entirely automated. Computer-aided design (CAD)
2 Give warning when the temperature of a greater than for other alternatives of products is increasing even in the clothing
domestic hot water system is too high or when a (e.g.mechanical devices). industry. Three-dimensional printers programmed
switch is pressed to test the alarm. (vi) Transducers of many different types are by CAD files can now produce solid objects in a
3 Switch on a bathroom heater when it is cold available for transferring information in and out variety of materials for use as prototypes or
and light. of an electronic system. components in industries ranging from aerospace
4 Sound an alarm when it is cold or a switch is To sum up, electronic systems tend to be to entertainment.
pressed. cheaper, smaller, more reliable, less wasteful, In offices, banks and shops computers are
used for word processing, data control and

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

communications via email: text, numbers and The availability of home computers and games transmission, storage and processing of
pictures are transmitted by electronic means, consoles in recent years has enabled a huge information.
often by high-speed digital links. Cash dispensers market in computer games and home-learning Schmitt Trigger
and other automated services at banks are a resources to develop. Positive feedback is often used with comparator
great convenience for their customers. Bar codes c) Consequences of the impact circuits. The feedback is applied from the output
(like the one on the back cover of this book) on Most of the social and economic consequences of to the non-inverting input of the op amp. This is
packaged products are used by shops for stock electronics are beneficial but a few cause in contrast to the circuits covered in the
control in conjunction with a bar code reader problems. preceding sections of this paper where feedback
(which uses a laser) and a data recorder An improved quality of life has resulted from is applied to the inverting input. This circuit
connected to a computer. A similar system is the greater convenience and reliability of shown gives the circuit diagram of an inverting op
operated by libraries to record the issue and electronic systems, with increased life amp comparator with positive feedback. The
return of books. Libraries provide electronic expectancy and leisure time, and fewer dull, circuit is also called a Schmitt trigger. It is
databases and internet facilities for research. repetitive jobs. named after Otto H. Schmitt who was a graduate
Communications have been transformed. Better communication has made the world a student when he invented it in 1934.
Satellites enable events on one side of the world smaller place. The speed with which news can be
to be seen and heard on the other side, as they reported to our homes by radio, television and
happen. Digital telephone and communication the internet enables the public to be better
links, smart phones, tablets, social media and informed.
cloud computing are the order of the day. Databases have been developed. These are Page
Leisure activities have been affected by memories which can store huge amounts of 98
electronic developments. For some people, leisure information for rapid transmission from one Or
means participating in or attending sporting place to another. For example, the police can
activities and here the electronic scoreboard is obtain in seconds, by radio, details of a car they
likely to be in evidence. For the golf enthusiast, are following.Databases raise questions, however,
electronic machines claim to analyse ‗swings‘ and about invasion of privacy and security.
reduce handicaps. For others, leisure means d) The future
listening to music, whose production, recording The only certain prediction about the future is
and listening facilities have been transformed by that new technologies will be developed and
the digital revolution. Electronically synthesised these, like present ones, will continue to have a
music has become the norm for popular considerable influence on our lives. Today the
recordings. The lighting and sound effects in development of ‗intelligent‘ computers is being The input and output voltage waveforms are as
stage shows are programmed by computer. For pursued with great vigour, and voice recognition shown below:
the cinemagoer, special effects in film techniques are already in use. Optical systems,
production have been vastly improved by which are more efficient than electronic ones,
computer-generated animated images are being increasingly developed for data

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

spot oscillates vertically and moves

horizontally at steady speed. If the
timebase is set at 10ms/cm that means
it takes 10 milliseconds to move a cm
horizontally.

Cathode-ray oscilloscopes
Cathode rays are thermionic emissions – if a The period is given by:
metal or metal oxide filament is heated (to about Period = peak-to-peak distance × time base
2000°C for tungsten), electrons can escape it. So control (basically time = distance × speed)
a thermionic emission is made of electrons. The •There is a bright spot on the fluorescent screen Frequency = 1 / period
hot conductor is the cathode (-). The other where the beam of electrons hits it. If you The beam can also be deflected using a
electrode is the anode (+). When the filament deflect the beam, the spot can be moved. If the magnetic field
(cathode) is heated, a current flows to the spot moves fast enough, it appears to be a line. The charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10-19C. This is
anode. This happens in a vacuum tube (in air the The beam is deflected using 2 sets of deflection Page
called the electronic charge.
electrons would collide with air particles and the plates: 99
filament would burn). A vacuum tube is also called Y-plates move the beam vertically. The
a thermionic diode, as the electrons can only pass amount of vertical movement can be MORDERN PHYSICS
one way. The current can be detected with a increased by turning up the gain control. (A
milli-ammeter. gain control of 5V/cm means the spot is TOPICS
deflected 1cm vertically for every 5 volts  Charged Particles
across the Y-input terminals).  Quantum Physics
-direct current moves the position of  Atomic Structure
the spot  Radioactivity
-alternating current makes the spot  Communication
oscillate vertically CHARGED PARTICLES
X-plates move the beam horizontally, The world of atomic physics is populated by a
controlled by a circuit called a timebase. great variety of particles – electrons, protons,
Simple treatment of cathode-ray oscilloscope -if the timebase is on, the spot moves neutrons, positrons and many more. Many of
A cathode-ray oscilloscope is structured like this horizontally with a steady speed these particles are electrically charged, and so
-if the timebase is on and there is AC their motion is influenced by electric and
voltage across the Y-plates, then the

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

magnetic fields. Indeed, we use this fact to help  The density of air at room temperature
us to distinguish one particle from another.The is negligible compared to density of oil,
tracks curve because the particles are charged so the upthrust due to air is ignored.
and are moving in a magnetic field. The tightly  the electric field in the region between
wound spiral tracks are produced by electrons two parallel plates is constant and has a
which, because their mass is small, are more magnitude given by
dramatically affected by the field.
where V is the electric potential difference
Electrons
between the plates, and d is the separation
 Matter is made up of small particles, between the plates.
 To measure this charge, Millikan made
atoms and molecules etc.
use of the uniform electric field in the  Hence the charge on the oil drop is given
 However from experiments done in the
by, .
region between two oppositely charged
late 19th and early 20th century it was
parallel plates.  The mass m of the oil drop could be
deduced that atoms were made up of
 He charged the plates by connecting found by switching of the electric field
three fundamental sub-atomic particles
each to opposite terminals of a large and measuring the terminal velocity.
Protons, electrons and neutrons
bank of storage batteries whose  The total charge q could therefore be
 There exists a smallest unit of electric
potential difference could be varied. calculated.
charge, called the elementary charge, e,
 Once a mist of oil drops is sprayed  Millikan repeated the experiment over
of which other units are simple
through a small hole in the upper plate in and over, meticulously balancing a Page
multiples, .
a Millikan apparatus, it is possible, by charged oil droplet, measuring its 100
 This was reasoned by Millikan that this
carefully adjusting the potential balancing voltage, and then allowing the
was the charge on an individual electron.
difference between the plates, to droplet to fall under gravity and
Millikan‟s Oil Drop Experiment
―balance‖ a particular droplet that has measuring its terminal speed.
 He assumed that when tiny oil drops are
the same sign as the charge on the lower
sprayed from an atomizer, they become  The list of values he determined for the
plate. total electric charge on each of the
charged by friction.
 When the droplet is balanced, the drops studied contained a significant
 The hypothesis was the total charge on
gravitational force pulling it down equals pattern: all the values were simple
any oil drop would be an integral multiple
the electric force pulling it up. multiples of some smallest value
of elementary charge.
 For a positively charged drop of mass m ( .)
and charge q, the electric force acts  Charge is said to be quantised
upward if the lower plate is positively The Motion of Charged Particles in Electric
charged: Fields
where E is the electric field between the plates.
When the droplet is in balance,

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

 Since the electron gained a y-component  The magnetic force provides the
of velocity there is an increase in the centripetal force.
kinetic energy.
 The work done by the electric force =
Velocity selector
change in kinetic energy of electron
 When a magnetic field and an electric
field are perpendicular to each other in
 A charged particle in a uniform electric The Motion of Charged Particles in Magnetic such a way they produce deflections in
field of field strength E experiences a Fields opposite senses they are called crossed
force FE given by  An electron moving with a velocity v at fields.
right angles to a magnetic field of flux  When the deflecting forces are equal in
 The particle moves with uniform density B experiences a force F, given magnitude, only electrons of a certain
acceleration. by velocity pass through undeflected.
Since E is constant FE is also constant.  The force is perpendicular to both the  This is known as velocity selection.
field direction and the velocity.
Applying Newton‘s second law,
 The force can neither speed up nor slow
 This will be the case for small charged down the electron as it is at right angles. Making v subject formula:
particles (such as ions, electrons, and  Since B, e and v don‘t change the force
protons) where gravitational effects are on the particle has a constant magnitude Determination of specific charge Page
negligible and they are moving between and is directed towards the centre at all 101
two parallel plates in a vacuum. times.
 Consider an electron moving with  The electron is projected in a circular
velocity v, entering an electric field of path at a constant speed.
intensity E which is perpendicular to its
motion.
 The vertical displacement y, of the
electron after time t, is given by:
( )
 The horizontal displacement x, is
unaffected by the field and is given by:

Eliminating t, ( )
The path of the electron is a parabola in the
field.
 A narrow beam of electrons is
accelerated towards a cylindrical anode.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

 When the fields (E and B) are zero the idea of a spectrum from your GCSE course, and The observed lines are of frequency f,
electrons pass through undeflected with the ideas of quantization of energy levels in determined by the energy level gap and derived
hitting the screen at Z. an atom. from the equation ΔE = hf
 The magnetic field between plates is Appearance of Line Spectra N.B. The energy levels may well be given in eV
switched on and adjusted till they hit You will be familiar with the idea of a continuous rather than J, so the figure must be multiplied
point X. spectrum, as produced by a prism. As the name by 1.6 × 10-19 to convert eV to J.
 The magnetic force provides the suggests, line spectra consist not of a continuous Significance of Line spectra
centripetal force. band of different colours, but of discrete, The existence of line spectra provides evidence
separate lines. Each line is of a given frequency for the existence of quantized energy levels in
(wavelength), representative of a particular the atom. Observations of the line spectra for
element. hydrogen – the Lyman, Balmer, Paschen and
B can be calculated from the dimensions of A line spectrum consists of discrete lines, each Bracket Series enabled the energy levels of the
the coil. typical of the element concerned. single electron of the hydrogen atom to be
r is measured directly Observing Line Spectra in the laboratory established and agreement between experimental
v can be determined by switching on the Emission line spectra may be observed in the evidence and predictions of the theory is very
electric field between the plates . laboratory by viewing a discharge tube with a good, thus giving confidence in the theory.
 The electric field is switched on and is diffraction grating. The tube contains a Calculations of the frequencies of lines in
adjusted so that the beam of electrons particular element, e.g., sodium, which, when spectra
operated at appropriate voltage vaporises. The Example: Page
hits Z again, the electric force = the
magnetic force hot vapour emits light. The diffraction grating The ground state for the electron in a 102
allows the spectrum to be viewed, rather like the hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV, the first excited
prism does for a continuous spectrum. state is –3.4eV. Calculate the frequency of
Origin of line spectra the line in the spectrum representing this
An emission line spectrum is produced by a hot transition.
 The ratio is known as specific charge
gaseous element. At high temperatures the Solution
and it has a value electrons of the atoms are excited into higher ΔE = hf, so (13.6 – 3.4) × 1.6 × 10-19 = hf
 The mass of the electron was found to energy levels. When they drop back to a lower f =10.2 × 1.6 × 10-19 = 2.46 × 1015 Hz
be level, the energy is emitted at a specific Absorption Spectra

ATOMIC PHYSICS frequency (wavelength) depending on the energy

gap between the levels, determined by the
If white light (i.e. radiation of all frequencies –
this term is used for the whole EM spectrum, not
Line Spectra equation: just visible light) passes through a cooler vapour,
The purpose of this Factsheet is to explain the ΔE = hf Where then the spectrum observed is of a continuous
appearance, origin and significance of Line ΔE = energy level gap (J), coloured spectrum with dark lines in the positions
Spectra. Before studying the Factsheet, you f = frequency of the observed spectral line (Hz) where the bright lines would have been in an
should make sure that you are familiar with the h = Planck’s constant. emission spectrum. This is known as an absorption
spectrum.The absorption spectrum is formed as

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

the vapour absorbs specific frequencies from Exam Workshop (a) An emission line spectrum consists of
white light. These frequencies are linked to the (a) Describe how you would produce and discrete bright lines against a dark background.
energies required for the electrons to jump into observe an emission line spectrum in the It arises because electrons in the atom cannot
higher excited states. When the electrons later laboratory. (2) take any value of energy, only certain allowable
drop back into lower states, they emit radiation (b) Describe what the spectrum would look levels. In a hot vapour, the electrons are excited
at these same frequencies. However this like. (1) into higher energy levels and when they drop
radiation is emitted in all directions, so the (c) Explain the origin of emission line spectra back to the ground state in stages, the energy
intensity in the orginal direction is reduced. (d) Explain how observation of absorption difference between levels is emitted as a photon
An absorption spectrum consists of dark lines spectra helps to determine the elemental of frequency given by ΔE = hf, where ΔE is the
where the bright lines would have been in an make-up of a star. (4) energy difference, h is Planck’s constant and f
emission spectrum. It is formed when white light Examiner‟s Answers the frequency.
passes through a cooler vapour. (a) You would view a gas discharge lamp with a (b) Both emission and absorption spectra consist
Importance of absorption spectra diffraction grating. of discrete lines at certain frequencies, but the
Observations of the absorption spectra of the (b) The spectrum is a series of discrete bright absorption spectrum has bright lines against a
light from distant stars has been used to lines against a dark background. dark background at the same frequencies which
identify which elements are present in the star. (c) Energy levels for the electrons in the atom the emission spectrum has as bright lines against
The white light passes through the cooler are quantized. When an excited electron drops a dark background. Both occur because of
vapours of the outer layers of the star, forming back from a higher level to a lower level, the electron movement between allowable levels, but
the absorption spectrum. The positions of the energy is emitted as a photon of frequency given emission are due to excited electrons dropping Page
dark lines can be compared with emission spectra by: ΔE = hf. down into lower levels, whereas absorption are 103
of known elements on Earth. (d) Absorption spectra are produced when white due to electrons being excited into higher levels.
Absorption spectra indicate what elements are light passes through a cooler vapour (such as the Emission occurs from hot vapours, whereas
present in stars. atmosphere of a star). Dark lines appear where absorption occurs when white light (all
Doppler Shift of line spectra from distant bright ones would have been in the emission frequencies) passes through cooler vapour.
stars. spectrum for a particular element, so comparison Questions
Known spectral lines are found to be shifted with known element emission spectra identifies 1. What is an emission line spectrum?
slightly towards lower frequencies (Red Shift). the elements. 2. Why does an absorption line spectrum occur
One explanation of this is that the source is Typical Exam Question when white light passes through a cooler vapour?
moving away and the speed of recession can be (a) Decribe the appearance and origin of an 3. How can observation of absorption spectra be
calculated from the theory. This provides emission line spectrum. (5) used to identify the elements present in the
evidence to support the Big Bang theory of the (b) Discus the similarities and differences atmosphere of a star?
origin of the Universe. between emission spectra and absorption 4. (a) What is meant by ―Red Shift‖ of line
Red Shift of line spectra suggests that galaxies spectra. You may be awarded a mark for the spectra?
are moving away from each other, and this clarity of your answer. (5) (b) Explain how the red shift of the line spectra
supports the Big Bang theory of the origin of the Solution of distance galaxies provides evidence to support
Universe. the Big Bang theory.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

5. Explain how emission spectra support the idea are called nucleons. They are bound Some of the alpha particles were deflected
of quantization of energy levels. together by the strong nuclear force. back through large angles. This was not
Electrons – almost mass-less particles expected.
Nuclear Transformations & which orbit the nucleus in shells. A very small number of alpha particles were
Rutherford‟s experiment: deflected backwards! This was definitely not
Binding Energy Thin gold foil is bombarded with alpha particles, as expected.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE which are positively charged. Most passed To explain these results a new model of the
straight through, but few were repelled so atom was needed.
The nuclear atom
strongly that they were bounced back or
An atom is the smallest chemically indivisible
deflected at large angles. Rutherford concluded
part of an element - that means you can't split it
that the atom must be largely empty space, with
by chemical (or physical) means into anything
its positive charge and most of its mass
smaller - it takes a nuclear reaction to do it! The
concentrated in a tiny nucleus.
best model of the atom was known as the
Thomson or "plum pudding" model. The atom was
believed to consist of a positive material
"pudding" with negative "plums" distributed
In this model the positive material is
throughout.
concentrated in a small but massive (lot of mass -
not size) region called the nucleus. The negative Page
particles (electrons) must be around the outside 104
preventing one atom from trespassing on its
Results of the experiment
neighbour‘s space to complete this model.
The Conclusion
Rutherford's alpha particle scattering The fact that the vast majority of the
experiment changed the way we think of atoms. alpha particles got straight through led
He directed beams of alpha particles (which are Rutherford to propose that the atom
the nuclei of helium atoms and hence positively was composed primarily of empty space.
charged) at thin gold foil to test this model and The fact that backscattering occurred
Observations made from the experiment: in 1 in 8000 alpha particles indicated
noted how the alpha particles scattered from the
Most of the fast, highly charged alpha that there was a:
foil.
particles went whizzing straight through  small (that was why so few were
Atomic model: The nuclear atom
undeflected, or deflected through small affected)
•Atoms consist of:
angles.This was the expected result for all  massive (meaning containing lots of mass
A nucleus – the central part of the atom
of the particles if the plum pudding model - he knew the electrons had very little
made of protons (positively charged) and
was correct. mass and the fact that all of the positive
neutrons. These two types of particles
charges were concentrated into a small

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

area meant that the mass was  Two atoms are said to be isotopes of Whenever a reaction occurs and energy is
concentrated there too) each other if they have the same released there is associated decrease in mass.
 positively charged (because it repelled number of protons but different neutron The unified atomic mass unit has an energy
the alpha particles) nucleus in the centre numbers. equivalent of 931 MeV.
of the atom (neutrons had not been  Isotopes have identical chemical Nuclear Binding Energy and Mass Difference
discovered at that time - so he made no properties. Binding Energy
mention of them!).  Various isotopes of an element whose The protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
Quantisation of charge chemical symbol is represented by X are atom are held together by the strong nuclear
Millikan‘s value of e was within 1% of today‘s presented using the usual notation force .So if we imagine splitting a nucleus up into
known value. The fact that his oil drops all had  Where Z and A are proton (atomic) its separate protons and neutrons, it would
charges equal to a multiple of this value number and nucleon (mass) number require energy, because we would need to
suggested that it was something very respectively. overcome the strong nuclear force.
fundamental. It suggested that electric charge is Since energy is being provided, the separated
quantised, that is to say, that charge cannot take Isotopes protons and neutrons must have more energy in
any value; rather, it must have a value which is a : atoms of the same element that have different total than the original nucleus. So if the nucleus
multiple of this fundamental value e. numbers of neutrons e.g. Carbon 12 and Carbon was formed from its constituent particles,
We now know that particles such as protons and 14. energy would be released.
many others from the ‗particle zoo‘ of sub-atomic There are non-radioactive isotopes and Binding energy is the energy released when a
radio-isotopes. Radio isotopes are nucleus is formed from its constituent particles Page
The nucleus unstable atoms, which break down giving Nuclear binding energy is the energy required to 105
The nucleus is composed of protons and radiation. break up the nucleus into its separate nucleons
neutrons.
Proton number: is the number of protons Uses of isotopes OR this can be expressed as the energy released
when the nucleus is formed from separate
in an atom Medical use: cancer treatment (radiotherapy) –
nucleons. The mass of a nucleus is less than the
Nucleon number: the number of nucleons rays kill cancer cells using cobalt-60.
mass of the individual nucleons that make up that
(protons and neutrons) in an atom Industrial use: to check for leaks – radioisotopes
nucleus. The difference in mass is called the
Every atom has a central, positively charged called tracers are added to oil or gas. At the
mass defect of the nucleus ( m).
nucleus. Over 99% of the mass of an atom is in leaks radiation is detected using a Geiger
Mass defect = Mass of nucleons – Mass of
its nucleus. Nuclei are unaffected by chemical counter, (if you need to name an element then
nucleus
reactions.Nuclei contain protons and neutrons say carbon 14 – used for carbon dating).
The relationship between binding energy and
which are collectively referred to as nucleons. Einstein‟s Energy-Mass relation mass difference is given by Einstein's equation:
 The nucleon number also called mass According to his special theory of relativity a E = m c2
b
number, A is the number of protons and mass m is equivalent to an amount of energy E, m is difference between mass of nucleus and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. where: . total mass of nucleons i.e
 The atomic number, Z is the number of c being speed of light≈3 x 108ms-1.
protons in the nucleus of an atom. m = Zmp + (A – Z)mn – m nucleus

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

where: (b) 0.0304u = 0.0304 × 1.66 × 10-27 kg = 5.0464 × degree of stability – it would require a lot of
m = mass difect 10-29 kg energy to take these nuclei apart.
mp= mass of a proton Binding energy (J) = 5.0464 × 10-29 × (3 × 108)2 = If we know the binding energy in a nucleus, and
mn= mass of a neutron 4.542 × 10-12 J the number of nucleons, we can work out the
mnucleus= mass of the formed nucleus Binding energy (eV) = 4.542 × 10-12 /(1.6×10-19 ) = binding energy per nucleon, which is the average
Z = proton number or atomic number 2.84 × 107 eV energy needed to remove each nucleon.
A = nucleon number or mass number So binding energy = 28.4 MeV The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the
Mass defect The mass defect for a reaction may also be more stable is the nucleus.
This relationship between mass and energy means considered; this is the difference between the We can plot a graph of binding energy per
that since a nucleus has less energy than its total mass of the products of the reaction and nucleon against nucleon number and it gives a
separated nucleons, the mass of the nucleus must the total mass of the reactants. The equation smooth curve - with one remarkable anomaly -
be less than that of its constituent particles. E = mc2 can be used to work out the energy helium (4He) the binding energy per nucleon is:
The mass defect of a nucleus is the difference released , once the mass defect is known. Binding energy per nucleon of helium
between the mass of the nucleus, and the mass Since spontaneous nuclear processes always
of its constituent particles. involve energy being given out: This is not where we would expect on the general
The mass defect is related to the binding energy A spontaneous decay process always results in curve.
by: particles with a lower total mass.
Binding energy (J) = mass defect (kg) × c2 Calculation of the energy released in nuclear
All nuclei have a mass defect, apart from processes Page
hydrogen – 1, whose nucleus consists of just a To calculate the energy released in a process, 106
single proton.The graph of mass defect per the mass defect in kilograms should first be
nucleon against atomic number is very similar to calculated, and then the equation E = mc2 used to
the graph of binding energy per nucleon against find the energy released.
atomic number. Binding Energy Per Nucleon
Example. Instead of looking at the total binding energy of
The mass of an alpha particle is 4.00150u. a nucleus, it is often more useful to consider
The mass of a proton is 1.00728u, and the binding energy per nucleon – in other words, the
mass of a neutron is 1.00867u total binding energy divided by the total number
(a) Calculate the mass defect of the alpha of nucleons. For example, for the alpha particle,
particle the total binding energy is 28.4 MeV
(b) Calculate the binding energy of the alpha Since there are four nucleons (two protons and
particle, giving your answer in MeV. two neutrons), the binding energy per nucleon is
(a) Total mass of constituent particles = 2 × 28.4 ÷ 4 = 7.1 MeV.
(1.00728 + 1.00867) = 4.0319u The binding energy per nucleon gives an
So mass defect = 4.0319 – 4.00150 = 0.0304u indication of the stability of the nucleus. A high
binding energy per nucleon indicates a high

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Iron has the one of the highest binding energy fragments.These are often radioactive and their 1 eV = charge on electron in coulombs × 1 volt
per nucleon values - so the graph peaks around subsequent decay accounts for a further 10% of = 1.602 × 10-19 J
A=58 - here we find the most stable nuclei. the energy.The remaining 10% appears as the Since the mass in grammes of one carbon-12
Large nuclei (much greater than iron), i.e. further kinetic energy of the ejected electrons. atom is its atomic mass (12) divided by Avogadro
to the right (greater nucleon number) there are Nuclear fusion number (NA = 6.02 × 1023 ):
less stable the nuclei. This is because the This is the combining of two light nuclei to 1 u = 1.66 × 10-24 g = 1.66 ×10-27 kg
binding energy per nucleon is getting less. These produce a heavier nucleus.Energy is released by Exam Hint: You need to know how to work out
nuclei undergo fission and split to produce the process. the relationship between electronvolts and
products with higher binding energy per nucleon joules, and between unified atomic mass units
values - more stable products.Nuclei of much Energy released by the fusion of 2 nuclei is very and kilograms, but you do not need to
smaller mass than iron we find they have a lower much less than that which results from the remember the actual figures.
binding energy per nucleon. These fuse to fission of a heavier nucleus.However energies As the diagram above shows, the binding energy
produce a heavier nucleus which is more stable - provided per unit mass of reactants by the 2 per nucleon varies considerably between nuclei.
fusion can be shown to be energetically viable processes are much the come.Mass and energy Nuclei near the peak of the curve are the
from the above graph. The product nucleus has a are also conserved in fusion reactions. most stable.
higher binding energy per nucleon than the two Example The curve peaks at iron – 56.
that fuse to form it. It is therefore more stable Calculate the energy released when 10 kg of The graph of binding energy per nucleon
than its constituents. undergoes fission according to: against nucleon number is similar in form.
Page
Nuclear fission Nuclear processes and binding energy
This is the disintegration of a heavy nucleus into Mass: of Processes such as radioactive decay, fission and 107
two lighter nuclei.Energy is released because the of fusion involve the nucleons being rearranged into
average binding energy per nucleon of the of different nuclei. If the new nuclei produced have
products is greater than that of the parent. of a higher binding energy per nucleon, then energy
A nuclide of Uranium when bombarded by is given out. All spontaneously occurring
slow neutrons captures 1 to form which is processes involve energy being given out – i.e. the
Units products have greater binding energy per nucleon
unstable and undergoes fission.
The standard SI units for mass and energy – the than the original nuclei.
One possible reaction is:
kilogram and joule – are too large to use Radioactive decay is a spontaneous process. It
 Mass is conserved conveniently on an atomic scale. Instead, the always involves a less stable (i.e. lower binding
The mass defect appears as energy released by unified atomic mass unit (u) and the energy per nucleon) nucleus decaying to form
Einstein‘s energy mass-relation.The nucleon electronvolt (eV) are used. a more stable nucleus. Energy is therefore always
numbers as well as proton numbers are all 1 electronvolt (eV) is the energy transferred given out in radioactive decay - in alpha-decay,
conserved. to a free electron when it is accelerated for example, this energy is largely in the form of
 Energy is conserved through a potential difference of one volt. the kinetic energy of the alpha particle.
80% of the energy released by the reaction goes It is necessary to be able to convert these to SI Nuclear fission involves a heavy nucleus (such as
into providing kinetic energy for the fission units: uranium) splitting to form two smaller nuclei and

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

some neutrons. The nuclei produced will be amount of energy as the combustion of about the neutrons produced have to be
nearer the peak of the graph – so energy is 25000 kg of coal. slowed down.
released. Fission can only occur with nuclei to the Fission  Naturally occurring uranium contains
right of the peak. Fission of uranium – 235 is used to produce only a small proportion of U-235; the
Nuclear fusion involves small nuclei joining power. In this reaction, a neutron hits the U-235 commonest isotope, U-238, absorbs
together to form a larger one – again, some nucleus, which then splits to produce two smaller neutrons without undergoing fission. So
neutrons are usually produced as well. The nuclei, more neutrons and energy (mainly in the the proportion of U-235 needs to be
nucleus produced will always be nearer the peak form of kinetic energy of the daughter nuclei and increased before uranium can be used
of the graph – so again, energy is released. Fusion neutrons). The smaller nuclei formed may vary; as fuel.• The fuel rods are made of
can only occur with nuclei to the left of the peak. The number of neutrons may also vary; it is enriched uranium – that is, natural
Mass-energy equivalence generally two or three, with an average of about uranium with extra U-235 added.
Mass and energy are linked by Einstein‘s famous 2.6.  The moderator slows down the
equation: The neutrons given off in the fission of the U- neutrons produced in fission so that
E = mc2, 235 atom may then go on to hit other atoms, they can stimulate further fission. It is
E = energy (J), m = mass (kg) and c = speed of causing them to undergo fission in turn, which made of graphite (or sometimes water).
light ( ≈3 × 108 m/s) produces more neutrons, causing more fission The neutrons are slowed down by their
This equation is most often used in connection etc. This is known as a chain reaction. To collisions with carbon nuclei in the
with a change in mass. It tells us, for example produce power, the chain reaction must be moderator; some of their energy is
that a change in mass of 1kg is equivalent to a maintained, but controlled. To maintain the chain transferred to the moderator, which Page
change in energy of 1 × c2 = 9 × 1016 J. reaction, a minimum of one neutron from each gets hot. The slow neutrons are known 108
Example: Calculate the energy change, in eV, fission reaction should go on to cause another as ―thermal neutrons‖, because they
equivalent to a mass change of 1u fission; to control it, there should not be more move at speeds associated with thermal
1u =1.66 × 10-27 kg than one neutron causing further fission. An motion; they give the thermal reactor
So energy change in J = 1.66 × 10-27 × c2 = 1.49 × uncontrolled chain reaction produces a nuclear its name.
10-10 J bomb.  The control rods are made of a
1 eV = 1.602 × 10-19 J To maintain a controlled chain reaction, the substance, such as boron, that absorbs
So energy change in eV = 9.3× 108eV =931 MeV following problems must be overcome: neutrons. They are used to control the
Fission and fusion  If the amount of fission material is too chain reaction, to ensure too many
Nuclear fission and fusion both release a great small, too many neutrons will escape. neutrons do not cause fission. They can
deal of energy (see previous examples); their use The minimum acceptable amount of be raised or lowered to speed up or slow
as power supplies is therefore of great interest. fission material is called the critical down the reaction.
Both fission and fusion produce a much greater size.  The coolant - usually water or
amount of energy per kilogram of fuel than do  The neutrons required to cause fission pressurized carbon dioxide - is used to
―conventional‖ energy sources such as fossil fuel are slow neutrons, but the neutrons remove energy from the system. The
combustion; for example, the fission of 1 produced by fission are quite fast. So heat generated in the fuel rods is
kilogram of uranium-235 releases the same transferred to the coolant by

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

conduction; this transmits it to the heat Fusion involves two light nuclei combining to form 4. Explain what is meant by nuclear fusion, and
exchanger, where it is used to convert a heavier one, together with energy and one or give two advantages of fusion over fission as an
water to high pressure steam, which is more neutrons. It is the process which produces energy source.
used to drive a turbine to produce energy in the sun. One such reaction involves the 5. decays by alpha-emission to give thorium.
electricity. fusion of deuterium (hydrogen-2) and tritium Calculate the energy emitted, giving your answer
 The concrete shielding absorbs the (hydrogen-3) nuclei to form a helium nucleus, a in MeV.
nuclear radiation; it is necessary neutron and energy:Fusion reactors are not yet in (Masses: U-238= 238.0508u; Th-234=234.0437u;
because of the danger nuclear radiation existence; it is much more difficult to achieve He-4=4.0026u)
poses to living creatures. and control fusion than fission. This is because it 1u = 1.661× 10-27 kg; c = 3.0 × 108 m/s
There are environmental hazards associated is necessary to overcome the repulsion between Answers
with nuclear reactors; they include: the nuclei. This requires a very high temperature 1 – 4 can be found in the text.
If radioactive gases or dust escape into – 100 million K or above. Normal containers 5. Mass defect = (238.0508 – 234.0437 –
the atmosphere, they can be readily cannot hold anything as hot as this; containing 4.0026_u = 0.0045u
absorbed by humans and animals via this material by magnetic fields is one possibility. Mass defect = 0.0045 × 1.66 × 10-27=7.47×10-30 kg
food, water or breathing. Fusion has a number of advantages: Energy =7.47 × 10-30kg ×c2=6.723 × 10-13J
Used, ―spent‖ fuel rods contain many Fusion is a more productive energy Energy in eV=6.723×10-13/1.602 × 10-19
radioactive decay products; accordingly source than fission per kilogram of = 4.20 × 106 eV = 4.20 MeV
they must be stored securely to material.
prevent their being a hazard. Some of The raw materials for fusion can be QUANTUM PHYSICS Page
these decay products have very long obtained from sea water. 109
half-lives, and hence must be stored for The waste products are not
thousands of years. radioactive.
If the chain reaction in a fission Uncontrolled chain reactions cannot
reactor is not controlled, the reactor develop.
may act as a bomb. Questions
The benefits of fission reactors include: 1. Explain what is meant by binding energy and
A great deal of energy is produced from mass defect, and state an equation connecting
a small amount of fuel them.
Fission does not produce the gaseous 2. Sketch the curve of binding energy per
waste products (carbon dioxide, nitrogen nucleon against proton number, and explain how it
and sulphur oxides) associated with can be used to predict which atoms will undergo
combustion of fossil fuel. fission and which will undergo fusion.
Suitable fuel is not in such short supply 3. Explain the principles of operation of a
as fossil fuels. thermal reactor. Quantum theory is used to explain interactions
Fusion between matter and energy on the extremely
small scale of atoms and sub-atomic particles.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

The theory has some basic points: k is Boltzmann constant (k= 1.38 10-23 Joules K-1). in 1879. He found experimentally that the total
 energy comes in small, discrete units An example of a body in equilibrium with power per unit area emitted at all frequencies by
called photons radiation would be an oven with closed walls at a a hot solid, etotal , was proportional to the fourth
 elementary particles behave both like fixed temperature and the radiation within the power of its absolute temperature. Therefore,
particles and like waves oven cavity. To say that radiation is in thermal Stefan‘s law may be written as
 particle motion is random. equilibrium with the oven walls means that the ∫
 uncertainty: particle position and radiation has exchanged energy with the walls where is the power per unit area emitted
momentum cannot be known at the same many times and is homogeneous, isotropic, and at the surface of the blackbody at all
time unpolarized. In fact, thermal equilibrium of frequencies, ef is the power per unit area per
Blackbody radiation radiation within a cavity can be considered to be unit frequency emitted by the blackbody, T is
At room temperature, black bodies emit IR light, quite similar to the thermal equilibrium of a fluid the absolute temperature of the body, and is
but as the temperature increases past a few within a container held at constant the Stefan–Boltzmann constant , given by
hundred degrees Celsius, black bodies start to temperature—both will cause a thermometer in
emit at visible wavelengths, from red, through the center of the cavity to achieve a final A body that is not an ideal radiator will obey the
orange, yellow, and white before ending up at stationary temperature equal to that of the same general law but with a coefficient, a, less
blue, beyond which the emission includes container. Equation 3.2 shows that the power than 1:
increasing amounts of UV emitted per unit area per unit frequency by a Only 5 years later another impressive
blackbody depends only on temperature and light confirmation of Maxwell‘s electromagnetic
frequency and not on the physical and chemical theory of light occurred when Boltzmann derived Page
makeup of the blackbody, in agreement with Stefan‘s law from a combination of 110
Wedgwood‘s early observation. thermodynamics and Maxwell‘s equations.
Because absorption and emission are connected Planck's Quanta
by Kirchhoff‘s theorem, we see that a blackbody Max Planck (1901) first proposed the idea that
or perfect absorber is also an ideal radiator. In light was emitted as discrete packets of energy
practice, a small opening in any heated cavity, called quanta. He also showed that each packet
such as a port in an oven, behaves like a (quantum) had energy given by the equation:
blackbody because such an opening traps all where,
incident radiation. If the direction of the E = energy (J)
Radiation is emitted when a solid after receiving radiation is reversed the light emitted by a small h = Planck's constant, 6.626 x 10-34 Js
energy goes back to the most stable state opening is in thermal equilibrium with the walls, f = frequency of light radiation (Hz, s-1)
(ground state). The energy associated with the because it has been absorbed and re-emitted However, Einstein, as part of his photo-electric
radiation is the difference in energy between many times. effect theory, described these quanta as
these 2 states. When T increases, the average The next important development in the quest to streams of particles, which he termed photons.
E*Mean is higher and intensity increases. understand the universal character of the Einstein's Photo-Electric Effect Theory
E*Mean- E = kT. radiation emitted by glowing solids came from
the Austrian physicist Josef Stefan (1835–1893)

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

Observations Radiation intensity is proportional to the

Emission of photo-electrons only occurs resulting maximum electron kinetic
if the frequency of incident radiation energy.
exceeds a minimum value called the (radiation intensity) (maximum electron kinetic
'threshold frequency'. Threshold energy)
frequency is the minimum frequency of The effect should occur for any
The theory considers a beam of light as a stream the incident radiation which results in frequency of light
of photons, each with energy hf. emission of an electron. There is a delay between the radiation
What is meant by 'the intensity of The emission of photo-electrons starts contact with the surface and the first
light'? immediately the surface becomes release of electrons.
Consider photons emitted from a point source. irradiated (provided the frequency of Einstein's photo-electric effect equation
The sphere around the point, where the photons the radiation is above the thresh-hold describes this process in more detail:
arrive, enlarges with distance from the point. So frequency).
at large distances, the photons are spread out If the incident radiation has a frequency
over a large area. Note there is no diminution of Note this involves the maximum electron kinetic
above the thresh-hold frequency:
photon energy, whatever the distance travelled. energy.
(no. electrons emitted/sec.) (radiation
Intensity (I) beam of light (number of Many electrons emerge from the
intensity)
photons/m2/second.) surface with less than the maximum
Increasing the frequency of the incident
Einstein's big idea, in essence, was that when a energy. This is a result of energy lost in Page
radiation has the effect of increasing
photon collides with an electron there are two collisions before they are free. 111
the kinetic energy of all emitted
possible outcomes: 0 is called the 'work function' of the
electrons. Hence the maximum kinetic
1. the photon reflects from the electron with surface and is dependent on the
energy an electron may have is increased
no energy transfer material.
by increasing frequency.
2. the photon is absorbed by the electron and Thus the fact that there must be a
Radiation intensity is independent of
gives up ALL its energy to it minimum frequency for electron emission
electron kinetic energy. The kinetic
So there is no question of one photon sharing is implicit.
energy of electrons is solely controlled
energy with more than one electron. If there is not enough energy
by the radiation frequency.
 intensity of light (no. of electrons available to release an electron.
Wave Theory predictions
emitted by a surface) or more Classical wave theory predicts that
 However, the particular frequency for an
accurately, electron to be released is given by:
energy is carried in the wave-front.
So when a photon arrives at the surface, Electrons absorb the energy from the
where fo is the threshold frequency.
an electron is emitted instantaneously. wave until the level exceeds the work
 Using c=foλo and substituting for fo = c/λo
The photon energy received is used to function. Electrons are then released
, the threshold wavelength λo is given by:
overcome the forces holding the from the surface of the metal.
electron within the surface and to give it Three main predictions come from this
kinetic energy to escape. classical explanation: Millikan's apparatus - stopping potential
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

substituting for KE, Wave-particle duality

rearranging into the form for a straight line ' y =  The reflection and refraction of light
mx + c ' are satisfactorily explained on the basis
of light being a wave motion.
This relationship can be illustrated as in the
following straight –line graph
 Light can be diffracted and can produce
interference patterns-convincing
evidence it is a wave motion.
 This wave model does not however
explain the photoelectric effect, and
light here is attributed a particulate
nature.
In 1916 Millikan devised a series of experiments  These ideas of light being a wave and a
that completely vindicated Einstein's theory. He stream of particles are two different
found that altering the potential between the models but neither can be a literal
surface and the electron collector-electrode, description of what light is.
altered the 'electron current'.When a small The De Broglie Equation
positive potential was applied to the metal, only  In 1924 Louis de Broglie proposed that
electrons with enough KE escaped to impact on matter also had a wave nature.
 He proposed that any particle of
Page
the collector electrode. The remainder were For different materials, a plot of V against
pulled back to the surface. So only a small frequency f is a straight line, with intercepts on momentum p has an associated 112
electric current was detected at the electrode. the V-axis and the f-axis. wavelength λ (the De Broglie
With increased positive potential, the electron intercept on V-axis ( f = 0 ) is: wavelength), given by:
current was reduced. Eventually there came a Where m is the particle‘s mass and v its velocity.
point when the current reduced to zero. This  The relation was verified by Davisson and
intercept on the f-axis (V = 0 ) is:
corresponded to electrons with the maximum KE Germer in 1927 by electron diffraction in
being stopped from reaching the collector. This crystals.
p.d. between both electrodes is called the where fo is the threshold frequency Electron diffraction
stopping potential V.We can now integrate gradient is given by :  X-rays waves have a wavelength of the
'stopping potential' into the photo-electric order of 10-11 m travelling at the speed
Notes
effect equation.The work done by an electron in of light at approximately 3 x 108 ms-1.
1. for different materials the graph has the
moving against the 'stopping potential'(ie against  Wavelength of particles depends on
same gradient but different intercepts
the 'electric field' ) is equal to the maximum KE velocity, which is variable.
2. measurements of 0 (the work function)
of the electron.  So as an example let's take an electron
can be made
from Einstein's photo-electric effect equation: 3. measurements of h (Planck's constant) can travelling at 10% the speed of light.
be made me = 9.1×10-31kg v = 3 x 107 ms-1

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

h = 6.6×10-34 J.s  An electron in an atom has a number of Energy levels for atomic hydrogen
using the De Broglie equation, separated energy values or energy levels.
 Energy levels are characteristic of the
atom.
 An electron cannot have any energy value
between these levels.
 The electron wavelength travelling at  The energy of an electron is quantised.
10% the speed of light has  In the energy level diagram (below),
approximately the wavelength of X-rays. energies have to be measured relative to
 Shorter wavelengths, approaching that one another.
of gamma rays, can be obtained with  The ground state is the lowest level and
higher electron velocities. ionisation is the highest.
 Diffraction occurs when particles or
waves with wavelength λ comparable with
atomic spacing d, interact with atoms in
crystals.
 At a particular angle θ* waves are
diffracted by atoms in adjacent planes Page
and interfere constructively.  This is a measure of potential energy. 113
 As with transmission diffraction  This is set to zero at infinite distance
gratings, a bright image is only produced from the atomic nucleus or molecule, the
when the path difference is a whole state of an ionised or free electron.
number of wavelengths.  Relative to this state, all the bound
electron states have negative potential
energy and are measured below it
(because they have less energy).
 Note that electron energies are
expressed in electronvolts.
 An electronvolt (eV) is the kinetic
energy acquired by an electron, when
accelerated through a p.d of 1 volt.
 Practically, the incident waves can be Using E=QV the energy is given by
provided by X-rays, electrons or e x 1 = 1.6 x 10-19 Joules.
neutrons.  Quantum numbers are given to each
Electron energy levels energy level. The ground state is n=1,

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

with the n numbers increasing by '1' for  An emission spectrum is the spectrum of A chamber has cold alcohol vapour inside it. The
each level. The highest energy level, radiations emitted by an object which is alpha particles make the vapour condense, so you
where energy is zero, has n= ∞. acting as a source of radiation. see a trail of tiny droplets. It is useful because
Energy level changes  An absorption spectrum is the spectrum it makes the tracks visible.
 When radiant energy is absorbed by a of the radiations transmitted by a
bound electron it is excited into a higher substance which has absorbed some
energy level. Conversely, when an radiation incident on it.
electron falls to a lower level, radiant What is light?
energy is given out. Well, there‘s no simple answer, because it
 Example: an electron moves down from behaves differently in different situations.
level 3 to level 1 and gives out a photon Usually it behaves as a wave – it can be
of light of frequency f. diffracted, reflected and refracted – so we
Spectral lines consider it to be a wave. However, sometimes
 The spectrum of hydrogen it is found to this ‗wave model‘ does not explain what we see –
be composed of distinct spectral groups. for example, when we shine light onto a metal
 If an electron is excited up from the surface, electrons can be released (the
ground state n = 1 to level n = 4, there photoelectric effect). This requires a new
are four possible paths for it to come explanation; that light comes in lumps (quanta), or
back down again to the original state. particles called photons. So depending on what
Page
 If we analyse these transitions/jumps, it experiment we do, light behaves as either a 114
is found that they can be divided ‗wave‘ or a ‗particle‘. Neither explanation by itself
further into six basic types: can describe all that we observe.

Radioactivity
 Each transition involves the emission of
an electromagnetic wave.
 The frequency of the waves is
dependent on the energy level Alpha, Beta and Gamma – the Geiger-
Detection of radioactivity
differences. Müller (GM) tube
•Background radiation: the small amount of
 When there are a large number of atoms The ―window‖ end is thin enough for alpha
radiation around us all the time because of
these different transitions occur particles to pass through. If an alpha particle
radioactive materials in the environment. It
simultaneously. enters the tube, it ionizes the gas inside. This
mainly comes from natural sources such as soil,
 Radiation of many different frequencies sets off a high-voltage spark across the gas and
rocks, air, building materials, food and drink –
is emitted. a pulse of current in the circuit. A beta particle
and even space.
 Spectrum of hydrogen is composed of or gamma radiation has the same effect. It can
light of these frequencies. Detection: be connected to a ratemeter (tells the counts
Types of Spectra Alpha particles – the cloud chamber: per seconds), a scaler (tells the total number of
particles or bursts of gamma radiation) or an
PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA
A Level Physics Notes

amplifier or loudspeaker (makes a click for every nucleus becomes a daughter nucleus and a Safety precautions
particles/burst of radiation. particle (decay products). radioactive stuff is stored in a lead
Words and symbol equations using examples: container, in a locked cabinet
Alpha decay: picked up with tongs, not your feet
An element with a proton number 2 lower and kept away from the body, not pointed at
nucleon number 4 lower, and an alpha particle is people
made (2p + 2n) e.g. left out of its container for as short a
Words: Nuclear Radiation
Radium-226 nucleus (parent nucleus) → Radon-  All nuclear radiation comes from the
222 (daughter nucleus) + helium-4 nucleus (alpha nucleus of an atom.
particle)  It is spontaneous - we cannot make an
Symbols: atom emit a particle of nuclear radiation.
Beta decay: Extreme pressure or temperature has no
Characteristics of the three kinds of emission
A neutron changes into a proton, an electron and effect on the rate of decay of a
an antineutrino so an element with the same substance.
nucleon number (just 1 neutron is now a proton  It is random - we cannot predict how an
but the mass is the same) but with a proton individual atom will behave, only by using
number 1 higher e.g. the mathematics of probability can we
Words: iodine-131 nucleus → xenon-131 nucleus + predict how a proportion of a large
Page
antineutrino + beta particles (electron) number of atoms will behave. 115
Symbols: (antineutrino  There is a background radiation
symbol = v with a horizontal line on top of it) detected in nature due to the presence
Gamma emission: of some radioactive substances in the
With some isotopes, the emission of an alpha or air, soil or water.
beta particle from a nucleus leaves the protons Types of radiation
and neutrons in an ―excited‖ arrangement. As the  There are 3 types of radiation namely,
protons and neutrons rearrange to become more -particles, β-particles and γ-rays.
stable, they lose energy. This is emitted and the  In -emission and β-emission the parent
mass and atomic number are uncharged. nucleus undergoes a change of atomic
Gamma emission by itself causes no change in number becoming a new element.
mass number or atomic number.  This is called the daughter nucleus.
Radioactive decay Half-life  Most times the daughter is in an excited
A radioisotope (an unstable arrangement of •Half-life of a radioisotope: is the time taken for state and reaches the ground state by
neutrons and protons in a nucleus) is altered to half the nuclei present in any given sample to releasing a γ-ray.
make a more stable arrangement. The parent decay.
Some nuclei are more stable than others.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

 The emission of a γ-ray just takes away  When alpha decay occurs a group of two
the energy released in the transition to protons and two neutrons (helium
the ground state. nucleus) comes out of the nucleus.
 The proton number decreases by 2 but
the nucleon number decreases by 4.
 The resulting daughter nucleus is of an
element 2 positions to the left of the
'parent' in the periodic table.

 The above equation shows the

radioactive decay of Uranium-238 by
alpha emission.
 Generally it can be represented by the
general equation:

 Moving charged particles experience a

Beta Decay
force when they travel in a magnetic
 When a nucleus has too many neutrons,
field that is at right angles to their
it tends to beta decay.
path. Page
 When beta decay occurs a neutron
 The force acts mutually at right angles
within the nucleus emits the particle and 116
to the direction the particle is travelling
changes into a proton.
 Charged particles are affected by and the direction of the field so it takes
 The proton number increases but the
electric fields. a circular path.
nucleon number stays the same.
 The particles that are charged will  The direction it will go in can be found
 The resulting daughter nucleus is of an
accelerate towards the plate with using Flemings left hand rule.
element 1 position to the right
opposite charge. Nuclear Reactions
 An -particle will therefore accelerate  Nuclear equations can be used to show
 The above equation shows the
towards the negative plate and the β- the decay process.
radioactive decay of Carbon-14 by beta
particle towards the positive plate.  These must balance for nucleon number
emission.
 The γ-ray has no charge so it is not and proton number.

affected by this electric field and will Alpha decay
Gamma Emission
just continue on its straight path.  A nucleus that has high mass and too
 Sometimes, after its emission of an
many protons to be stable tends to
alpha or beta particle, the nucleus is still
undergo alpha decay.
in an excited state.

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

 In order to get to a lower energy state Betas have only about 1/8000 of the radioactive atoms that disintegrate per
it emits a quantum of energy in the form mass of an alpha particle and only half of second.
of a gamma ray. the charge.  It is measured in Becquerel (Bq).
 No matter is emitted from the nucleus Therefore its interaction with matter as  The rate of decay or activity (A)
therefore the nucleon number and the it passes through is far less severe. depends on the number of radioactive
proton number remain the same. Gamma Rays: atoms present.
 Before and after emission of the gamma Have an ionising power so low that they  It is proportional to the number of
ray they are the same isotope of the penetrate very deeply into matter parent nuclei present.
element but they are different nuclide before most of the energy has been  The constant of proportionality is called
because the term nuclide incorporates used up. the decay constant and given the symbol
nuclear energy states as well basic Their penetrating power is therefore λ.
structure. very high (about 99.9% is absorbed by  The decay constant is characteristic to
 500 m of air or 5 cm lead). each radioactive isotope.
Penetrating Properties Gamma rays are pure energy - no charge  It is the probability of a decay
 The penetrating power of nuclear and no mass - therefore their occurring. We can calculate the
radiation depends upon the ionising interaction with matter is much less expected activity of a sample if we know
power of the radiation. than the other two. its size and decay constant.
 The radiation continues to penetrate Hazards of Radioactive isotopes Now,
matter until it has lost all of its energy.  All radiation sources are dangerous. Page
The – sign is because N decreases as t increases
Alpha particles:  Cells of a body may undergo harmful 117
So,
Produce considerable ionisation because physical and chemical changes due to
Hence, ∫ ∫
of their relatively slow speed and size. being exposed to radioactive samples.
They lose most of their energy over  Extent of damage depends on: If initial number of nuclei is N0, i.e. N = N0 when
short distances and hence are least i) Nature of radiation t = 0 then c = ln N0 
penetrating. ii) Dosage received   
They are absorbed by about 5 cm of air iii) Part of the body exposed 
or a sheet of paper.  Some precautionary measures include:
Beta particles: i) Keep sources in thick lead
Produce much less ionisation than - containers.
particles. ii) Use tongs to handle them.
Can penetrate quite deeply into matter iii) Keep sources at a safe distance
before its energy has been used up. Its from the body.
penetrating power is therefore Rate of Radioactive Decay
moderate (absorbed by 500cm air, 0.1  The rate of decay or activity of a
cm aluminium sheet). radioactive sample is the number of

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA

A Level Physics Notes

 Detection of leaks in underground pipes.  Beta radiation is produced in the decay

 Carbon dating is used to date of a neutron into a proton:
archaeological samples.  They are much less massive than a
 Monitoring of thickness of metal sheets particles, and less ionising. Beta
during production. radiation is more penetrating however.
Summary:Radioactivity  Beta radiation is used in paper mills for
Radioactive decay is a spontaneous, thickness maintenance – a stream of b
random process. particles are passed through the paper
Background radiation is present at all and monitored. A change in the count of
times, and is the same in all directions beta particle causes the rollers to move
(1 or 2 counts per second). The main and make the paper thicker or thinner.
sources are:  Beta radiation can be stopped by a thin
 Radioactive decay of rocks in the sheet of aluminium.
Earth‘s crust. Gamma radiation is in the form of
 Cosmic radiation (from the Big Bang). gamma rays:
 The activity of radio-isotopes decreases
 Materials in buildings that produce  These are high frequency
exponentially with time.
radon gases. electromagnetic waves.
 After a given time period the amount
Radiation can be detected using a Geiger  Gamma radiation is produced when the
that has yet to decay is halved. Page
counter, whereby radiation enters a nucleus of an atom rearranges itself –
 This is the case no matter when you 118
Geiger-Müller tube, ionising the gas normally after the release of an or
start to measure the activity of the
particles inside which are attracted particle, but metastable isotopes will
sample.
across an electric field to give a pulse of emit only g rays.
Half-life
current, that is translated into a ‗click‘.  They are weakly ionising, but extremely
 It is the time taken for half the nuclei
Alpha radiation is in the form of a penetrating.
of a radioactive nuclide present to
particles:  Gamma radiation has uses in diagnostic
disintegrate.
 Alpha radiation is used in smoke medicine (as tracers).
 Uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.5 x 109
detectors – a stream of a particles  Gamma radiation can be reduced to
years (4,500,000,000 years) whereas
carry a current over a short space of ‗safe‘ levels by several centimetres of
Polonium-212 only has a half-life of
air. In the presence of smoke this is lead.
3 x 10-7 seconds (0.000 000 3 seconds).
blocked off, so the current stops and an Prepared by : Mr Chibwowa
Using , when ,
alarm will sound.
Manipulating the equations leads
to
Alpha radiation can be stopped by a
sheet of paper.
[email protected]
Uses of radioisotopes Beta radiation is in the form of b
 Cancer treatment – cells can be particles:
destroyed by γ-radiation.  These are high-speed electrons

PHYSICS NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL BY MR CHIBWOWA