MAT102 CalculusComplex Variables and Linear Algebra by Mohammad Abdul Halim
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Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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Contents of Numerical Methods
Chapters Topics Pages
Calculus
Chapter 01 Gamma & Beta functions 05 - 22
Chapter 02 Partial Differentiation 23 - 39
Chapter 03 Multiple Integration 40 - 51
Complex Variables
Chapter 01 Complex Number 53 - 67
Linear Algebra
Chapter 01 Matrix & Determinant 69 - 85
Chapter 02 Elementary Transformation 86 - 115
Chapter 03 System of Linear Equations 116 - 134
Chapter 04 Linear Combination of Vectors 135 - 140
Chapter 05 Linear dependence and Independence of Vectors 141 - 145
Chapter 06 Linear Transformation of Vectors 146 - 156
Chapter 07 Linear Operators 157 - 188
Chapter 08 Eigen Values 189 - 213
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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Chapter Gamma & Beta functions
01
Beta Function or First Eulerian Integral: A function of the form,
1
x (1 − x )
m −1 n −1
dx ; m, n 0
0
is called Beta function or first Eulerian integral and it is denoted by, ( m, n ) .
1
i.e, ( m, n ) = x m −1 (1 − x )
n −1
dx ; m, n 0 .
0
Gamma Function or Second Eulerian Integral: A function of the form,
e
−x
x n −1dx ; n0
0
is called Gamma function or second Eulerian integral and it is denoted by, ( n ) .
i.e, (n) = e − x x n −1dx ; n 0.
0
Properties of Beta and Gamma functions: The properties are given below:
1. (1) = 1
2. (n + 1) = n(n) ; n 0
( m) ( n)
3. ( m, n ) =
( m + n)
4. ( m, n ) = ( n, m)
( n)
e
− kx
5. x n −1dx = ; k, n 0
0
kn
6. (m)(1 − m) = ;0 m 1
sin m
7. ( 1 ) =
2
e
− x2
8. dx =
0
2
x m −1 x n −1
9. ( m, n ) = dx = dx .
0 (1 + x ) 0 (1 + x )
m+n m+n
p +1 q +1
2
10. sin p x cos q x dx = 2 2
0 p+q+2
2
2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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Theorem-01: Prove that ( m, n ) = ( n, m ) .
Proof: We know, the beta function is
1
( m, n ) = x m −1 (1 − x )
n −1
dx ; m, n 0 (1)
0
Let x = 1 − t dx = −dt
when x = 0 then t = 1
when x = 1 then t = 0
From (1) we get,
0
( m, n ) = (1 − t ) ( −dt )
m −1 n −1
t ; m, n 0
1
1
= t n −1 (1 − t )
m −1
dt = ( n, m) (Proved)
0
Theorem-02: Prove that ( 1 ) = .
2
Proof: We know, the beta function is
1
( m, n ) = x m −1 (1 − x )
n −1
dx ; m, n 0
0
1
If m = n = then,
2
1 1
1 1 1
−1
(1 − x ) 2
−1
, = x2 dx
2 2 0
( 1 ) ( 1 ) 1 1
2 2 =
( 1 + 1 ) 0 x . 1 − x
dx
2 2
( 1 )
2
1
dx
2 =
(1) 0 x − x2
( 1 )
2
1
dx
2 =
(1) 0 − ( x2 − x )
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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1
2 dx
( 1 ) =
2 1 1 1
2 2
0
− x 2 − 2.x. + −
2 2 2
1
2 dx
( 1 ) =
2
1 2 1 1
2 2
0
− x − 2. x. +
2 2 2
1
2 dx
( 1 ) =
2 2 2
0 1 1
− x −
2 2
( )
1
x− 1
2
( 1 ) = sin −1 2
2 1
2 0
2
= sin −1 ( 2 x − 1)
1
( 1 )
2 0
2
( 1 ) = sin −1 ( 2.1 − 1) − sin −1 ( 2.0 − 1)
2
2
( 1 ) = sin −1 (1) − sin −1 ( −1)
2
2
( 1 ) = sin −1 (1) + sin −1 (1)
2
2
( 1 ) = 2sin −1 (1)
2
2
( 1 ) = 2sin −1 .sin
2 2
2
( 1 ) = 2
2 2
2
( 1 ) =
2
( 1 ) = (Proved)
2
Theorem-03: Prove that i). (1) = 1 ; ii). (n + 1) = n(n) .
Proof: We know, the Gamma function is ( n ) = e x dx
− x n −1
; n0 (1)
0
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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If n = 1 then, from (1) we get,
= ( −e − + e0 ) = ( 0 + 1)
(1) = e − x x1−1dx = e − x dx = −e − x
0
0 0
=1
(1) = 1 (Proved)
Again, replacing n by ( n + 1) in (1) we get,
( n + 1) = e − x x n dx
0
= − x e + n e − x x n −1dx
n −x
[Integrating by parts]
0
0
= 0 + n(n)
= n ( n)
(n + 1) = n(n) (Proved)
Theorem-04: Establish the relation between Gamma and Beta function.
( m) ( n)
Or, Prove that (m, n) = .
( m + n)
Proof: From the definition of Gamma function we can write
(n) = e − x x n −1dx ;n 0
0
Assume x = u dx = du .
Limit: when x = 0 , then u = 0 and when x = , then u = .
From above relation we have
( n) = e − u
( u ) n −1
du = e − u u n −1 n −1 du
0 0
= e − u u n −1 n du (i )
0
Again,
(m) = e − m −1d (ii )
0
Multiplying (i) and (ii) we get
( n ) ( m) = e − u
u du e − m −1d
n −1 n
0 0
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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(m)(n) = e − u u n −1 n e − m −1d du
0 0
= e− (1+u ) m+ n −1d u n −1du
0 0
= e− (1+u ) m+ n −1d u n −1du
0 0
m + n n−1 n − kx n−1
= u du n = e x dx
0
(1 + u )m+ n k 0
u n −1
= m + n du
0
(1 + u ) m + n
x n −1
= m + n (m, n)
( m, n ) =
0
(1 + x) m+ n
dx
( m) ( n )
(m, n) = (Proved)
( m + n)
p +1 q +1
2
Theorem-05: Prove that sin p x cos q x dx = 2 2
0 p+q+2
2
2
Proof: We know that
1
𝛽(𝑚, 𝑛) = ∫0 𝑥 𝑚−1 (1 − 𝑥)𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
Let x = sin
2
dx = 2sin cos d .
Limit: x = 0 = 0 and x = = .
2
Now,
2
( m , n ) = (sin 2 )m−1 (1 − sin 2 )n−1 2sin cos d
0
2
= sin 2 m−2 (cos2 )n−1 2sin cos d
0
2
= sin 2 m−2 cos2 n−2 2sin cos d
0
2
( m , n ) = 2 sin 2 m−1 cos 2 n−1 d
0
p +1 q +1
Assume 2 m − 1 = p and 2 n − 1 = q m = 2 and n = 2 .
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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Now from above equation we get
( p2+1 , )
2
q +1
2
= 2 sin p cos q d
0
m n
Using the relation between beta and gamma function ( m , n ) = , we have
m+n
p +1 q +1
2
2
p+q+2 0
2 = 2 sin p cos q d
2
p +1 q +1
2
sin p cos q d = 2 2 (Proved)
0 p + q + 2
2
2
Solved Problems
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 11 of 214
(Ans)
(Ans)
1 1
x 2 (1 − x ) dx
2 3
7. Evaluate the value of
0
1 1
x (1 − x ) dx
2 3
2
Solution: Given that
0
st
1 Method:
Let x = t
2 d 2
dt
( x ) = (t ) 2x
d
dt
dx
dt
=1 2x dx = dt
1 1
dx = dt dx = dt x 2 = t
2x 2 t
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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Limit Change:
x 0 1
t 0 1
( t)
1 1 1 1
x (1 − x )
1
2 3
dx = (1 − t )
2 3
2
Now, . dt
0 0 2 t
( ) ( ) ( t)
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 −1
(1 − t ) . dt = (1 − t )
2 0
= 2 3 2 3
t t . dt
t 20
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
1 −1 1 −
(1 − t ) dt = (1 − t )
2 0 2 0
= 2 3 2 3
t t dt
1
− +1 3 +1
4
1
1 −2 2 2
1
1 1 1
= t 2 (1 − t ) dt = t 4 (1 − t ) dt =
3 1 − 3 1
2 0 20 2 3
+ 2
8
3 3
( 2) 1
= =
1 8 1 8 32
= Ans
2 19 2 11 3 3 33
8 8 8 8
2nd Method:
1st Method:
d d dx
Let x = sin ( x ) = ( sin ) = cos dx = cos d
dt d d
Limit Change:
x 0 1
t 0
2
1 1
x (1 − x ) dx = (sin ) 2 (1 − sin ) .cos d
2 1
2 3 2 3
2
Now,
0 0
= ( sin ) 2 ( cos 2 ) .cos d
2 1 3
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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1
+1 7 +1
2 3
2 2 ( 4)
1
= sin 2 cos 7 d =
2
=
4
3 19
0 2 + 4 2
4 4
3
.3
= 4 =
256
(Ans)
15 11 7 3 3 1155
2.
4 4 4 4 4
2 1
x (8 − x )
3 3
8. Evaluate dx .
0
2 1
x (8 − x ) 3 dx
3
Solution: Given that
0
Let x = y 3x dx = dz
3 2
Limit Change:
x 0 2
y 0 1
Now,
(Ans)
Solution: Given that
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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(Ans)
(Ans)
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 15 of 214
(Ans)
2 2
cos x dx cos
7 4
Problem-13: Evaluate Exer.-01: x dx
0 0
2
3
Solution: Let, I = cos7 x dx
0
Ans:
16
2 2
= sin 0 x cos7 x dx Exer.-02: sin
5
x dx
0 0
0 +1 7 +1
8
= 2 2 Ans:
0+7+2 15
2
2
1 8
2
= 2 2 sin
8
Exer.-03: x dx
9 0
2
2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 16 of 214
1
4 35
= 2 Ans:
9 256
2
2
1
3 +1
= 2
7
2 +1
2
1
3! 3.2.1
= 2 =
7 5 3 1 1 2 7.5.3.1
2 . . . .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
16
= (Ans.)
35
2
sin
6
Problem-14: Evaluate x dx
0
2
Solution: Solution: Let, I = sin 6 x dx
0
6 +1 0 +1 7 1
2
= sin 6 x cos0 x dx = 2 2 = 2 2
0 6+0+2 8
2 2
2 2
7 1 5 1 5 3 1 1 1 5 3 1
+1 . . . . . . . .
= 2 2 = 2 2 = 2 2 2 2 2 = 2 2 2
2 4 2 3 +1 2. 3! 2. 3.2.1
5.
= (Ans.)
32
2 2
sin sin
4
Problem-15: Evaluate x cos3 x dx Exer.-04: 5
x cos6 x dx
0 0
2
8
Solution: Let, I = sin 4 x cos3 x dx
0
Ans:
693
4 +1 3 +1
2
= 2 2
sin
4
Exer.-05: x cos8 x dx
4+3+ 2 0
2
2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 17 of 214
5 4
7
= 2 2 Ans:
9 2048
2
2
3
+1 2 2
= 2 sin
6
Exer.-06: x cos3 x dx
7
2 +1 0
2
3 1 1
. . 2
= 2 2 2 Ans:
7 5 3 1 1 63
2. . . .
2 2 2 2 2
2
= (Ans.)
35
2 2
cos sin 2 x cos
3 4
Problem-16: Evaluate x cos 2 x dx Exer.-04: x dx
0 0
2
1
Solution: Let, I = cos3 x cos 2 x dx
0
Ans:
3
( )
2 2
= cos3 x cos2 x − sin 2 x dx
Exer.-05: sin 2 x sin 2 x cos5 x dx
0 0
( )
2
4
= cos5 x − cos3 x sin 2 x dx Ans:
0
63
2 2
= cos5 xdx − sin 2 x cos3 x dx
0 0
0 +1 5 +1 2 +1 3 +1 1 3 1 1
3 2 2 +1 +1 1+1
= 2 2 − 2 2 = 2 − 2 = 2 − 2
0+5+ 2 2+3+ 2 7 7 5 5
2 2 2 2 2 +1 2 +1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
.2 1 .11 8 2 8−2 6
2 2
= − 2 2 = − = = = (Ans.)
5 3 1 1 5 3 1 1 15 15 15 15 5
2. . . 2. . .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 18 of 214
2
sin x cos x dx
4 6 2 4
Problem-17: Evaluate Exer.-06: sin x cos x dx
0 0
2
Solution: Let, I = sin
4
x cos6 x dx Ans:
0
16
= 2 sin 4 x cos6 x dx
0
4 +1 6 +1 5 7
2
= 4 sin 4 x cos6 x dx = 4. 2 2 = 2. 2 2
0 4+6+2 6
2
2
3 5 3 1 1 5 3 1 1 3 1 5 3 1
+1 +1 . . . . . . . .
= 2. 2 2 = 2. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 = 2 2 2 2 2
5 +1 5.4.3.2.1 5.4.3
1 45 3
= = (Ans.)
60 32 128
x sin x cos x dx x sin
2
Problem-18: Evaluate
6 4
Exer.-07: x cos 4 x dx
0 0
2
Solution: Let, I = x sin x cos x dx
6 4
Ans:
0
32
= ( − x ) sin 6 ( − x ) cos 4 ( − x ) dx Exer.-08: x sin x cos
2
x dx
0 0
= ( − x ) sin 6 x cos 4 x dx Ans:
0
3
= sin x cos x dx − x sin 6 x cos 4 x dx
6 4
0 0
= sin 6 x cos 4 x dx − I
0
2 I = sin 6 x cos4 x dx
0
7 5
6 +1 4 +1 5 3
2 +1 +1
2 = .
= 2 sin x cos x dx = 2 . 2 2 2
= . 2
6 4 2
0 6+4+2 6 5 + 1
2
2
5 3 1 1 3 1 1 5 3 1 3 1
. . . . . . . .
1 45 2
= . 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 = . 2 2 2 2 2 =
5.4.3.2.1 120 120 32
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 19 of 214
3 2
=
256
3 2
I = (Ans.)
512
1 5 1 1
x (1 − x ) x (1 − x )
3 2 2 2 2 2
Problem-19: Evaluate dx Exer.-09: dx
0 0
1 5
Solution: Let, I = x 1 − x
3
(2
) 2 dx Ans:
16
0
1 3
Put x = sin dx = cos d x (1 − x ) 2 dx
4 2
Exer.-10:
0
Limit : when x = 0 then = 0
3
Ans:
when x = 1 then = 256
2
1 1
x (1 − x )
5
( )
2
Now, I = sin 1 − sin cos d
3 2 6 2 2
2 Exer.-11: dx
0 0
5
5
( )
2
= sin 3 cos 2 2 cos d Ans:
0
256
2
= sin 3 cos5 cos d
0
3 +1 6 +1 5
2 7 1+1 +1
= sin cos d
3 6 2
2 = 2
= 2 2 =
3+ 6+ 2 11 9
2 +1
0
2 2
2 2 2
5 3 1 1
11 . . . 2
= 2 2 2 2 = (Ans.)
9 7 5 3 1 1 63
2. . . . .
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
x5 x6
Problem-20: Evaluate dx Exer.-12: dx
0 (1 − x2 ) 0 (
1 − x2 )
5
1
x3
Solution: Let, I = dx Ans:
0 (1 − x ) 2 32
Put x = sin dx = cos d
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 20 of 214
Limit : when x = 0 then = 0
when x = 1 then =
2
2
sin 5 2
sin 5
Now, I = .cos d = .cos d
0 (1 − sin ) 2
0 cos2
sin
2 5 2
= .cos d = sin 5 d
0
cos 0
5 +1 0 +1 1 1
1 2 +1
3 2.11 . 8
2 = 2 = 2 = (Ans.)
= 2 2 = 15
5+0+2 7 5 5 3 1 1
2 2 2 +1 2. . .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x3
Problem-21: Evaluate 9
dx
0
(1 + x ) 2 2
x3
Solution: Let, I = 9
dx
0
(1 + x ) 2 2
Put x = tan dx = sec2 d
Limit : when x = 0 then = 0
when x = then =
2
2
tan 3
Now, I = 9
.sec2 d
0
(1 + tan ) 2 2
2
tan 3 2
tan 3 2
tan 3
= .sec2 d = .sec 2
d = d
9 9
7
0
(sec ) 2 2 0
sec 0
sec
3 +1 4 +1
2
sin 3 2 5
= 0
2
.cos 7
d = sin 3
cos 4
d = 2 2 = 2
0
cos3 3+ 4+ 2 9
2 2
2 2
3 3 1 1
1+1 +1 11 . . 2
= 2 = 2 2 2 = (Ans.)
7 7 5 3 1 1 35
2 +1 2. . . .
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 3 1
x (1 − x ) x (1 − x )
4 3 3
Problem-22: Evaluate 2 dx Exer.-13: dx
0 0
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 21 of 214
1 3
1
Solution: Let, I = x (1 − x ) 2 dx
4
Ans:
0
140
1 5
= x5−1 (1 − x ) 2 dx
−1
5 5
4 + 1 5
5
= 5, = 2 = 2
2 5 13
5+ +1
2 2
5
4.3.2.1
= 2 =
256 (Ans.)
13 11 9 7 5 5 15015
. . . .
2 2 2 2 2 2
Problem-23: Show that e dx = e
− x2 −3 x2
Exer.-14: Show that dx =
0
2 0 2 3
e dx =
−x −a x
Solution: Let, I = e dx
2 2 2
Exer.-15: Show that
0 0
2a
Put, x = z
2
2 xdx = dz
1
dx = dz
2 z
Limit : when x = 0 then z = 0
when x = then z =
1
−z
Now, I = e . dz
0 2 z
1 − z − 12
2 0
= e z dz
1
1 − z 12 −1
= e z dz = 2 =
20 2 2
e dx =
−x
2
(Showed.)
0
2
3
3
e x 2 dx = xe− x dx =
−x 3
Problem-24: Show that Exer.-16: Show that
0
4 0
3
3
−x
Solution: Let, I = e x dx 2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 22 of 214
5
−1 5 3
= e− x x 2 dx = = +1
0
2 2
3 1 1 3
= . =
2 2 2 4
3
3
e− x x 2 dx = (Showed)
0
4
3
3 3
e e
−3 x −4 x 2
Problem-25: Show that x dx =
2
Exer.-17: Show that dx =
0
36 0
128
3
−3 x
Solution: Let, I = e x dx 2
0
5
−1
= e−3 x x 2 dx
0
5 3 3 1 1
+1 .
2 3
2
= 5 = = 2 2 =
2
35
9 3 36
32
3
3
e−3 x x 2 dx = (Showed.)
0
36
2
1 3 1
H.W: Evaluate:
0
tan d =
2 4 4
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 23 of 214
Chapter Partial Differentiation
02
Problem 01:
Solution: (1)
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 24 of 214
Solution: (2)
Solution: (3)
Problem 02:
Problem 03:
Problem 04:
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 25 of 214
Problem 05:
Problem 06:
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 26 of 214
Problem 07:
Problem 08:
Symmetric Function: A function u = f ( x, y ) is called a symmetric function if it satisfies the
condition f ( x, y ) = f ( y, x ) . Example: u = x 2 + y 2 is a symmetric function.
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 27 of 214
2u 2u 2u 2u
Problem-09: If u = x3 + 3x 2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3 then find , , and .
x 2 y 2 xy yx
Sol : Giventhat , u = x3 + 3x 2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3 (1)
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to x we get,
u 3
= ( x + 3 x 2 y + 3 xy 2 + y 3 )
x x
= 3x 2 + 6 xy + 3 y 2 + 0
u
= 3 x 2 + 6 xy + 3 y 2 (2)
x
Now differentiating (2) partially with respect to x we get,
2u
= ( 3x 2 + 6 xy + 3 y 2 )
x 2
x
= 6 x + 6 y + 0 = 6 x + 6 y (Ans.)
Again Differentiating (1) partially with respect to y we get,
u 3
= ( x + 3x 2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3 )
y y
= 0 + 3x 2 + 6 xy + 3 y 2
u
= 3x 2 + 6 xy + 3 y 2 (3)
y
Now differentiating (3) partially with respect to y we get,
2u
= ( 3x 2 + 6 xy + 3 y 2 )
y 2
y
= 0 + 6 x + 6 y = 6 x + 6 y (Ans.)
Again Differentiating (3) partially with respect to x we get,
2u
= ( 3x 2 + 6 xy + 3 y 2 )
xy x
= 6 x + 6 y + 0 = 6 x + 6 y (Ans.)
Again Differentiating (2) partially with respect to y we get,
2u
= ( 3x 2 + 6 xy + 3 y 2 )
yx y
= 0 + 6 x + 6 y = 6 x + 6 y (Ans.)
2u 2u
Problem-10: If u = x 2 + y 2 ln x + 2e− x y then find and .
x 2 y 2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 28 of 214
Sol : Giventhat , u = x 2 + y 2 ln x + 2e− x y (1)
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to x we get,
u 2 y2
= ( x + y 2 ln x + 2e − x y ) = 2 x + − 2e − x y (2)
x x x
Now differentiating (2) partially with respect to x we get,
2u y2 −x y2
= 2 x + − 2e y = 2 − + 2e− x y (Ans.)
x 2
x x x 2
Again Differentiating (1) partially with respect to y we get,
u 2
= ( x + y 2 ln x + 2e − x y ) = 0 + 2 y ln x + 2e− x = 2 y ln x + 2e− x (3)
y y
Now differentiating (3) partially with respect to y we get,
2u
= ( 2 y ln x + 2e− x )
y 2
y
= 2 ln x + 0 = 2 ln x (Ans.)
2u 2u 2u 2u
Problem-11: If u = e x ( x cos y − y sin y ) then find and . Also show that + = 0.
x 2 y 2 x 2 y 2
Sol : Giventhat , u = e x ( x cos y − y sin y )
= xe x cos y − ye x sin y (1)
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to x we get,
u
= ( xe x cos y − ye x sin y ) = cos y ( xe x ) − y sin y ( e x )
x x x x
= cos y ( xe x + e x ) − ye x sin y = xe x cos y + e x cos y − ye x sin y (2)
Now differentiating (2) partially with respect to x we get,
2u
= ( xe x cos y + e x cos y − ye x sin y )
x 2
x
= ( xe x + e x ) cos y + e x cos y − ye x sin y
= xe x cos y + 2e x cos y − ye x sin y (3) (Ans.)
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 29 of 214
Again Differentiating (1) partially with respect to y we get,
u
= ( xe x cos y − ye x sin y )
y y
= xe x ( cos y ) − e x ( y sin y ) = xex ( − sin y ) − ex ( y cos y + sin y )
y y
= − xe x sin y − ye x cos y − e x sin y (4)
Now differentiating (4) partially with respect to y we get,
2u
= ( − xe x sin y − ye x cos y − e x sin y )
y 2
y
= − xe x cos y − e x ( − y sin y + cos y ) − e x cos y
= − xe x cos y + e x y sin y − e x cos y − e x cos y
= − xe x cos y + e x y sin y − 2e x cos y (5) (Ans.)
Finally, adding (3) and (5) we get,
2u 2u
+ 2 = ( xe x cos y + 2e x cos y − ye x sin y ) + ( − xe x cos y + e x y sin y − 2e x cos y )
x 2
y
= xe x cos y + 2e x cos y − ye x sin y − xe x cos y + e x y sin y − 2e x cos y
= 0 (Showed).
y 2u 2u 2u
Problem-12: If u = tan −1 then find , and .
x x 2 y 2 yx
y
Sol : Giventhat , u = tan −1 (1)
x
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to x we get,
u −1 y
= tan
x x x
1 y x2 y y
= 2
. − 2
= − . 2 =− 2 (2)
y x x +y x
2 2
x + y2
1+
x
Now differentiating (2) partially with respect to x we get,
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 30 of 214
2u y
=− 2 2
x 2
x x + y
y 2xy
= − − . ( 2 x + 0 ) = (Ans.)
(x + y ) (x + y )
2
2 2
2 2 2
Again Differentiating (1) partially with respect to y we get,
u −1 y 1 1 x2 1 x
= tan = . = 2 . = 2 (3)
y y x y
2
x x +y 2
x x + y2
1+
x
Now differentiating (3) partially with respect to y we get,
2u x x 2xy
= 2 2
=− . (0 + 2 y ) = − (Ans.)
y y x + y ( x2 + y 2 ) ( x2 + y 2 )
2 2 2
Again Differentiating (2) partially with respect to y we get,
2
u
2
y
( x + y2 ) ( y ) − y ( x2 + y 2 )
y y
=− 2 2
= −
yx y x + y ( x2 + y 2 )
2
( x2 + y 2 ) − y ( 2x + 0)
x 2 + y 2 − 2 xy
= − =− (Ans.)
( x2 + y 2 ) ( x2 + y 2 )
2 2
u u u
Problem-13: If u = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 then show that x + y + z = 2u.
x y z
Sol : Giventhat , u = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 (1)
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to x we get,
u 2
= ( x + y 2 + z 2 ) = 2x + 0 + 0 = 2x
x x
u
x = 2x2 (2)
x
Since the given function (1) is a symmetric function, so similarly differentiating (1) with respect to y and z
we get,
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 31 of 214
u
y = 2 y2 (3)
y
u
and z = 2z2 (4)
z
Finally adding (2), (3) and (4) we get,
u u u
x +y +z = 2 x 2 + 2 y 2 + 2 z 2 = 2 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = 2u (Showed.)
x y z
1
u u u
Problem-14: If u = ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
−
2 then show that x + y + z = −u.
x y z
1
Sol : Giventhat , u = ( x + y + z )
2 2 2 −
2 (1)
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to x we get,
u 2 3
2
( ) ( )
1
= ( x + y 2 + z 2 )
− 1 2 −
=− x +y +z x + y2 + z2
2 2
2 2 .
x x 2 x
3 3
( ) ( )
1 2 − −
=− x + y2 + z2 2 . ( 2 x + 0 + 0 ) = − x x2 + y 2 + z 2 2
2
u 3
= − x2 ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
−
x 2 (2)
x
Since the given function (1) is a symmetric function, so similarly differentiating (1) with respect to y and z
we get,
u 3
= − y 2 ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
−
y 2 (3)
y
u 3
= − z 2 ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
−
and z 2 (4)
z
Finally adding (2), (3) and (4) we get,
u u u 3 3 3
= − x2 ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − y 2 ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − z 2 ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
− − −
x +y +z 2 2 2
x y z
3 1
= −( x + y + z )( x ) = −( x + y + z )
− −
2 2 2 2
+y +z 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= −u (Showed.)
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 32 of 214
1
2u 2u 2u 2
Problem-15: If u = ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 then show that + + = .
x 2 y 2 z 2 u
1
Sol : Giventhat , u = ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 (1)
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to x we get,
u 2 1 2 1
2
( ) ( x + y2 + z2 )
1
= ( x + y 2 + z 2 )
−
= x +y +z
2 2
2 2 .
x x 2 x
1 1
= ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) . ( 2x + 0 + 0) = x ( x )
1 − −
2 2
+y +z 2 2 2 (2)
2
Again Differentiating (2) partially with respect to x we get,
2u 1
= x ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
−
2
x 2
x
1 3
1
= x. − ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) . ( 2 x + 0 + 0 ) + ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
− −
2 2
2
3 1
= − x2 ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
− − x2 1
2 2
=− 3
+ 1
(x 2
+y +z 2 2
) (x
2 2
+y +z
2 2
) 2
− x2 + x2 + y 2 + z 2 y2 + z2
= 3
= 3
(3)
(x 2
+y +z 2 2
) 2
(x 2
+y +z 2 2
) 2
Since the given function (1) is a symmetric function, so similarly differentiating (1) with respect to y and z
we get,
2u x2 + z 2
= (4)
y 2 3
(x 2
+y +z 2 2
) 2
2u x2 + y 2
and = (5)
z 2 3
(x 2
+y +z 2 2
) 2
Finally adding (3), (4) and (5) we get,
2u 2u 2u y2 + z2 x2 + z 2 x2 + y 2
+ + = + +
x 2 y 2 z 2 3 3 3
(x 2
+y +z 2 2
) (x2 2
+y +z 2 2
) (x
2 2
+ y2 + z2 ) 2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 33 of 214
y 2 + z 2 + x2 + z 2 + x2 + y 2 2 ( x2 + y2 + z 2 )
= 3
= 3
(x 2
+y +z
2 2
) 2
(x 2
+y +z
2 2
) 2
2
= 1
(x 2
+ y2 + z2 ) 2
2
= (Showed.)
u
Exercise:
2u 2u 2u 2u
Problem-01: If u = e sin x cos x then find
xy
, , and .
x 2 y 2 xy yx
2u 2u 2u 2u
Problem-02: If u = x cos y + y cos x then find , , and .
x 2 y 2 xy yx
2u 2u 2u 2u
(
Problem-03: If u = ln x y + xy
2 2
) then find , ,
x 2 y 2 xy
and
yx
.
u u u
3
(
Problem-04: If u = ln x + y + z − 3xyz then show that
3 3
) + + =
3
x y z x + y + z
.
x y z u u u
Problem-05: If u = + + then show that x + y + z = 0.
y z x x y z
1
2u 2u 2u
( )
−
Problem-06: If u = x + y + z
2 2 2 2 then show that 2 + 2 + 2 = 0.
x y z
y −1 2u 2u 2u
Problem-07: If u = z tan then show that + + = 0.
x x 2 y 2 z 2
2u 2u 2u
Problem-08: If u = ln (x 2
+ y 2 + z 2 )then show that ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 + 2 + 2 = 1.
x y z
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 34 of 214
Homogeneous function: A function f ( x, y ) is said to be homogeneous of degree n in the
y x
variables x and y if it can be expressed in the form x n or y n .
x y
Alternatively, a function f ( x, y ) is said to be homogeneous of degree n in the variables x and y if
f ( tx , ty ) = t n f ( x , y ) for all values of t, where t is independent of x and y.
1
Example: f ( x, y ) = x + y is a homogeneous function of degree .
2
Euler’s theorem on Homogeneous functions: If f ( x, y ) be a homogeneous function of
x and y of degree n, then
f f
x +y = nf ( x, y ) .
x y
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 35 of 214
Problem 01:
Problem 02:
x3 + y 3
−1 u u
Problem-03: If u = tan then show that x + y = sin 2u .
x+ y x y
x3 + y 3
Sol : Giventhat , u = tan −1
x+ y
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 36 of 214
x3 + y 3
tan u =
x+ y
y 3
x3 1 +
x
tan u =
y
x 1 +
x
y
tan u = x 2 ( say )
x
Here, tan u is a homogeneous function of degree 2.
By Euler’s Theorem we get,
x ( tan u ) + y ( tan u ) = 2 tan u
x y
u u
x sec2 u + y sec2 u = 2 tan u
x y
u u 2 tan u
x +y =
x y sec2 u
u u
x +y = 2sin u cos u
x y
u u
x +y = sin 2u (Showed).
x y
x3 + y 3 u u
Problem-04: If u = ln 2
then show that x + y = 1.
x 2
+ y x y
x3 + y 3
Sol : Giventhat , u = ln 2 2
x +y
x3 + y 3
eu =
x2 + y 2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 37 of 214
y 3
x 3 1 +
x
eu =
y
2
x 2 1 +
x
y
eu = x ( say )
x
u
Here, e is a homogeneous function of degree 1.
By Euler’s Theorem we get,
u
x
x
( e ) + y ( eu ) = 1
y
u u
xeu + yeu = 1.eu
x y
u u
x +y =1 (Showed).
x y
x u u u
Problem-05: If u = sin −1 then show that x + y +z = 0.
y+z x y z
x
Sol : Giventhat , u = sin −1
y+z
x
sin u =
y+z
−1
y+z
sin u =
x
−1
y z
sin u = +
x x
y z
sin u = x 0 , ( say )
x x
Here, sin u is a homogeneous function of degree 0.
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 38 of 214
By Euler’s Theorem we get,
x ( sin u ) + y ( sin u ) + z ( sin u ) = 0.sin u
x y z
u u u
x cos u + y cos u + z cos u =0
x y z
u u u
x +y +z =0 (Showed).
x y z
x+ y u u 1
Problem-06: If u = cos−1 then show that x + y + cot u = 0 .
x+ y x y 2
x+ y
Sol : Giventhat , u = cos−1
x + y
x+ y
cos u =
x+ y
y
x 1 +
cos u = x
y
x 1 +
x
y
x 1 +
cos u = x
y
x 1 +
x
y
1
cos u = x 2 ( say )
x
1
Here, cos u is a homogeneous function of degree .
2
By Euler’s Theorem we get,
1
x ( cos u ) + y ( cos u ) = cos u
x y 2
u u 1
− x sin u − y sin u + = cos u
x y 2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 39 of 214
u u 1
x +y = − cot u
x y 2
u u 1
x + y + cot u = 0 (Showed).
x y 2
Exercise:
−1 x2 + y 2 u u 1
Problem-01: If u = tan then show that x + y = sin 2u .
x− y x y 2
−1
x− y u u
Problem-02: If u = sin then show that x + y =0.
+ x y
x y
−1 x −1 y u u
Problem-03: If u = sin + tan then show that x + y = 0.
y x x y
−1
x+ y u u 1
Problem-04: If u = sin then show that x + y = tan u .
+ x y 2
x y
−1
x+ y u u 1
Problem-05: If u = tan then show that x + y = sin 2u .
x y 4
x+ y
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 40 of 214
Chapter Multiple Integration
03
The multiple integral is a generalization of the definite integral to functions of more than one
real variable, for example, f(x, y) or f(x, y, z). Integrals of a function of two variables over a region
in R2 are called double integrals, and integrals of a function of three variables over a region of R3 are
called triple integrals. Multiple Integral also known as iterated integrals because we integrate more
than once.
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 41 of 214
Note: In multiple integration others variables treated as constant accept integration variable.
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 42 of 214
Problem 01:
Solution:
Inner Integral:
Outer Integral:
(Ans)
Problem 02:
Solution:Inner Integral:
Outer Integral:
(Ans)
Problem 03:
Solution:
(Ans)
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 43 of 214
Problem 04:
Solution:
(Ans)
Problem 05:
Solution:
(Ans)
Problem 06:
Solution:
(Ans)
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 44 of 214
More Double Integration
2 3
Evaluate x
2
y dx dy
1 0
Solution: Given double integral is,
3
x3
2 3 2 2 2
1 1
1 0 1 0 dy
3 3 3
1 0 = 1 3 = =
2 3
x y dx dy y dy
3
x y dy
3
y x
0
2
2 2 2
y2
= y ( 33 − 03 ) dy = 27 y dy = 9 y dy = 9 = y 2
1 1 9 2
31 3 2 1 2
1
1 1
=
2
(
9 2 2 9
2 −1 = 3 =
2
27
2
)(As desired)
Note: It turns out that the result of two iterated integrals are always equal when the order of
integration is altered.
2 2
Evaluate ( x − 3 y ) dx dy
2
0 1
Solution: Given double integral is,
2
2 2
x2 2
( )
x − 3 y dx dy = − 3 y 2 x dy
2
0 1
0 1
2
2
3 3 y3
2 2
1
= 2 − 6 y 2 − + 3 y 2 dy = − 3 y 2 dy = y − 3.
0 0 2 3 0
2 2
2
3y
= − y 3 = ( 3 − 8 − 0 − 0 ) = −5 (As desired)
2 0
ln 2 1
Evaluate ye
xy
dx dy
0 −1
Solution:
1
e xy
ln 2 1 ln 2 ln 2 ln 21 1
1
ye dx dy = y dy = y e xy dy = e xy dy
xy
Given double integral is,
0 −1 0 y −1 0
y −1 0 −1
ln 2
= (e )
− e− y dy
y
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 45 of 214
ln 2
e− y
ln 2 ln 2
e e
−y ln 2 y ln 2 − y ln 2
= dy − dy = e − = e 0 + e 0
y y
−1 0
0
0 0
( ) ( )
= eln 2 − e0 + e − ln 2 − e0 = ( 2 − 1) + eln 2 − 1 = 1 + 2−1 − 1 ( −1
) ( )
1 1
= 1 + − 1 = (As desired)
2 2
2
Evaluate y sin( xy)dx dy
0 1
Solution:
Given double integral is,
2 2
− cos(xy)
0 1 y sin( xy ) dx dy = 0 y dy
y
1
2 2
1
= − y cos(xy) dy = − cos(xy) dy
0
y 1 0 1
= − ( cos 2 y − cos y ) dy = cos y dy − cos 2 y dy
0 0 0
sin 2 y 1
= sin y 0 − = ( sin − sin 0 ) − ( sin 2 − sin 0 )
2 0 2
=0 (As desired)
2 x
Evaluate x
2
ydy dx
1 1− x
Solution:
Given double integral is,
x
( )
x
2 x
y2 2 2 2
x
2 2
x
1 1−x = 1 2 1 2
= x − (1 − x ) dx
2
x ydy 2
dx x dx = 2
y 2
dx
1− x 1− x 1
2
( ) ( )
2 2
x x − (1 − x ) dx = x 2 x − (1 − 2 x + x 2 ) dx
1 2 1
=
2
21 21
2 2
x ( x − 1 + 2 x − x 2 )dx = ( x3 − x 2 + 2 x3 − x 4 )dx
1 2 1
=
21 21
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 46 of 214
2
1 x 4 x3 x5
2
= ( 3 x 3 − x 2 − x 4 )dx = 3. − −
1
21 2 4 3 5 1
13 8 32 3 1 1
= .16 − − − + +
24 3 5 4 3 5
1 8 32 3 1 1 1 163 163
= 12 − − − + + = 2 60 = 120 (As desired)
2 3 5 4 3 5
2 2y
Evaluate ( 4 x − 2 y ) dxdy
1 y2
Solution:
Given double integral is,
2y
2 2y 2
x2
1 2 ( 4 x − 2 y ) dxdy = 1 4. 2 − 2 yx 2 dy
y y
2 2y 2 2y 2
= 2 x − 2 yx dy = 2 x − yx dy = 2 ( 4 y 2 − 2 y 2 − y 4 + y 3 ) dy
2 2
1 y2 1 y2 1
2
y3 y5 y 4
2
= 2 ( 2 y − y + y ) dy = 2 2. − +
2 4 3
1 3 5 4 1
8 32 16 2 1 1 16 32 16 2 1 1
= 2 2. − + − + − = 2 − + − + −
3 5 4 3 5 4 3 5 4 3 5 4
133 133
= 2 = (As desired)
60 30
H.W:
2 1
25
Evaluate ( x + y)
2
dydx Ans:
1 0
6
4 1
Evaluate xy( x + y) dydx
0 0
Ans: 8
2
Evaluate sin( x + y) dxdy
0 0
Ans: 2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 47 of 214
1 x
25
Evaluate (x + y 2 ) dydx Ans:
2
0 x
6
1 x2 y
1
Evaluate e
0 0
x
dydx Ans:
2
1 x2
13
Evaluate y Ans:
2
x dydx
0 −x
120
1 1
1
Evaluate 1+ y
0 y
2
dxdy
e x
Evaluate ln x dydx
1 1
2
Evaluate cos( x + y) dxdy
0 0
2
Evaluate cos( x + y) dxdy
0 0
1 1
1
Evaluate sin( y Ans: (1 − cos1)
2
) dydx
0 x
2
1 2
Evaluate ( x − y dydx
0 2x
Mr. Karim covers a region R where 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)| 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2, −√𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2√𝑥} and 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥𝑦.
Examine the volume of that region.
More Triple Integration
2 z x 3
x
Evaluate
0 0 0
x + y2
2
dydxdz
Solution:
Given double integral is,
x 3 x 3
1 y y
2 z x 3 2 z 2 z
x
0 0 0
x +y
2 2
dydxdz = x tan −1
0 0
x
x 0
dxdz = tan −1
0 0
x 0
dxdz
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 48 of 214
( )
2 z 2 z 2 z
= tan −1 3 − tan −1 0 dxdz = − 0 dxdz = dxdz
0 0
0 0
3 0 0
3
2
2 z
2
2
2
z2
x0 ( z − 0) dz = z dz =
3 0 0 3 0 3 0
z
= dxdz = dz =
3 3 2
0 0
2
= ( 2 − 0) = (As desired)
3 3
3a 2 a a
Evaluate ( x + y + z ) dxdydz
0 0 0
Solution:
Given double integral is,
a
3a 2 a a 3a 2 a
x2 3a 2 a
a2
( x + y + z ) dxdydz =
0 0 0 0
0 2 + yx + zx
0
dydz =
0 0
+ ya + za − 0 dydz
2
2a
3a 2 a
a2 3a
a 2 y ay 2
=
0
0 2 + ya + za
dydz =
0
2
+
2
+ zay dz
0
3a 3a
= ( a3 + 2a3 + 2a 2 z dz = ) ( 3a )
+ 2a 2 z dz
3
0 0
3a
3 2 z
2
3a
= 3a z + 2a . = 3a3 z + a 2 z 2
2 0 0
(
= 9a 4 + 9a 4 − 0 = 18a 4 ) (As desired)
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 49 of 214
(As desired)
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 50 of 214
(As desired)
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 51 of 214
H.W:
4 3 2
Evaluate 3xy z
3 2
dzdxdy Ans: 2040
1 −1 0
2 1 y
107
Evaluate xy z Ans: −
2 3
dxdzdy
0 y z2
210
0 z2 z
32
Evaluate ( x + z ) dydxdz
2 0 x
Ans: −
105
3 1 xy
1
Evaluate xyz dzdydx Ans: ( 26 − 3ln 3)
1 1 0
18
x
3a 2 a a
Evaluate ( x + y + z ) dxdydz
4
Ans: 18a
0 0 0
3 1 2
Evaluate ( x + y + z ) dzdydx
−3 0 0
Ans: 12
1 1 1− x
4
Evaluate xdzdxdy
0 y2 0
Ans:
35
2 z x 3
x 2
Evaluate
0 0 0
x + y2
2
dydxdz Ans:
3
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 52 of 214
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 53 of 214
Introduction:
Mathematics has its own language in which Alphabets are numbers, so number system is so important
in mathematics. The prince of mathematics Gauss said that every polynomial has at least one root and
that Polynomial has maximum roots exactly equal to its order or degree. Above statement is called the
fundamental theorem of Algebra. When we consider the polynomial equation like as x + 1 = 0 that
2
implies x = −1 but which is not possible in the real field because square of any real number is non-
2
negative so real field fails to give the solution of this polynomial equation. But fundamental theorem of
Algebra tells it has maximum two roots. To permit the solution of the equation x + 1 = 0 and similar
2
types, the set of complex numbers is introduced. Therefore, complex number system includes real
number system as a subset, so complex number system is the extended form of real number system
that solved the above considered problem. By considering i = −1 the problem x + 1 = 0 provides
2 2
two complex roots that covered the fundamental theorem of Algebra stated by great mathematician
Gauss .It is notable that the mathematician Euler first use the symbol i for imaginary unit and its
geometrical meaning in the complex plane is the point (0 ,1) . Solution of the above arises problem is as
follows: x2 +1 = 0 x 2 = −1
x 2 = i 2 [ i 2 = −1]
x = i2 x = i
Finally, we conclude that the roots of the aroused problem are x = i and x = −i
Complex Variable:
Complex variable z is the special type of linear combination of two real variables x and y with
the special sign i that is z = x + i y where x R, y R and i = − 1 .
In complex variable z, x is the real part of z denoted by the symbol Re (z) =x and y is the
imaginary part of z denoted by the symbol Im (z) =y and also i is called imaginary unit.
Geometrically complex variable represents general point in the complex plane/Argand Plane/Argand
diagram/Gaussian Plane. Also Geometrically, Re(z) is the projection of z = (x, y) onto the x axis, and
Im(z) is the projection of z onto the y axis. It makes sense, then, that the x axis is also called the real
axis, and the y axis is called the imaginary axis.
The complex variable z = x + i y is said to be complex number if x and y take finite real values.
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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For example: If we assign x = 1 and y = 2 then we get z = 1 + 2i which is a complex number that
represents a unique point (1 ,2) in the complex plane.
Conjugate of a complex number:
Conjugate of a complex number z = x + i y is obtained by changing the sign of y and is denoted by the
symbol z i.e. z = x − iy .Geometrically conjugate of a complex number represents the reflection or
image of the complex number z about the real axis x.
Notes:
1. zz = ( x + i y )( x − i y ) = x 2 − i 2 y 2 = x 2 + y 2 (Real number)
2. z + z = ( x + i y ) + ( x − i y ) = 2 x (Real number)
Modulus/Amplitude/Absolute Value:
The modulus of a complex of the complex number z = x + i y is a nonnegative real number
denoted by z = r 0 and is defined by the equation z = x 2 + y 2 . The number |z| is the
distance between the origin and the point (x, y) in Argand Plane or Gaussian plane. The only
complex number with modulus zero is the number 0.
The numbers | Re (z) | , | lm(z) |, and | z | are the lengths of the sides of the right triangle OPQ,
which is shown in the following figure
Argument:
The Argument/Amplitude of the complex number z = x + i y is the angle such that x = r cos ,
y
y = r sin or tan = . A given complex number z = x + i y has infinitely many possible arguments.
x
But in the range − every complex number has unique argument called principal argument of
that number and is denoted by Argz. Generally argument is denoted by arg(z ) or amp(z).
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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Various forms of Complex Number:
Cartesian form/Rectangular form:
The form of the complex variable z = x + i y where x R, y R and i = − 1 is called
Cartesian form.
Polar Form:
We have Cartesian form as like as z = x + i y
From the relation of Cartesian and polar system we have x = r cos and x = r cos .
Now,
z = x+i y
z = r cos + i r sin
z = r ( cos + i sin ) , this is the polar form of z.
Exponential Form:
We have Cartesian form as like as z = x + i y
From the relation of Cartesian and polar system we have x = r cos and x = r cos .
Now,
z = x+i y
z = r cos + i r sin
z = r ( cos + i sin )
We have Euler formula
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 56 of 214
ei = cos + i sin = cis
Here z = r ( cos + i sin )
z = rei , this is the exponential form of z.
1 0 0 −1 x 0
Remember!! 1 , i 1 , x ; x R
0 1 0 0 x
0 −1 0 −1 0 − 1 0 + 0 −1 0
and i 2 = −1 . = =
1 0 1 0 0 + 0 −1 + 0 0 −1
Now, z = x + iy
= x 1 + y i
1 0 0 −1
= x + y
0 1 1 0
x 0 0 − y
= +
0 x y 0
x − y
=
y x
Matrix form of a Complex number: If z = x + iy is a complex number then the matrix form of z is
x − y Re ( z ) − Im( z )
y x or Im( z ) Re z
( )
1+ i
Problem 01: Construct the matrix form of z 1 + z2 ,where z 1 = and z 2 = (1 + i ) .
4
1− i
Solution: Given that,
(1 + i ) [ Multiplying numerator and denominator by 1 + i .]
2
1+ i
z 1= = ( )
1 − i (1 − i )(1 + i )
1 + 2i + i 2 1 + 2i − 1 2i
z 1= = = =i
1 − i2 1 − ( −1) 2
z 1= i
And
4
z 2 = (1 + i ) = (1 + i ) = 1 + 2i + i
2 2 2 2
= 1 + 2i − 1 = 2i = 4i 2 = 4 ( −1) = − 4
2 2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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z 2= −4
−4 −1
Now, z 1 + z2 = −4 + i (As desired)
1 −4
1+ i
Problem 02: Construct the matrix form of z 1 + z2 ,where z 1 = and z 2 = (1 + i ) .
5
1− i
Solution: Given that,
(1 + i ) [ Multiplying numerator and denominator by 1 + i .]
2
1+ i
z 1= = ( )
1 − i (1 − i )(1 + i )
1 + 2i + i 2 1 + 2i − 1 2i
z 1= = = =i
1 − i2 1 − ( −1) 2
z 1= i
z 2 = (1 + i ) = r ( cos + i sin )
5 5
And (1)
For complex number (1 + i ) we have x = 1 and y = 1 then r = x 2 + y 2 = 12 + 12 = 2 and
y 1
= tan −1 = tan −1 = tan −1 (1) = = 450
x 1 4
Now from (1) z 2 = r ( cos + i sin )
5
5 5
( 2 ) ( cos 225 + i sin 225)
5
= r 5 ( cos5 + i sin 5 ) = r 5 cos + i sin =
4 4
( 2 ) cos ( 2 90 + 45) + i sin ( 2 90 + 45) = ( 2 ) − cos ( 45) − i sin ( 45)
5 5
=
( 2 ) − 1 1
( 2 ) (1 + i )
5 4
= −i =−
2 2
= −4 − 4i
−4 3
Now, z 1 + z2 = −4 − 3i (As desired)
−3 −4
H.W: Construct the matrix form of 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 /𝑧3, where 𝑧1 = (−3 − 5𝑖)5, 𝑧2 = (7.5, 77° ) and 𝑧3 =
(12.7, 153° ).
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 58 of 214
Euler Theorem: The relation ei = cos + i sin = cis .
Deduction:
We know that the infinite series of trigonometric functions are
3 5
sin = − + − +
3! 5!
2 4
And cos = 1 − + − +
2! 4!
We have
x 2 x3 x 4 x5
e = 1+ x + + + + + x
+
2! 3! 4! 5!
Replacing x by i in the above equation we get,
i 2 3 4 5
e = 1 + i − −i + +i + +
2! 3! 4! 5!
2 4 3 5
ei = 1 − + − + + i − + − +
2! 4! 3! 5!
e = cos + i sin , which is known as Euler’s Formula. (Deduced)
i
De Moivre’s theorem: For all rational values of n, (cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n
Binomial Theorem:
The Binomial Theorem is a quick way of expanding a binomial expression that has been raised to some
power. The formal expression of the Binomial Theorem is as follows:
( x + y )n = nC0 xn y0 + nC1xn−1y + nC2 xn−2 y 2 + nC3xn−3 y3 + + nCr xn −r y r + + nCn xn −n yn
= x n + nC1x n −1 y + nC2 x n − 2 y 2 + nC3 x n −3 y 3 + + nCr x n − r y r + + yn
n(n − 1) n − 2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n −3 3 n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) (n − r + 1) n −r r
= xn + nxn −1 y + x y + x y + + x y + + yn
2! 3! r!
n
r x n
n n−r
= yr , where nCr = is a binomial coefficient.
r =0
r
Mathematical Problems
Problem 01: Find the reciprocal of z = 2 − 3i .
Solution: Given Complex number z = 2 − 3i .
1 1
Therefore, the reciprocal =
z 2 − 3i
1 ( 2 + 3i )
= [Multiplying numerator and denominator by ( 2 + 3i ) ]
( 2 − 3i )( 2 + 3i )
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 59 of 214
2 + 3i 2 + 3i 2 + 3i 2 3
= = = = + i (As desired)
22 + 32 4 + 9 13 13 13
2 + 3i 1
Try yourself: (a) z = 2 − 3i (b) z= (c) z = 3i +
2 − 3i 2−i
Problem 02: Find two complex numbers whose sum is 4 and product is 8.
Solution:
Let the two complex numbers are z1 and z 2 .
According to the question z1 + z2 = 4 (1) and z1 z2 = 8 (2)
(z − z2 ) = ( z1 + z2 ) − 4 z1 z2
2 2
Now, 1
(z − z2 ) = 16 − 32 = −16
2
1
z1 − z2 = −16 = 16i 2 = 4i (3)
Adding (1) & (3) , we get 2 z1 = 4 + 4i z1 = 2 + 2i .
Putting values of z1 in (1) we get 2 + 2i + z2 = 4 z2 = 2 − 2i (As desired)
Try yourself: Find two complex numbers whose sum is 6 and product is 34.
Problem 03: Express the following number form A+iB:
(a) (1 + i)2 (1 − i)3
2−i
2
(b) (2 + 3i)
1 + 2i
(c) [3(cos400 + i sin 400 )].[4(cos800 + isin800 )]
( 2cis15 )0 7
(d)
( 4cis 45 )
0 3
10
1 + 3i
(e)
1 − 3i
Solution:
(a) Given Complex number (1 + i) (1 − i) .
2 3
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 60 of 214
Now, (1 + i) (1 − i) = (1 + i) (1 − i) (1 − i)
2 3 2 2
= (1 + i)(1 − i) (1 − i)
2
= (12 + 12 ) (1 − i) = 2(1 − i)
= 2 − 2i (As desired)
2−i
2
(b) Given Complex number (2 + 3i )
1 + 2i
( 2 − i)
2
2−i 4 − 4i + i 2
2
Now, (2 + 3i ) = (2 + 3i ) . 2 = (2 + 3i ) .
1 + 2i (1 + 2i ) 1 + 4i + 4i 2
4 − 4i − 1 3 − 4i
= (2 + 3i) . = (2 + 3i) .
1 + 4i − 4 −3 + 4i
6 − 8i + 9i − 12i 2
6 + i + 12 18 + i
= = =
−3 + 4i −3 + 4i −3 + 4i
(18 + i )( −3 − 4i ) [Multiplying numerator and denominator by −3 − 4i ]
= ( )
( −3 + 4i )( −3 − 4i )
=
(18 + i )( −3 − 4i ) = (18 + i )( −3 − 4i )
( −3 ) + ( 4 ) 9 + 16
2 2
−54 − 72 − 3i − 4i 2 −122 − 3i −122 3i
= = = − (As desired)
25 25 25 25
(c) Given Complex number [3(cos40 + i sin 40 )].[4(cos80 + isin80 )] .
0 0 0 0
Now, [3(cos400 + i sin 400 )].[4(cos800 + isin800 )]
= [3.ei 40 ].[4.ei 80 ] = 12ei 40 +i 80 = 12e120 i = 12(cos1200 + i sin1200 )
0 0 0 0 0
1 3
= 12(cos1200 + i sin1200 ) = 12 − + i =− 6+6 3 i (As desired)
2 2
( 2cis15 ) 0 7
(d) Given Complex number .
( 4cis 45 ) 0 3
( )
( 2cis150 )
7 0 7
2.e15 i 0
27.e105 i 27.e105 i e105 i
0 0
Now, = = 7 135 i = 14 135 i = 7 135 i
( 4cis45 ) ( 4.e )
0 0 0
0 3 3
450 i 4 .e 2 .e 2 .e
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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0
e105 i
= 7 135 i = 7 ( e−30 i ) = 7 ( cos(−300 ) + i sin(−300 ) )
1 1
0
2 .e 2 2
1 3 1
= 7 ( cos300 − i sin 300 ) = 7
1
−i
2 2 2 2
3 1 3 1
= 8 −i 8 = − i (As desired)
2 2 256 256
10
1 + 3i
(e) Given Complex number .
1 − 3i
( )
10
+
10
2
1 + 3i
1 3i
Now, = ( −3 − 4i ) ]
( )( )
[Multiplying numerator and denominator by
1 − 3i 1 − 3i 1 + 3i
( )
10
1 + 3i 2
10 10
1 + 2 3i − 3 −2 + 2 3i
= = =
( )
1 + 3 2
2
4 4
10
1 3
= − + i (1)
2 2
1 3
For the complex number − + i:
2 2
1 3
Here x = − & y =
2 2
2
1 3
2
1 3
Now, r = x + y = − + = + =1
2 2
2 2 4 4
3
−1 y
and = tan = tan
x
−1 2
−1
= tan −1 − 3 = − tan −1 ( ) ( 3 ) = − 3
2
1 3 −
−
Therefore the polar form − + i = re = 1.e = e 3
i 3
2 2
Putting this value in (i) ,we get
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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10
1 + 3i 10 10
10
− 3 i −
10
i
= e = e 3 = cos − + i sin −
1 − 3i 3 3
1 3
= cos ( 600 ) − i sin ( 600 ) = − + i (As desired)
2 2
Try yourself: Put the following in rectangular form:
(8cis 40 ) 0 7
(a)
( 2cis60 ) 0 3
4
3 −i 1+ i
5
(b) .
3+i 1− i
( )
7
(c) 3+i
( −1 + i )
100
(d)
3.i 30 − i19
(e)
2i − 1
(f) Compute z for z = − 3 − i .
3
5 + 6i
Problem 04: Find the value of ‘a’ and ‘b’ for the equation = a + ib .
1+ i
5 + 6i
Solution: Given Equation = a + ib
1+ i
( 5 + 6i )(1 − i ) = a + ib [Multiplying numerator and denominator by 1 − i ]
( )
(1 + i )(1 − i )
( 5 + 6i )(1 − i ) = a + ib
12 + 12
5 − 5i + 6i − 6i 2
= a + ib
2
5+i +6
= a + ib
2
11 + i
= a + ib
2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 63 of 214
11 1
+ i = a + ib
2 2
11 1
Comparing both sides we get, a= &b = . (As desired)
2 2
Try yourself:
5+2 3
a) If = a + b 3 then what are the values of a & b?
7+4 3
x − iy
b) Let = a + ib .Prove that a 2 + b 2 = 1 .
x + iy
i 1
Problem 05: Find Re(z) and lm(z) for the complex numbers z = .
3 − i 2 + 3i
i 1
Solution: Given Complex number z = .
3 − i 2 + 3i
i 1 i
Now, z = =
3 − i 2 + 3i ( 3 − i )( 2 + 3i )
i i i
= = =
6 + 9i − 2i − 3i 2
6 + 7i + 3 9 + 7i
i ( 9 − 7i )
= (1 − i ) ]
( 9 + 7i )( 9 − 7i )
[Multiplying numerator and denominator by
i ( 9 − 7i ) 9i − 7i 2 9i + 7 7 9
= 2 = = = + i
9 +7 2
130 130 130 130
7 9
Therefore Re(z) = and lm(z) = (As desired)
130 130
Try yourself:
1
a) Find Re(z) and lm(z) for the complex numbers z= .
(1 + i)(1 − 2i)(1 + 3i)
1
b) Express the given quantity in terms of x and y for Re & Re ( z 2 ) .
z
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 64 of 214
2 − 3i
Problem 06: Find the modulus & argument of z = .
2 + 3i
2 − 3i
Solution: Given Complex number z = .
2 + 3i
( 2 − 3i ) [Multiplying numerator and denominator by 2 − 3i ]
2
= ( )
( 2 + 3i )( 2 − 3i )
( 2 − 3i )
2
4 − 6i + 9i 2 4 − 6i − 9 −5 − 6i
= = = =
22 + 32 4+9 13 13
5 6 5 6
=− − i = x + iy where x = − & y = − .
13 13 13 13
25 + 36
2 2
5 6 25 36
Therefore modulus r = x + y = − + − =
2 2
+ =
13 13 169 169 169
61
=
169
6
−1 y
− 13 6
And Argument = tan = tan = tan −1
−1
(As desired)
x −
5 5
13
Try yourself:
a) Find the modulus and argument of 8z − z 2 by replacing z = 2 + i .
b) Find the modulus and argument of z = cos( x − y ) + i sin( x − y ) .
c) If z = x + iy then show that e z = e x .
2+i
2
Problem 07: Put the complex number into polar and exponential forms.
3−i
2+i
2
Solution: Given Complex number z = [Say]
3−i
(2 + i)
2
4 + 4i + i 2 3 + 4i
= = =
(3 − i ) 9 − 6i + i 2 8 − 6i
2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 65 of 214
( 3 + 4i )(8 + 6i )
=
( 8 − 6i )( 8 + 6i )
[Multiplying numerator and denominator by (8 + 6i ) ]
24 + 18i + 32i + 24i 2 24 + 18i + 32i + 24i 2
= =
82 + 6 2 100
24 + 18i + 32i − 24 50i i 1 1
= = = = 0 + i = x + iy , where x = 0 & y = .
100 100 2 2 2
2
1 1
Therefore, Modulus r = x + y = 0 + =
2 2 2
2 2
−1 y
−1 0
Argument = tan = tan = tan ( ) =
−1
x 1
2
2
1 i 1 i
Finally, the polar form, z = r (cos + i sin ) = cos + i sin and exponential form z = re = e 2
2 2 2 2
.
(As desired)
Try yourself:
1 + 2i
• Express in the form r ( cos + i sin ) .
1 − 3i
1 − 3i
• Find the modulus and argument of z = and also it’s polar, exponential and matrix form.
1 + 3i
Problem 08: Show the equation 2 z = z + i describes a circle.
Solution: Given complex equation 2 z = z +i .
2 x + iy = x + iy + i with z = x + iy
2 x + iy = x + i ( y + 1)
2 x 2 + y 2 = x 2 + ( y + 1) 2
Squaring both sides, we get
4 ( x 2 + y 2 ) = x 2 + ( y + 1) 2
4 x 2 + 4 y 2 = x 2 + y 2 + 2 y+ 1
3x 2 + 3 y 2 − 2 y− 1 = 0
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 66 of 214
It is seen that above equation represents a circle.
z −3
Problem 09: Represent graphically the set of values of z for which a) =2
z +3
Solution: Given equation is,
z −3
=2
z +3
z −3
=2
z +3
z −3 = 2 z +3
x + iy − 3 = 2 x + iy + 3 z = x + iy
x − 3 + iy = 2 x + 3 + iy
( x − 3) + y2 = 2 ( x + 3) + y2
2 2
Squaring both-sides we get,
( x − 3)
2
+ y 2 = 4 ( x + 3) + y 2
2
x2 − 6x + 9 + y 2 = 4 ( x2 + 6x + 9 + y 2 )
x 2 − 6 x + 9 + y 2 = 4 x 2 + 24 x + 36 + 4 y 2
3x 2 + 30 x + 27 + 3 y 2 = 0
x 2 + 10 x + 9 + y 2 = 0
x 2 + 2.x.5 + 52 − 52 + 9 + y 2 = 0
( x + 5) + y 2 = 16
2
( x + 5 ) + y 2 = 42
2
x − ( −5) + ( y − 0)
2
= 42
2
It represents a circle with Centre ( −5, 0 ) and radius 4 units and its graph as follows.
Try yourself: Describe geometrically/Sketch the region of
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 67 of 214
1
(a) z − i = z + i (b) z + 2i + z − 2i = 6 & (c) Re
z
Problem 10 : Express cos3 and sin 3 in terms of cos and sin .
Solution:
Here
( cos + i sin ) = cos3 + 3cos2 i sin + 3cos (i sin ) 2 + ( i sin )
3 3
( cos + i sin ) = cos3 + 3i cos 2 sin − 3cos sin 2 − i sin 3
3
( cos 3 + i sin 3 ) = cos3 − 3cos sin 2 + i (3cos 2 sin − sin 3 )
Comparing the real part and imaginary part from both sides we get,
cos 3 = cos3 − 3cos sin 2 and sin 3 = 3cos 2 sin − sin 3 (As desired)
Problem 11 : Prove the identities:
(a) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟓𝜽 = 𝟏𝟔 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟓 𝜽 − 𝟐𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑 𝜽 + 𝟓 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝜽
(b) = 𝟏𝟔 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒 𝜽 − 𝟏𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 + 𝟏; If 𝜽 ≠ 𝟎, ± 𝝅, ± 𝟐𝝅, ….
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
Solution:
We have,
𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝜃 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)5
5.4 5.4.3
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 + 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 (𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 (𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 (𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)3 +
2! 3!
5.4.3.2 1 4 5
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) + (𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)
4!
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 + 5𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 10𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 − 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 + 𝑖(5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝜃)
(a) Comparing Real terms on both sides, we get
𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 − 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 − 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) + 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)2
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝜃 = 16 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 − 20 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 + 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
(b) Comparing imaginary terms on both sides, we get
𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝜃 = 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝜃
⇒ = 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 − 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
= 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 − 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) + (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝜃
= 16 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 − 12 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 1;
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Provided 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≠ 0 i.e. 𝜃 ≠ 0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, …
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Chapter Matrix and Determinant
01
The word “Matrix” (Plural matrices) was first introduced by English mathematician James Joseph
Sylvester in 1850. Matrix is the Latin word for womb, as a name for an array of numbers. He used
womb, because he viewed a matrix as a generator of determinants. Arthur Cayley developed the
Matrix theory in 1858 .His efforts were published in two papers, one in 1850 and the other in
1858. His works introduced the idea of the identity matrix as well as the inverse of a square matrix.
Matrix multiplication culminated in his theorem, the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem simply stated, “A
square matrix satisfies its characteristic equation” .Matrix is a powerful tool of modern mathematics
which is originated in the study of linear equations for solving the system, and it has wide
applications in nearly every branch of science and especially in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry,
Statistics, Economics, and Engineering.
J.J Sylvester Arthur Cayley
Arthur Cayley is considered to be the father of Matrix
Theory.
Matrix:
A rectangular array of mn quantities (numbers real or complex), arranged in m rows and n columns
and enclosed by parenthesis is called a matrix of order m by n or m×n. The plural of matrix is matrices.
The general form of the matrix is of the form
a11 a12 ... ... ... a1n
a a 22 ... ... ... a 2 n
21
... ... ... ... ... ... = [ ai j ]m n
... ... ... ... ... ...
a m1 am 2 ... ... ... a mn
The individual items in a matrix are called its elements or entries and elements may be numbers, symbols
or expression etc. The element in row i and column j is aij where subscripts ij is called address of the
entry aij .Each horizontal array of elements in a matrix is called a row. Each vertical array of elements in
a matrix is called a column .The number of rows and columns determine the size of a matrix. If there are
m rows and n columns, then the matrix is of size m by n, written m×n. Matrices are generally denoted
by capital letters A, B, X, Y etc, where lowercase letters is used to denotes the numerical quantities. The
mathematical notations that are used to represents matrix are as follows:
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(1). Square brackets [ ]
(2). curved brackets or parenthesis ( )
(3). Two pair of parallel lines
Matrix has the followings:
1. Elements/Members/Entries/Components
2. Rows and Columns
3. Dimension/Order/Size
Order/dimension of a Matrix = Numbers of rows of matrix Numbers of columns of matrix
VARIOUS TYPES OF MATRICES
Rectangular Matrix: A matrix with the unequal number of rows and columns is called a
rectangular matrix.
1 0 5 9 −1 2 3 3
4 5 1 2 8 7 4 6
For example: A = 1 3 7 3 2 1 7 8 is a rectangular matrix of order 5 8 .
9 6 5 5 4 −1 5 9
7 3 1 7 9 5 1 3
Square Matrix: A matrix with the same number of rows and columns is called a square matrix.
4 5 9 7 9
5 3 7 4 9
For example: A = 2 1 8 7 6 is a square matrix of order 5 5 .
−1 5 −9 8 9
6 3 6 7 5
➢ Trace of matrix:The sum of the elements in the principal diagonal of a square matrix A is
called the trace of the matrix and is abbreviated as tr (A).Trace is also known as spur that
is a German word. Thus if A = (aij ) is a square matrix of order n, then
n
tr ( A) = a11 + a 22 + a33 + + a nn = aii .
i =1
• Properties:
1. If A = (aij )nn and is a scalar (real number) then
tr (A) = tr ( A) .
2. Let A and B be n×n matrices then
tr (A B) = tr ( A) tr ( B) .
3. If A and B are matrices such that AB and BA co-exist, then tr ( AB) = tr ( BA ) .
In general tr ( ABC ) = tr ( BCA) = tr (CAB) .
4. Traces of similar matrices are equal. i.e., tr(A)=tr(B).
Row matrix: A matrix with only one row is called row matrix or row vector.
For example: A = (1 2 3 4 5) is a matrix of order 1 5 .
Column matrix: A matrix with only one column is called column matrix or column vector.
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4
3
For example: A = 6 is a matrix of order 5 1 .
8
9
Diagonal Matrix:
A square matrix, whose principal diagonal elements are not all zero but non-leading diagonal
elements are zero. That is, a matrix that is both upper and lower triangular is a diagonal matrix.
a 0 0 0 0
0 b 0 0 0
For example: A = 0 0 c 0 0 is a diagonal matrix of order 5 5 .
0 0 0 d 0
0 0 0 0 e
Properties:
a11 0 0 ... 0
0 a 22 0 ... 0
1. A = 0 0 a33 ... 0 is diagonal with aii 0, i then,
... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ... a nn
a −111 0 0 ... 0
−1
0 a 22 0 ... 0
A = 0
−1
0 a −133 ... 0 .
... ... ... ... ...
0 ... a −1 nn
0 0
a11 0 0 ... 0 a n11 0 0 ... 0
0
a 22 0 ... 0 0 a n
22 0 ... 0
2. If A= 0 0 a33 ... 0 then A = 0
n
0 a n 33 ... 0 .
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
0 ... a nn 0 ... a n nn
0 0 0 0
3. Diagonal matrix is always square and symmetric.
Scalar Matrix:
A diagonal matrix with all its main diagonal entries equal is a scalar matrix.
For example:
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a 0 0 0
0 a 0 0
is a scalar matrix of order 5 5.
0 0 a 0
0 0 0 a
Identity Matrix/Unit Matrix:
A diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are all unity is called Identity or unity matrix. An
identity matrix may also be defined as follows:
The matrix A = ( ij ) is an identity matrix of order n if
1, i = j
ij = i, j = 1,2,3,......... , n where ij , so defined is known as kro-
0 , i j
necker’s delta.The identity matrix of order n is denoted by I n and defined as
I n = diag (1,1,1,............,1) .
Note: The identity matrix of a size n is the only idempotent matrix of that size having full rank.
For example:
I1 = 1 is an Identity matrix of order 1 1.
1 0
I2 = is an Identity matrix of order 2 2.
0 1
1 0 0
I 2 = 0 1 0 is an Identity matrix of order 3 3.
0 0 1
Zero Matrix/Null Matrix :
A matrix whose all entries are zero is called Zero matrix/Null matrix. Zero matrix is denoted by
English Alphabet O.
0 0 0
O = 0 0 0 is zero matrix of order 3 3.
0 0 0
Triangular matrix:
▪ Upper triangular matrix:
A matrix A = [ aij ] mn is said to be upper triangular whose elements aij = 0, i j
.That is a non-square matrix with zeros below the main diagonal is called upper
triangular matrix. If A is square matrix then in an upper triangular matrix all the
elements below the principal diagonal are zero. The variable U is standing for upper
triangular matrix.
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a11 a12 ... ... a1n
0 a a23 ... a2 n
22
For example: 0 0 a33 ... a3n is an upper triangular matrix.
... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 0 ann
▪ Lower triangular matrix:
A matrix A = [ a ij ] mn is said to be lower triangular whose elements aij = 0, i j . That
is a non-square matrix with zeros above the main diagonal is called lower triangular
matrix. If A is square matrix then in a lower triangular matrix all the elements above
the principal diagonal are zero. The variable L is standing for lower triangular matrix.
a11 0 ... ... 0
a
21 a22 0 ... 0
For example: a31 a32 a33 ... 0 is a lower triangular matrix.
... ... ... ... ...
an1 an 2 ... ... ann
▪ Triangular matrix:
A matrix which is either upper triangular or lower triangular matrix is called triangular
matrix.
For example:
a11 a12 ... ... a1n a11 0 ... ... 0
0 a
a 23 ... a 2 n
22 a 21 a 22 0 ... 0
0 0 a33 ... a3n a31 a32 a33 ... 0
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 0 a nn a n1 a n 2 ... ... a nn
Upper triangular matrix Lower triangular matrix
▪ Properties :
1. Triangular matrix need not be square.
2. A square matrix which is both upper triangular and lower triangular is a
diagonal matrix.
3. The sum of two upper triangular matrices is upper triangular.
4.The sum of two lower triangular matrices is lower triangular.
5. The product of two upper triangular matrix is upper triangular.
6.The product of two lower triangular matrices is lower triangular.
7. The inverse of an invertible upper triangular matrix is upper triangular.
8.The inverse of an invertible lower triangular matrix is lower triangular
9. The product of an upper triangular matrix by a constant is an upper triangular.
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10. The transpose of an upper triangular matrix is a lower triangular matrix and
vice-versa.
11. A lower triangular matrix is non-singular iff none of the elements on its
main diagonal is zero.
12. Triangular reduction of a matrix is not unique.
Transpose of a matrix:
Let A is an m×n matrix over the real field R, then the n×m matrix obtained from the matrix A by
writing its rows as columns and its columns as rows is called the transpose of A and denoted by
the symbol AT that is,if A = ( aij ) is an m×n matrix then AT = (a ji ) is an n×m matrix.The
transpose of a matrix was introduced in 1858 by the British mathematician Arthur Cayley.
For example:
1 4
4 5
1 2 5 8 is a matrix of order 4 2 .
Let A = is a matrix of order 2 4 , then A T
=
4 5 9 8 5 9
8 8
Properties:
❖ For matrices A, B and C we have the enlisted properties of transpose.
1. ( AT )T = A .
2. ( A + B)T = AT + B T With respect to addition.
3. ( AB)T = B T AT .
4. (cA)T = cAT .
5. a .b = a T b = ai b i , where a and b are two column vectors.
6. det( AT ) = det( A) , where A is square matrix.
7. If A has only real entries, then AT A is a positive semi-definite.
8. ( AT ) −1 = ( A−1 )T .
9. If A is asquare matrix, then its Eigen values are equal to the Eigen values
of its transpose.
Symmetric matrix:
A square matrix whose transpose is equal to itself is called a symmetric matrix, that is, A is symmetric if
AT = A .
For example:
−2 4 −5
4 9 1 is a symmetric metrix.
−5 1 3
Skew-Symmetric matrix:
A square matrix whose transpose is equal to its negative is called skew symmetric matrix if AT = − A .
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For Example:
0 −4 5
4 0 −1 is a skew-symmetric metrix.Diagonal entries of Skew-Symmetric
−5 1 0
matrix are zero.
NOTE: Every square matrix can be expressed uniquely as the sum of a symmetric matrix and a skew-
symmetric matrix.
❖ Let A be a square matrix of order n and AT be the transpose of A. Then we can write,
A=
1
2
( A + AT ) + ( A − AT )
1
2
where
1
2
( A + AT ) = Symmetric matric.
1
2
( A − AT ) = Skew- symmetric matrix.
Orthogonal Matrix:
A matrix M is said to be orthogonal if MM = M M = I n or M −1 = M .
T T
Orthogonal matrices are very important in Graphics. The determinant of any orthogonal matrix is either
+1 or −1.
Complex Matrix: Any matrix having complex elements is called a complex matrix.
2 + i −2i 3
Example: A = 2 3i −1 .
−3 1 + 2i 2i
Conjugate of a Complex Matrix: The matrix obtained from any given matrix A of order m n
with complex elements aij , by replacing its elements by the corresponding conjugate complex
numbers is called the complex conjugate or conjugate of A and is denoted by A .
2 + i −2i 3 2 − i 2i 3
Example: If A = 2 3i
−1 then A = 2 −3i −1 .
−3 1 + 2i 2i −3 1 − 2i −2i
Real Matrix: A matrix A is called real if each element is a real number or it satisfies the relation
A = A.
1 −2 3
Example: A = 2 3 −1 .
−3 1 2
Imaginary Matrix: A matrix A is called imaginary if each element is imaginary or it satisfies the
relation A = − A .
i −2i 3i
Example: A = 2i 3i −i .
−3i i 2i
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Horizontal Matrix: A matrix A of order m n is called a horizontal matrix if the number of rows
is less than the number of columns, i.e, m n .
1 2 2
Example: A = .
2 4 1
Vertical Matrix: A matrix A of order m n is called a horizontal matrix if the number of rows is
more than the number of columns, i.e, m n .
1 2
Example: A = 3 4 .
5 6
Sub-matrix of a matrix:A matrix, which is obtained from a given matrix by deleting any number
of rows and columns or both, is called a sub-matrix of the given matrix.
1 2 3 4 1 2 3
3 4
Example: If A = 5 6 7 8 be a matrix then 5 6 7 ;
7 8
etc. are its sub-matrices.
0 7 5 2 0 7 5
Equal Matrices.Two matrices A = aij and B = bij are said to equal iff
• They are of the same dimensions i.e, they are of the same order.
• The elements in the corresponding positions of the two matrices are same.
Hermitian matrix: A square complex matrix A = aij is said to be a Hermitian matrix if it is
nn
( )
t
equal to the transpose of its conjugate complex i.e. if A = A .
l + i
Example: A =
− i m
Skew-Hermitian matrix: A square complex matrix A = aij is said to be a Skew-Hermitian
nn
( )
t
matrix or anti-Hermitian matrix if A = − A .
i 1 + i
Example: A =
−1 + i 0
Unitary matrix: A square complex matrix A = aij is said to be a Unitary matrix if
nn
( )
t
AA* = A* A = I where A* = A .
1 1 i 1 1 1+ i
Example: A = −i −1 ; B =
2 3 1 − i −1
Normal matrix: A square complex matrix A = aij is said to be a Normal matrix if
nn
( )
t
AA* = A* A where A* = A .
2 + 3i 1
Example: A =
i 1 + 2i
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Idempotent matrix: A square matrix A = aij is said to be an Idempotent matrix if A2 = A .
nn
−1 3 5
Example: A = 1 −3 −5
−1 3 5
Periodic matrix: A square matrix A = aij is said to be a Periodic matrix if Ak +1 = A , where
nn
k is a positive integer.
1 −2 −6
Example: A = −3 2 9 is a periodic matrix of period 2.
2 0 −3
Involutory matrix: A square matrix A = aij is said to be an Involutory matrix if A2 = I .
nn
4 3 2 −1
Example: A = ; B=
−5 −4 3 −2
Nilpotent matrix: A square matrix A = aij is said to be a Nilpotent matrix of order m , if
nn
m −1
A = O and A O , where m is a positive integer and O is the null matrix. If m is the least
m
positive integer such that A = O , then m is called the index of the nilpotent matrix A.
m
0 1
Example: A = is a Nilpotent matrix of index 2.
0 0
Sparse matrix: A matrix is said to be sparse if it is non-zero but it has many zeroes as entries.
0 1 0
For example: (0 0 1)
1 0 0
Dense matrix: A matrix is said to be dense if it contains more non-zero entries than zeroes.
1 1 0
For example: (0 1 1)
1 0 1
Permutation matrix: Permutation matrix is obtained from identity matrix by interchanging any
two of its rows.For example: The permutation matrices of order two are given by
(1)
and of order three are given by
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Note:
1. An identity matrix with order n has n! permutation matrix.
2. Determinant of permutation matrix is always ±1.
3. For permutation matrix A , 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐼
4. The transpose of a permutation matrix P is its inverse.
Operation on Matrices
Addition: If A and B be two matrices of order m n given by A = aij and B = bij , then the
matrix A + B is defined as the matrix each element of which is the sum of the corresponding
elements of A and B i.e. A + B = aij + bij , where i = 1, 2, 3,....., m and j = 1, 2,3,....., n .
1 2 2 3 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 5
Example: If A = and B = 4 5 then A + B = 3 + 4 4 + 5 = 7 9 .
3 4
Subtraction: If A and B be two matrices of order m n given by A = aij and B = bij , then
the matrix A − B is defined as the matrix each element of which is obtained by subtracting the
elements of B from the corresponding elements of A i.e. A − B = aij − bij , where
i = 1, 2, 3,....., m and j = 1, 2,3,....., n .
1 2 2 3 1 − 2 2 − 3 −1 −1
Example: If A = and B = 4 5 then A − B = 3 − 4 4 − 5 = −1 −1 .
3 4
Question: Define conformable for addition and subtraction.
Answer: If the two matrices A and B are of the same order, then only their addition and
subtraction is possible and these matrices are said to be Conformable for Addition or Subtraction.
Multiplication of Matrices.
If A and B be two matrices such that the number of columns in A is equal to the number rows in
B i.e. if A = aij and B = b jk are m n , n p matrices then the product of the matrices A and
B denoted by AB is defined as matrix
C = cik
n
= aij b jk
j =1
In the matrix product AB, the matrix A is called the pre-multipliers and B is called the post-
multipliers.
1 0
Example: If A = 1 2 and B = then AB = 1 + 4 0 + 6 = 5 6 .
2 3
Commutative matrices: If A and B are two square matrices such that AB=BA, then A and B are
called commutative matrices or are said to commute.
Anti-commutative matrices: If A and B are two square matrices such that AB = − BA , then A and
B are called anti-commutative matrices or are said to anti-commute.
NOTE: The transpose of the product of two matrices is equal to the product of their transpose in
reverse order, i.e. ( AB ) = B t At .
t
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Determinant:
Determinant: A square array of 𝑛2 numbers arranged in n rows and n columns and enclosed by two
vertical bar and which is associated with a unique number is called a determinant with order n.
If A is a square matrix then its determinant is denoted by the symbol A .
1 −1 1 −1
Example: If A = ; then A = = 2+0 = 2
0 2 0 2
Question: Distinguish between a matrix and a determinant.
Answer: The differences between a matrix and a determinant are as follows:
Matrix Determinant
1. A matrix cannot be reduced to a single number. 1. A determinant can be reduced to a single
number.
2. In a matrix, the number of rows may not be 2. In a determinant, the number of rows must be
equal to the number of columns. equal to the number of columns.
3. An interchange of rows or columns gives a 3. An interchange of rows or columns gives the
different matrix. same determinant with +ve or –ve sign.
1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3
4. Examples: ; . 1 2
3 4 4 5 6 4. Examples: ; −2 1 0 .
3 4
2 3 4
Minor of a matrix.
Let A be an m n matrix. The determinant of the square sub-matrix of order r r obtained by deleting
( m − r ) rows and ( n − r ) columns from A, is called a minor of order r of A.
1 2 3 1 2 2 3 1 3
Example: If A = then ; ; are minors of order 2 of A.
4 5 6 4 5 5 6 4 6
Minor of an entry of a determinant: Minor of an element of a matrix is the determinant obtained on
deleting the rows and column in it belongs.
For example:
1 2 3
2 3
Let us consider the determinant −2 1 0 then the minor of the element -2 is = | | = 8 − 9 = −1.
3 4
2 3 4
Cofactor of an entry of a determinant: The cofactor of the entry of a determinant is obtained by
multiplying its minor by (−1)𝑖+𝑗 where i and j denotes the number of row and column at that the element
belongs.
For example:
1 2 3
2 3
Let us consider the determinant −2 1 0 then the minor of the element -2 is = | | = 8 − 9 = −1.
3 4
2 3 4
Therefore, the cofactor of the element -2 is = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 × 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = (−1)2+1 × (−1) = 1.
Cofactor matrix: When each entry of a matrix is replaced by its cofactor then obtained matrix is called
cofactor matrix. Cofactor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is denoted by 𝐴𝑖𝑗 .
Adjoin matrix: The transpose of a cofactor matrix is called adjoin matri
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Singular matrix: A square matrix A is said to be a singular matrix, if the determinant of A is zero, i.e.
A = 0.
1 −2 1 −2
Example: Let A = ; then A = = 0.
−1 2 −1 2
Non-Singular matrix: A square matrix A is said to be a non-singular matrix, if the determinant of A is
not zero, i.e. A 0 .
1 2 1 2
Example: Let A = ; then A = 0.
−1 2 −1 2
Inverse matrix:
Let A be a nonsingular square matrix of order n and there exist another unique same order matrix B with
property that AB=BA=In …. (**) where In is unity matrix of order n, then B is called the inverse of A and
is written A-1.
adjA
In other way we define it as, the inverse of a matrix A is defined by A −1 = .
A
Properties of inverse matrix:
The followings are holds for inverse matrix (square)
1. A-1 exist iff |A|≠0.
2. (AB)-1=B-1A-1.
3. (A-1)-1=A
4. The inverse of a matrix, if it exists, is unique.
𝑎 𝑏 1 𝑑 −𝑏
5. If 𝐴 = ( ) then 𝐴−1 = ( )
𝑐 𝑑 𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐 −𝑐 𝑎
Mathematical problems
1 2 −3 3 −1 2
Problem-01: If A = 5 0
2 and B = 4 2 5 then find A + B and 2A − B .
1 −1 1 2 0 3
Solution: The given matrices are,
1 2 −3 3 −1 2
and
A = 5 0 2 B = 4 2 5
1 −1 1 2 0 3
1 2 −3 3 −1 2
Now, A+ B = 5 0
2 +4 2 5
1 −1 1 2 0 3
1 + 3 2 − 1 −3 + 2
= 5 + 4 0 + 2 2+5
1 + 2 −1 + 0 1 + 3
4 1 −1
= 9 2 7
3 −1 4
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1 2 −3 3 −1 2
Again, 2A − B = 2 5 0
2 − 4 2 5
1 −1 1 2 0 3
2 4 −6 3 −1 2
= 10 0
4 − 4 2 5
2 −2 2 2 0 3
2 − 3 4 + 1 −6 − 2
= 10 − 4 0 − 2
4−5
2 − 2 −2 − 0 2 − 3
−1 5 −8
= 6 −2 −1 .
0 −2 −1
1 4 0 3 2 1 3 2 1
Problem-02: If A = 2 5 0 , B = 1 2 3 and C = 1 2 3 then find AB and BC .
3 6 0 4 5 6 7 8 9
Solution: The given matrices are,
1 4 0 3 2 1 3 2 1
, and
A = 2 5 0 B = 1 2 3 C = 1 2 3
3 6 0 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 4 0 3 2 1
Now, AB = 2
5 0 1 2 3
3 6 0 4 5 6
1.3 + 4.1 + 0.4 1.2 + 4.2 + 0.5 1.1 + 4.3 + 0.6
= 2.3 + 5.1 + 0.4 2.2 + 5.2 + 0.5 2.1 + 5.3 + 0.6
3.3 + 6.1 + 0.4 3.2 + 6.2 + 0.5 3.1 + 6.3 + 0.6
3 + 4 + 0 2 + 8 + 0 1 + 12 + 0
= 6 + 5 + 0 4 + 10 + 0 2 + 15 + 0
9 + 6 + 0 6 + 12 + 0 3 + 18 + 0
7 10 13
= 11 14 17 .
15 18 21
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3 2 1 3 2 1
Again, BC = 1 2 3 1
2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9
3.3 + 2.1 + 1.7 3.2 + 2.2 + 1.8 3.1 + 2.3 + 1.9
= 1.3 + 2.1 + 3.7 1.2 + 2.2 + 3.8 1.1 + 2.3 + 3.9
4.3 + 5.1 + 6.7 4.2 + 5.2 + 6.8 4.1 + 5.3 + 6.9
9+2+7 6+ 4+8 3+6+9
= 3 + 2 + 21 2 + 4 + 24 1 + 6 + 27
12 + 5 + 42 8 + 10 + 48 4 + 15 + 54
18 18 18
= 26 30 34 .
59 66 73
−1 2 3
Problem-03: Express A = 0
1 −2 as the sum of a Symmetric and Skew-symmetric matrices.
4 −5 −3
Solution: The given matrix is,
−1 2 3
A= 0 1 −2
4 −5 −3
−1 0 4
The transpose of A is At = 2
1 −5
3 −2 −3
The symmetric matrix of A is,
−1 2 3 −1 0 4
1
1
2
( A + A ) = 2 0 1
t
−2 + 2 1 −5
4 −5 −3 3 −2 −3
−2 2 7
1
= 2 2 −7
2
7 −7 −6
7
−1 1 2
= 1
7
1 −
2
7 − 7 −3
2 2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 83 of 214
The skew-symmetric matrix of A is,
−1 2 3 −1 0 4
1
1
2
( A − A ) = 0 1 −2 − 2 1 −5
t
2
4 −5 −3 3 −2 −3
0 2 −1
1
= −2 0 3
2
1 −3 0
1
0 1 −
2
= −1 0
3
2
1 − 3 0
2 2
7 1
−1 1
2
0 1 −
2
A= 1
7 3
Therefore, 1 − + −1 0 .
2 2
7 −
7
−3
1
−
3
0
2 2 2 2
1 0 6
Problem-04: Express A = 4 4
−1 as the sum of a Symmetric and Skew-symmetric matrices.
0 −9 6
Solution: The given matrix is,
1 0 6
A = 4 4 −1
0 −9 6
1 4 0
The transpose of A is A = 0 4 −9
t
6 −1 6
The symmetric matrix of A is,
1 0 6 1 4 0
1
1
2
( A + A ) = 4 4 −1 + 0 4 −9
t
2
0 −9 6 6 −1 6
2 4 6
1
= 4 8 −10
2
6 −10 12
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 84 of 214
1 2 3
= 2 4 −5
3 −5 −6
The skew-symmetric matrix of A is,
1 0 6 1 4 0
1
1
2
( A − A ) = 4 4 −1 − 0 4 −9
t
2
0 −9 6 6 −1 6
0 −4 6
1
= 4 0 8
2
−6 −8 0
0 −2 3
= 2 0 4
−3 −4 0
1 2 3 0 −2 3
Therefore , A = 2 4 −5 + 2
0 4 .
3 −5 6 −3 −4 0
1 2 −1
Problem 05. Find the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = (1 3 5 ) by ad-join matrix method.
6 −1 4
Solution:
Given matrix is,
1 2 −1
𝐴 = (1 3 5)
6 −1 4
1 2 −1
∴ 𝐴 = |1 3 5 | = 1(12 + 5) − 2(4 − 30) − 1(−1 − 18) = 17 + 52 + 19 = 88
6 −1 4
Calculation for Ad-join matrix:
Cofactors are as follows:
3 5
𝐴11 = + | | = 12 + 5 = 17
−1 4
1 5
𝐴12 = − | | = −(4 − 30) = 26
6 4
1 3
𝐴13 = + | | = −1 − 18 = −19
6 −1
2 −1
𝐴21 = + | |=8−1=7
−1 4
1 −1
𝐴22 = + | | = 4 + 6 = 10
6 4
1 2
𝐴23 = − | | = +1 + 12 = 13
6 −1
2 −1
𝐴31 = + | | = 10 + 3 = 13
3 5
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 85 of 214
1 −1
𝐴32 = − | | = −5 + 1 = − 4
1 5
1 2
𝐴33 = +| |=3−2=1
1 3
𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴13 𝑇 𝐴11 𝐴21 𝐴31
Therefore the ad-join matrix of A is 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = (𝐴21 𝐴22 𝐴23 ) = (𝐴12 𝐴22 𝐴32 ) =
𝐴31 𝐴32 𝐴33 𝐴13 𝐴23 𝐴33
17 7 13
( 26 10 −4)
−19 13 1
𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴)
Consequently, the required inverse matrix is, 𝐴−1 = | 𝐴 |
17 7 13
1
𝐴−1 = ( 26 10 −4)
88
−19 13 1
(As
desired)
Try Yourself:
1. Find the Symmetric and Skew-symmetric parts of the matrix
1 2 4
A = 6 8 1 .
3 5 7
2. Find the Symmetric and Skew-symmetric parts of the matrix
1 1 1 4
3
1 −1 0 −1
A= .
−3 0 −2
5
6
1 −1 −1 1
17 7 13
3. Find the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = ( 26 10 −4).
−19 13 1
17 7 13 1 0 1
4. If 𝐴 = ( 26 10 −4) and 𝐵 = ( 2 1 −4) then find 𝐴−1 𝐵.
−19 13 1 −1 1 1
1 1 1
5. Prove that 𝐴 = 2 ( ) is an orthogonal matrix.
√ 1 −1
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Chapter Elementary Transformation
02 REF, RREF, NF and Rank
Chapter Contents: In this section learners are able to learn the followings
➢ Elementary Operations
➢ Row Echelon form of a Matrix (REF)
➢ Row Reduced Echelon form of a Matrix (RREF)
➢ Normal form of Matrix (NF)
➢ Rank of a Matrix
➢ Finding the Inverse of a Matrix
Elementary Operations or Elementary Transformations of a Matrix:
An elementary transformation (E-transformation) on a matrix is an operation of any one of the
following three types:
➢ Row/Column exchange: The interchange of any two rows (or columns).
➢ Row/Column scaling: The multiplication of the elements of any row (or column)
by non-
zero scalar.
➢ Row/Column replacement: Replace a row (or column) by itself plus a multiple
of another.
The E-transformation is termed as a row transformation or a column transformation according as
it is carried on rows or columns respectively.
Notations for E-transformation:
Let Ri denote i th row and C j the j th column of matrix Amn .Then the following symbols will be
used to represent the elementary row transformations:
➢ Ri R j Or Rij represents the interchange of i th and j th rows.
➢ Ri → kRi or Ri (k ) , k 0 denotes the multiplication of the elements of the i th row by a
nonzero
scalars k.
➢ Ri → Ri + kR j or Rij (k ) denotes the addition to the elements of the i th row, k times
the corresponding elements the j th row.
The corresponding three column transformations are denoted respectively by replacing R by
column C i.e.
➢ C i C j or C ij
➢ Ci → kCi or Ci (k ) , k 0
➢ Ci → Ci + kC j or C ij (k ) , k 0
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Application of E-transformation:
Elementary operations for matrices play a crucial role in finding solutions to linear systems and
the inverse of a matrix. It is also used to find the special form of matrices such as REF, RREF, NF
and Rank of a Matrix.
Important Basic terms:
Pivot/Leading Entry:
The first non-zero entry of a non-zero row from the left is called the pivot element of that
row.
1 2 3
Example: 0 5 6 ; here, 1, 5 and 7 are the pivot elements of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd rows
0 0 7
respectively.
Zero Row:
A row of a matrix is called a zero row if all entries in that row are zeroes.
1 2 3
For example: In the matrix 0 5 6 ,3rd row is a zero row.
0 0 0
Note: Zero rows are linearly dependent on non-zero rows.
Non-Zero Row:
A row of a matrix is called a n0n-zero row if at least one entry in that row is non-zero.
1 2 3
For example: In the matrix 0 5 6 ,1st and 2nd rows are non-zero rows.
0 0 0
Note: Non-zero rows are linearly independent.
Elementary Matrix:
A Matrix obtained from a unit matrix by subjecting it to any single
elementary transformation is called an elementary matrix or E-Matrix.
0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
For example: a) (0 1 0) 𝑟1 ↔ 𝑟3 b) (0 1 0) 𝑟2 ↔ 4 𝑟2 c) (0
′ ′ ′
1 0) 𝑟3′ ↔
0 0 1 0 0 1 2 0 1
𝑟3 + 2𝑟1
Equivalent Matrices:
Two matrices A and B of the same size are said to be equivalent if one can be obtained
from the other by the application of finite chain of elementary operations. Symbolically
we write 𝐴~𝐵 𝑜𝑟
𝐴 ≈ 𝐵 and read it as A equivalent to B.
Block /Partition Matrix:
A block matrix or a partitioned matrix is a matrix which is interpreted as having been
broken into sections called blocks, celles or sub- matrices. Intuitively, a matrix
interpreted as a block matrix can be visualized as the original matrix with a collection
of horizontal and vertical lines which break it out, or partition it, into a collection of
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 88 of 214
smaller matrices. Any matrix may be interpreted as a block matrix in one or more ways,
with each interpretation defined by how its rows and columns are partitioned.
For example: The matrix
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
P=
3 3 4 4
3 3 4 4
can be partitioned into four 2×2 blocks as
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
P11 = , P12 = , P21 = , P22 =
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
The partitioned matrix can then be written as
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
P =
3 3 4 4
3 3 4 4
P11 P12
P =
P21 P22
Special form of Matrix:
There are three special form of matrices are as
➢ Row Echelon form or Echelon form of a Matrix (REF)
➢ Row Reduced Echelon form of a Matrix (RREF)
➢ Normal form or Canonical form or Orthogonal form of
Matrix (NF)
Echelon form of a Matrix:
Echelon form of a matrix play an important role in finding the solution of system of linear
equations. Echelon matrices come in two forms:
➢ Row Echelon form or Echelon form of a Matrix (REF)
➢ Row Reduced Echelon form of a Matrix (RREF)
Row echelon form:
A matrix is said to be row echelon form if the following conditions holds:
➢ All the non-zero rows if any are above the zero rows.
➢ Each Pivot of a row is in a column to the right of the pivot of the above it.
➢ All entries in a column below a pivot are zero.
Each of the matrices shown below is the example of the matrix in row echelon form:
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Page 89 of 214
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 0 −6 0 2 0 5 4 0 1
0 0 − 1 3 0 0 0 4 5 0 0 1 3
0 0 2 9
0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0
0 0 0
Remember!!
Echelon form of a non-zero matrix are infinite number.
Reduced row echelon form:
A matrix is said to be row echelon form if the following conditions holds:
➢ All the non-zero rows if any are above the zero rows.
➢ Each pivot of a row is in a column to the right of the pivot of the above it.
➢ All entries in a column below a pivot are zero.
➢ Pivot in each row is the only non-zero entry in its column.
➢ Pivot must be 1 (one).
The matrix shown below is the example of the matrix in reduced row echelon form:
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 5 6 0 1 0 0 0
0
0 1 0 3 4 0 1 3 0
0
0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
Remember!!
Row reduced Echelon form of a matrix is unique.
Normal / Canonical /Orthogonal Form of a Matrix:
Suppose 𝐴 is an m×n matrix of rank r then matrix can be reduced to the following normal form
I O
N = r by a finite chain of elementary transformations where 𝐼𝑟 is an identity matrix of
O O
order r and O’s are null matrices.
On the other hand,
Suppose 𝐴 is an m×n matrix of rank r, then there exist two non-singular matrices 𝑃 (of size m×m)
I O
and 𝑅 (of size n×n) such that 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑁𝑅 where N = r , 𝐼 is an identity matrix of order r
𝑟
O O
and O’s are null matrices.
Remarks:
𝐼
1. If 𝑚 > 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 𝑟 then the normal form becomes ( 𝑟 ).
𝑂
2. If 𝑚 = 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 > 𝑟 then the normal form becomes ( 𝐼𝑟 𝑂).
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 90 of 214
3. If 𝑚 = 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 > 𝑟 then the normal form becomes ( 𝐼𝑟 ).
4. These four forms are called normal or canonical form of A.
5. The technique of reducing a matrix to its normal form is known as
the “Sweep Out or Pivotal” Method.
6. Zero/ null matrix is its own Normal Form.
Mathematical Problem on Special form of Matrices
1 3 −1 2
0 11 − 5 3
Problem 01: Find the echelon form of the following matrix A= .
2 − 5 3 1
4 1 1 5
1 3 −1 2
0 11 − 5 3
Solution: Given matrix 2 − 5 3 1
4 1 1 5
1 3 −1 2
0 11 − 5 3
r3 = r3 − 2r1 , r4 = r4 − 4r1
0 − 11 5 − 3
0 − 11 5 − 3
1 3 −1 2
0 11 − 5 3
r3 = r3 + r2 , r4 = r4 + r2
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
This is the echelon from of the given matrix.
(As
desired)
Problem 02: Find the row reduced echelon form of the following matrix A=
1 3 −1 2
0 11 − 5 3
2 − 5 3 1 .
4 1
1 5
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Solution:
1 3 −1 2
0 11 − 5 3
Given matrix 2 − 5 3 1
4 1 1 5
1 3 −1 2
0 11 − 5 3
r3 = r3 − 2r1 , r4 = r4 − 4r1
0 − 11 5 − 3
0 − 11 5 − 3
1 3 −1 2
0 11 − 5 3
r3 = r3 + r2 , r4 = r4 + r2
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 3 − 1 2
0 1 −511 311
r2 = r2 11
0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0
This is the row reduced echelon form of the given matrix.
(As desired)
1 3 5 7
Problem 03: Find the Normal form of the following matrix A=
3 2 2 2
.
1 0 0 0
0 0 0
0
1 3 5 7
3 2 2 2
Solution: Given that 1 0 0 0
0 0
0 0
1 3 5 7
0 − 7 − 13 − 19
r2 = r2 − 3r1 , r3 = r3 − r1
0 −3 −5 −7
0 0 0
0
1 3 5 7
0 1 13 7 19 7 r
r2 = 2
0 −3 −5 −7 −7
0 0 0
0
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1 0 −4 −8
7 7
0 1 13 19
7
r = r1 − 3r2 , r3 = r3 − (−3)r2
7
0 0 4 8 1
7 7
0 0
0 0
1 0 −4 −8
7 7
0 1 13 19
7
r3 = r3 /( 4 / 7)
7
0 0 1 2
0 0
0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 − 1
r1 = r1 − (−4 / 7)r3 , r2 = r2 − (13 / 7)r3
0 0 1 2
0 0 0
0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
c 4 = c 4 + c 2
0 0 1 2
0 0
0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
c 4 = c 4 − 2c3
0 0 1 0
0 0
0 0
I O
r
O O
This is the normal form of the given matrix.
(As desired)
1 2 3 4
Problem 04: Find the normal form or Canonical form of A = 4 5 6 7 .
7 7 8 9
1 2 3 4
Solution: Given that 4 5 6 7
7 7 8 9
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 93 of 214
1 2 3 4
0 − 3 − 6 − 9 r2 = r2 − 4r1 , r3 = r3 − 7r1
0 − 7 − 13 − 19
1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 r2 = r2 / − 3
0 − 7 − 13 19
1 0 −1 − 2
0 1 2 3 r1 = r1 − 2r2 , r3 = r3 − (−7)r2
0 0 1 2
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 − 1 r1 = r1 − (−1)r3 , r2 = r2 − 2r3
0 0 1 2
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 c 4 = c 4 + c 2
0 0 1 2
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 c 4 = c 4 − 2c3 [Canonical matrix]
0 0 1 0
I 3 , O which is the Normal form of the matrix.
(As desired)
Problem-05: Find the echelon form and row reduced echelon form of the following matrix.
1 2 −1 2 1
A = 2 4 1 −2 3
3 6 2 −6 5
Solution: Given that,
1 2 −1 2 1
A = 2 4 1 −2 3
3 6 2 −6 5
Now reducing the given matrix to echelon form by using elementary row operations, we get
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 94 of 214
1 2 −1 2 1
A = 2 4 1 −2 3
3 6 2 −6 5
1 2 −1 2 1
R2' = R2 − 2 R1
0 0 3 −6 1
0 R3' = R3 − 3R1
0 5 −12 2
1 2 −1 2 1
0 0 3 −6 1 R3' = 3R3 − 5 R2
0 0 0 −6 1
This matrix is in echelon form.
Again,
1 2 −1 2 1 1
R2 ' = R2
0 0 1 −2
1 3
3 1
R3 = − R3
'
1
0 0 0 1 − 6
6
4
1 2 0 0 3
0 0 1 −2
1
R1' = R1 + R2
3
0 0 0 1 − 1
6
4
1 2 0 0 3
0 0 1 0 0 R2 ' = R2 + 2 R3
1
0 0 0 1 −
6
This matrix is in row reduced echelon form.
(As desired)
Problem-06: Find the echelon form, row reduced echelon form and normal form of the
following matrix.
3 −2 0 −1
0 2 2 1
A=
1 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1
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Page 95 of 214
Solution: Given that,
3 −2 0 −1
0 2 2 1
A=
1 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1
Now reducing the given matrix to echelon form by using elementary row operations, we get
3 −2 0 −1
0 2 2 1
A=
1 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1
3 −2 0 −1
0 2 2 1
R ' = R1 − 3R3
0 4 9 −7 3
0 1 2 1
3 −2 0 −1
0 2 2 1 R3' = R3 − 2 R2
0 0 5 −9 R4 ' = R2 − 2 R4
0 0 −2 −1
3 −2 0 −1
0 2 2 1
R ' = 5R4 + 2 R3
0 0 5 −9 4
0 0 0 −23
This matrix is in echelon form.
Again,
R
1 − 2 R1' = 1
0 −1 3
3 3
0 R
1 1 1 R2 ' = 2
2
2
0 0 1 − 9 R3' = 3
R
5 5
0 −R
0 0 1 R4 ' = 4
23
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Page 96 of 214
1 0 2 0
3
0 1 1 1
2R
2 R1' = R1 + 2
0 0 1 − 9
3
5
0 1
0 0
1 0 0 6
5
0 1 0 23 2R
R1' = R1 − 3
10 3
R2 = R2 − R3
0 0 1 − 5
'
9
0 0 0 1
6R
1 0 0 0 R1' = R1 − 4
5
0 1 0 0
R ' = R − 23R4
0 0 1 0 2 2 10
9R
0 0 0 1 R3' = R3 + 4
5
This is row reduced echelon form of the matrix A.
This is also normal form of the matrix A.
i.e, ( I 4 )
(As desired)
Problem-07: Find the echelon form, row reduced echelon form and normal form of the
following matrix.
1 3 − 2 −1
2 6 −4 −2
A=
1 3 −2 1
2 6 1 −1
Solution: Given that,
1 3 − 2 −1
2 6 −4 −2
A=
1 3 −2 1
2 6 1 −1
Now reducing the given matrix to echelon form by using elementary row operations, we get
1 3 −2 −1
2 6 −4 −2
A=
1 3 −2 1
2 6 1 −1
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Page 97 of 214
1 3 −2 −1
R2 = R2 − 2 R1
'
0 0 0 0
R3' = R3 − R1
0 0 0 2
R4 = R4 − 2 R1
'
0 0 5 1
1 3 −2 −1
0 0 5 1
R2 R4
0 0 0 2
0 0 0 0
This matrix is in echelon form.
Again,
1 3 −2 −1
1
0 1 R2 ' = R2
0 1 5
5
0 0 0 1
1
R3' = R3
0 0 0
2
0
3
1 3 0 −
5
1
0 0 1 R1' = R1 + 2 R2
5
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
1 3 00 3
R1 = R1 + R3
'
0 0 10
5
0 0 01 1
R2 = R2 − R3
'
0 0 00 5
This is row reduced echelon form of the matrix A.
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
C2 ' = C2 − 3C1
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
C2 C3
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
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1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
C3 C4
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
I O
3
O O
This is the normal form of the matrix A.
(As desired)
Problem-08: Find the echelon form, row reduced echelon form and normal form of the
following matrix.
1 3 1 −2 −3
1 4 3 −1 −4
A=
2 3 −4 −7 −3
3 8 1 −7 −8
Solution: Given that,
1 3 1 −2 −3
1 4 3 −1 −4
A=
2 3 −4 −7 −3
3 8 1 −7 −8
Now reducing the given matrix to echelon form by using elementary row operations, we get
1 3 1 −2 −3
1 4 3 −1 −4
A=
2 3 −4 −7 −3
3 8 1 −7 −8
1 3 1 −2 −3
R2 ' = R2 − R1
0 1 2 1 − 1
R3' = R3 − 2 R1
0 −3 −6 −3 3
R4 ' = R4 − 3R1
0 −1 −2 −1 1
1 3 1 −2 −3
0 1 2 1 −1 R3' = R3 + 3R2
0 0 0 0 0 R4 ' = R4 + R2
0 0 0 0 0
This matrix is in echelon form.
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 99 of 214
1 0 −5 −5 0
0 1 2 1 −1
R1' = R1 − 3R2
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
This is row reduced echelon form of the matrix A.
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 1 −1 C3' = C3 + 5C1
0 0 0 0 0 C4 ' = C4 + 5C1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
C3' = C3 − 2C2
0 1 0 0 0
C4 ' = C 4 − C 2
0 0 0 0 0
C5' = C5 + C2
0 0 0 0 0
I O
2
O O
This is the normal form of the matrix A.
(As desired)
Problem-09: Find the echelon form, row reduced echelon form and normal form of the
following matrix.
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 1
A = 3 2 3 2
3 3 3 3
5 3 5 3
Solution: Given that,
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 1
A = 3 2 3 2
3 3 3 3
5 3 5 3
Now reducing the given matrix to echelon form by using elementary row operations, we get
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 1
A = 3 2 3 2
3 3 3 3
5 3 5 3
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Page 100 of 214
1 2 1 2
R2 ' = R2 − 2 R1
0 −3 0 −3
R3' = R3 − 3R1
0 −4 0 −4
R4 ' = R4 − 3R1
0 −3 0 −3
0 R5' = R5 − 5 R1
−7 0 −7
1 2 1 2
R3' = 3R3 − 4 R2
0 −3 0 −3
0 0 0 0 R4 ' = R4 − R2
0 0 0 0 R5' = 3R5 − 7 R2
0 0 0 0
This matrix is in echelon form.
1 2 1 2
0 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 R2 ' = − R2
3
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 R1' = R1 − 2 R2
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 R1' = R1 − 2 R2
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
This is row reduced echelon form of the matrix A.
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 C3' = C3 − C1
0 0 0 0
C4 ' = C4 − C2
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
I O
2
O O
This is the normal form of the matrix A. (As desired)
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 101 of 214
Try Yourself:
Find the echelon form, row reduced echelon form and normal form of the following matrices:
1 3 −1 2 1 2 −3 −2 −3
1 2 3 2 1
0 11 −5 3 1 3 −2 0 −4
1. 3 1 −5 −2 1 , 2. , 3. .
7 8 −1 2 5 2 − 5 3 1 3 8 −7 −2 − 11
4 1 1 5 2 1 −9 −10 −3
Rank of a Matrix
Rank of a matrix is one of the most important concepts in matrix theory. It enables us to develop
the basic ideas in matrix theory in greater detail and plays an important part in applications of the
matrix theory to describe completely the nature of solutions of a system of linear equations. The
idea of rank was first discussed by J.J Sylvester in 1851.
Definition of rank of a Matrix:
➢ The rank of a matrix A is the maximum number of linearly independent row or column
vectors of A. The rank of a matrix is symbolized as 𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒌(𝑨), 𝒓(𝑨) 𝒐𝒓 𝝆(𝑨).
➢ The rank of a matrix A is equal to the numbers of non-zero rows in its echelon form or
number of pivot in its echelon form.
➢ The rank of a m×n matrix 𝐴 is r if and only if (iff) it can be reduced to the normal form
I O
A= r by a finite chain of elementary transformations where 𝐼𝑟 is an identity
O O
matrix of order r and O’s are null matrices. Mathematically, 𝜌(𝐴) =
𝑟 , 𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥.
➢ A number 𝑟 is the rank of a matrix A of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 if every square sub-matrix of A of
order (𝑟 + 1) is singular and there is at least one square sub-matrix of order r which is non-
singular.
Remembers!!
➢ In a matrix, a line is linearly dependent on another one or others when a linear combination
between them can be established and also linearly independent when a linear combination
between them cannot be established.
➢ The rank of a null matrix is zero.
➢ The rank of an Identity/ unity matrix In is n and also say it matrix of full rank because rank
is same as its order.
➢ The rank of a transpose matrix is same as that of the original matrix. Mathematically,
𝜌(𝐴) =, 𝜌(𝐴′).
➢ Elementary transformations do not change the rank of a matrix.
➢ The rank of a matrix is unique.
➢ The rank of a matrix 𝐴 is 𝜌(𝐴) ≥ 0 .
➢ If 𝐴𝑚×𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 ≤ 𝑛 then 𝜌(𝐴) ≤ 𝑚 .
➢ If 𝐴𝑚×𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 ≥ 𝑛 then 𝜌(𝐴) ≤ 𝑛 .
➢ For matrices 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 , 𝜌(𝐴 + 𝐵) ≤ 𝜌(𝐴) + 𝜌(𝐵) .
➢ For matrices 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 , 𝜌(𝐴 − 𝐵) ≥ 𝜌(𝐴) − 𝜌(𝐵) .
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 102 of 214
➢ If 𝐴𝑛×𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑛×𝑛 then 𝜌(𝐴𝐵) ≥ 𝜌(𝐴) + 𝜌(𝐵) − 𝑛 . (Sylvester’s Law)
➢ The row rank and column rank of a matrix are equal.
➢ The rank of a skew symmetric matrix is 𝜌(𝐴) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜌(𝐴) ≥ 2 . But not 𝜌(𝐴) = 1 because
1×1 skew symmetric matrix is (0) and its rank is 0.
➢ The matrix 𝐴𝑚×𝑛 , 𝑚 < 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝑚 then A has full rank.
➢ The matrix 𝐴𝑚×𝑛 , 𝑚 < 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑚 then A is rank deficient.
➢ A square matrix is invertible if and only if it has a full rank.
Mathematical Problem on Rank of a Matrix
Problem 01: Find the rank of the following given matrix by echelon form method.
6 2 0 4
A = − 2 −1 3 4
− 1 − 1 6 10
Solution:
6 2 0 4
Given that − 2 − 1 3 4
− 1 − 1 6 10
1 1/3 0 2/3
- 2 -1 3 4 r1 = r1 / 6
-1 10
-1 6
- 2 -2/3 0 -4/3
- 2 -1 3 4 r1 = −2.r1
-1 10
-1 6
1 1/3 0 2/3
0 -1/3 3 16/3 r2 = r2 − r1
-1 10
-1 6
-1 -1/3 0 -2/3
0 -1/3 3 16/3 r1 = −r1
-1 10
-1 6
1 1/3 0 2/3
0 -1/3 3 16/3 r3 = r3 − r1
0 32/3
-2/3 6
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 103 of 214
6 2 0 4
0 -1/3 3 16/3 r1 = 6r1
0 32/3
-2/3 6
6 2 0 4
0 1 -9 -16 r2 = −3r2
0 32/3
-2/3 6
6 2 0 4
2
0 -2/3 6 32/3 r2 = − r2
0 3
-2/3 6 32/3
6 2 0 4
0 1 -9 -16 r3 = r3 − r2
0 0
0 0
6 2 0 4
0 -1/3 3 16/3 r2 = −r2 / 3
0 0
0 0
From above we see that the two linearly independent rows, so the rank of the given matrix is
( A) = 2 .
(As desired)
Note: To find the matrix rank by echelon from is more convenient for higher order matrix.
Problem 02: Find the rank of a matrix reducing it to canonical or normal form
1 2 3 4
A = 4 5 6 7 .
7 7 8 9
1 2 3 4
Solution: Given that 4 5 6 7
7 7 8 9
1 2 3 4
0 − 3 − 6 − 9 r2 = r2 − 4r1 , r3 = r3 − 7r1
0 − 7 − 13 − 19
1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 r2 = r2 / − 3
0 − 7 − 13 19
1 0 −1 − 2
0 1 2 3 r1 = r1 − 2r2 , r3 = r3 − (−7)r2
0 0 1 2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 104 of 214
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 − 1 r1 = r1 − (−1)r3 , r2 = r2 − 2r3
0 0 1 2
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 c 4 = c 4 + c 2
0 0 1 2
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 c 4 = c 4 − 2c3 [Canonical matrix]
0 0 1 0
I 3 , O which is the Normal form of the matrix.
Hence the rank of the matrix A is ( A) = 3 .
(As desired)
Problem 03: Find the rank of the following given matrix by determinant method.
6 2 0 4
A = − 2 −1 3 4
− 1 − 1 6 10
Solution:
Given matrix A is a order of 3×4. So the rank of a matrix A cannot be greater than 3. Now we
investigate the 3×3 sub-matrix,
6 2 0
A1 = − 2 − 1 3 A1 = 6(− 6 + 3) + 2(−3 + 12) + 0 = −18 + 18 = 0 .
−1 −1 6
6 2 4
A2 = − 2 − 1 4 A2 = 6(−10 + 4) + 2(−4 + 20) + 4(2 − 1) = 0.
− 1 − 1 10
6 0 4
A3 = − 2 3 4 A3 = 6(30 − 24) + 0 + 4(−12 + 3) = 0 .
− 1 6 10
2 0 4
A4 = − 1 3 4 A4 = 2(30 − 24) + 0 + 4(−6 + 3) = 0 .
− 1 6 10
So, the rank of the matrix A cannot be 3.
6 2
Again, let us consider the 2×2 square matrix B1 = that implies B1 = −6 + 4 = −2 ≠0.
− 2 − 1
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 105 of 214
Therefore, the rank of the given matrix is ( A) = 2 .
(As desired)
1 2 −1 2 1
Problem 04: Find the rank of the matrix A = 2 4 1 −2 3 .
3 6 2 −6 5
Solution: Given that,
1 2 −1 2 1
A = 2 4 1 −2 3
3 6 2 −6 5
Now reducing the matrix to echelon form by the elementary row operations, we get
1 2 −1 2 1
A = 2 4 1 −2 3
3 6 2 −6 5
1 2 −1 2 1
R2' = R2 − 2 R1
0 0 3 −6 1
0 0 5 −12 2 R3' = R3 − 3R1
1 2 −1 2 1
0 0 3 −6 1 R3' = 3R3 − 5 R2
0 0 0 −6 1
This matrix is in echelon form.
Since it contains 3 non-zero rows so the rank of the matrix A is, ( A) = 3.
(As desired)
3 −2 0 −1
0 2 2 1
Problem 05: Find the rank of the matrix A = .
1 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1
Solution: Given that,
3 −2 0 −1
0 2 2 1
A=
1 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1
Now we shall reduce the matrix to echelon form by the elementary row operations.
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 106 of 214
3 −2 0 −1 3 −2 0 −1
0 2 2 1 0 2 2 1
A= R3' = R1 − 3R3
1 −2 −3 2 0 4 9 −7
0 1 2 1 0 1 2 1
3 −2 0 −1
0 2 2 1 R3' = R3 − 2 R2
0 0 5 −9 R4 ' = R2 − 2 R4
0 0 −2 −1
3 −2 0 −1
0 2 2 1
R4 ' = 5R4 + 2 R3
0 0 5 −9
0 0 0 −23
This matrix is in echelon form.
Since it contains 4 non-zero rows so the rank of the matrix A is, ( A) = 4.
(As desired)
Try Yourself: Find the rank of the following matrices
1 2 2
1
2 1 2
1
1. A = 3 2 2
3 Ans: ( A) = 2.
3 3 3
3
5 3
3 5
1 3 1 −2 −3
1 4 3 −1 −4
2. A = Ans: ( A) = 2.
2 3 −4 −7 −3
3 8 1 −7 −8
𝟎 𝟏 −𝟑 −𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
3. 𝑩 = ( ) Ans: 𝝆(𝑩) = 𝟐 .
𝟑 𝟏 𝟎 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟐 𝟎
𝟐 𝟑 𝟓 −𝟑 −𝟐
4. 𝑪 = (𝟑 𝟒 𝟑 −𝟏 −𝟑) Ans: 𝝆(𝑪) = 𝟐 .
𝟓 𝟔 −𝟏 𝟑 −𝟓
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 107 of 214
Inverse of a Matrix
In this section, we discuss some method for finding matrix inverse which require
less computational work to solve the system of linear equations. In this case we
must have the knowledge about determinant and elementary operations.
Definition of Inverse of a Matrix:
Let 𝐴 be a nonsingular square matrix of order 𝑛 and there exist another unique same order matrix
𝐵 with property that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼𝑛 where 𝐼𝑛 is unity matrix of order 𝑛, then 𝐵 is called the
inverse of 𝐴 and is written 𝐴−1 .
Note: Inverse of a matrix does not exist if there is a zero row in its Echelon
form.
Gauss elimination method:
In this method, we take an identity matrix of the same order as that of A and place it with A. Then
our aim is to convert A into an upper triangular matrix. This upper triangular matrix is then also
transformed into an identity matrix by applying elementary row transformations. All the row
transformations performed on A are also performed on the identity matrix placed adjacent to A. In
the end, this adjacent matrix gives the inverse of A when A is transformed into an identity matrix.
In order to increase the accuracy, it is necessary to fix the largest element as the pivot element by
performing row transformations only.
The Gauss elimination method gives ( A | I n ) → (U | B) → ( I n | A −1 ) .
Method’s advantage:
Gaussian elimination method is better to compute matrix inverse compare
to the determinant method.
Mathematical Problem on Inverse of a Matrix
Problem 01: Find the inverse of the following matrix by Gauss elimination method.
1 − 1 2 1
3 0 2 2
A=
2 1 − 1 1
1 0 1 1
Solution:
1 − 1 2 1
3 0 2 2
Given matrix
2 1 − 1 1
1 0 1 1
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 108 of 214
1 −1 2 1 1 0 0 0
[𝐴|𝐼4 ] = (3 0 2 20 1 0 0
Now, | )
2 1 −1 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 10 0 0 1
1 −1 2 1 1 0 0 0 𝑟 ′ = 𝑟 − 3𝑟
2 2 1
0 3 −4 −1 −3 1 0 0 ′
≈ ( | ) 𝑟3 = 𝑟3 − 2𝑟1
0 3 −5 −1 −2 0 1 0
𝑟4′ = 𝑟4 − 𝑟1
0 1 −1 0 −1 0 0 1
1 −1 2 1 1 0 0 0
0 3 −4 −1 −3 1 0 0 𝑟 ′ = 𝑟3 − 𝑟2
≈ ( | ) ′3
0 0 −1 0 1 −1 1 0 𝑟4 = 3𝑟4 − 𝑟3
0 0 2 1 −1 0 −1 3
1 −1 2 1 1 0 0 0
0 3 −4 −1 −3 1 0 0
≈ ( | ) 𝑟4′ = 𝑟4 + 2𝑟3
0 0 −1 0 1 −1 1 0
0 0 0 1 1 −2 1 3
Thus, A has been converted into an upper triangular form. Now by row transformation, A will be
converted into an identity matrix.
1 −1 2 0 0 2 −1 −3
0 3 −4 0 −2 −1 1 3 𝑟1′ = 𝑟1 − 𝑟4
≈ ( | ) ′
0 0 −1 0 1 −1 1 0 𝑟2 = 𝑟2 + 𝑟4
0 0 0 1 1 −2 1 3
1 −1 0 0 2 0 1 −3
0 3 0 0 −6 3 −3 3 𝑟 ′ = 2𝑟3 + 𝑟1
≈ ( | ) 1′
0 0 −1 0 1 −1 1 0 𝑟2 = 𝑟2 − 4𝑟3
0 0 0 1 1 −2 1 3
1 −1 0 0 2 0 1 −3
0 1 0 0 −2 1 −1 1 𝑟 ′ = 𝑟2 /3
≈ ( | ) ′2
0 0 1 0 −1 1 −1 0 𝑟3 = (−1)𝑟3
0 0 0 1 1 −2 1 3
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 −2
0 1 0 0 −2 1 −1 1
≈ ( | ) 𝑟1′ = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
0 0 1 0 −1 1 −1 0
0 0 0 1 1 −2 1 3
0 1 0 − 2
−1 − 2 1 −1 1
Hence the inverse of A is A = . (As desired)
−1 1 −1 0
1 −2 1 3
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 109 of 214
Problem 02: Find the inverse of the following matrix by Gauss elimination method.
2 4 1 1
1 1 5 3
A=
4 2 0 0
3 3 2 1
Solution:
2 4 1 1
1 1 5 3
Given matrix A =
4 2 0 0
3 3 2 1
2 4 1 11 0 0 0
1 1 5 30 1 0 0
Now (𝐴|𝐼4 ) = ( | )
4 2 0 00 0 1 0
3 3 2 10 0 0 1
1 1 5 30 1 0 0
2 4 1 11 0 0 0
≈ ( | ) 𝑟 ′ ↔ 𝑟2′
4 2 0 00 0 1 0 1
3 3 2 10 0 0 1
1 1 5 3 0 1 0 0 𝑟 ′ = 𝑟 − 2𝑟
2 2 1
0 2 −9 −5 1 −2 0 0 ′
≈ ( | ) 𝑟 = 𝑟3 − 4𝑟1
0 −2 −20 −12 0 −4 1 0 3′
𝑟 = 𝑟4 − 3𝑟1
0 0 −13 −8 0 −3 0 1 4
1 1 5 3 0 1 0 0
9 5 1
0 1 −2 − 2 2 −1 0 0
≈ ( | ) 𝑟2′ = 𝑟3 /2
0 −2 −20 −12 0 −4 1 0
0 0 −13 −8 0 −3 0 1
19 11 1
1 1 −2 2 0 0
2 2
′
−1 0 0 𝑟′1 = 𝑟1 − 𝑟2
9 5 1
≈ 0 1 −2 −2 | 2
| 𝑟3 = 𝑟3 + 2𝑟2
0 0 −29 −17 1 −6 1 0
(0 0 −13 −8 0 −3 0 1)
19 11 1
1 0 −2 2 0 0
2 2
9 5| 1
0 1 −2−2 2 −1 0 0 𝑟
𝑟3′ = −29
3
≈
17 | 1 6 1
0 0 1 − 29 29 − 29 0
29
(0 0 −13 −8 0 −3 0 1)
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 110 of 214
2 5 1 19
1 0 0 − 29 − 0
29 29 58
9 5 1
0 1 −2 −2| 2 −1 0 0 𝑟1′ = 𝑟1 −
19
𝑟3
≈ 2
17 | 1 6 1
0 0 1 − − 0
29 29 29 29
(0 0 −13 −8 0 −3 0 1)
2 5 1 19
1 0 0 − 29 − 29 0
29 58
4 | 10 2 9
0 1 0 − 29 − 58 0 9
≈ 29 29 𝑟2′ = 𝑟2 + 2 𝑟3
|17 1 6 1
0 0 1 − 29 − 29 0
29 29
(0 0 −13 −8 0 −3 0 1)
2 5 1 19
1 0 0 − 29 − 29 0
29 58
4 | 10 2 9
0 1 0 − 29 − 58 0
29 29
≈ 17 1 6 1 𝑟4′ = 𝑟4 + 13𝑟3
0 0 1 − 29 − 29 0
29 | 29
11 13 9 13
(0 0 0 − 29 −
29
− 29 − 29 1)
5 1 19
0 0 − 29 − 29 29 0
2
1 58
10 2 9
4 |
0 1 0 29 29 − 29 − 58 0 11
≈ 1 6 1 𝑟4′ = 𝑟4 /(− 29)
17 −
0 0 1 | 29 29 − 29 0
29
13 9 13 29
(0 0 0 1 − 11)
11 11 11
1 1 9 2
0 − 11 11 − 11
1 0 0 22
4 | 10 2 9
0 1 0 − − 0 2
29 29 29 58
≈ 17 1 6 1 𝑟1′ = 𝑟1 + 29 𝑟4
0 0 1 − 29 − 29 0
29| 29
0 0 0 1 13 9 13 29
( − 11)
11 11 11
1 1 9 2
− 11 − 11
1 0 0 0 11 22
2 2 7 4
0 1 0 0| 11
− 11 − 22 11 4
≈ 17 1 6 1 𝑟2′ = 𝑟2 − 29 𝑟4
0 0 1 29|− 29 29
− 29 0
0 0 0 1 13 9 13 29
( − 11)
11 11 11
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 111 of 214
1 1 9 2
− 11 − 11
11 22
1 0 0 0| 2 2 7 4
0 1 0 0 11 − 11 − 22 11 17
≈ 𝑟3′ = 𝑟3 − 29 𝑟4
0 0 1 0−8 −3 −8 17
|
0 0 0 1 1311 9
11 11
13
11
29
( − 11)
11 11 11
−111 1 9 −2
11 22 11
−2 −7
211 11 22
4
11
Hence the inverse of A is, A-1= −8 −3 −8 17
11 11 11 11
13 − 29
11 9
11
13
11 11
(As desired)
1 −1 0 2
0 1 1 −1
Problem 03: Find the inverse of the matrix A = by using block matrix.
2 1 2 1
3 −2 1 6
Solution: The given matrix is,
1 −1 0 2
0 1 1 −1
A=
2 1 2 1
3 −2 1 6
Now we form the block matrix M = ( A I ) and reduce M to echelon form.
1 −1 0 2 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 −1 0 1 0 0
M =
2 1 2 1 0 0 1 0
3 −2 1 6 0 0 0 1
1 −1 0 2 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 −1 0 1 0 0 R3' = R3 − 2 R1
0 3 2 −3 −2 0 1 0 R4 ' = R4 − 3R1
0 1 1 0 −3 0 0 1
1 −1 0 2 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 −1 0 1 0 0 R3' = R3 − 3R2
0 0 −1 0 −2 −3 1 0 R4 ' = R4 − R2
0 0 0 1 −3 −1 0 1
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 112 of 214
1 −1 0 2 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 −1 0 1 0 0 R3' = − R3
0 0 1 0 2 3 −1 0 R4 ' = R4 − R2
0 0 0 1 −3 −1 0 1
In echelon form, the left half of M is in triangular form; hence A is invertible. Further row reduce
M to row canonical form.
1 1 2 0 1 2 0 0
0 1 0 −1 −2 −2 1 0 R1' = R1 + 2 R2
0 0 1 0 2 3 −1 0 R2 ' = R2 − R3
0 0 0 1 −3 −1 0 1
1 1 0 0 −3 −4 2 0
0 1 0 0 −5 −3 1 1 R1' = R1 − 2 R3
0 0 1 0 2 3 −1 0 R2 ' = R2 + R4
0 0 0 1 −3 −1 0 1
1 0 0 0 2 −1 1 −1
0 1 0 0 −5 −3 1 1 '
R1 = R1 − R2
0 0 1 0 2 3 −1 0
0 0 0 1 −3 −1 0 1
The final block matrix is in the form ( I A−1 )
2 −1 1 −1
−5 −3 1 1
A−1 = which is required inverse matrix.
2 3 −1 0
−3 −1 0 1
(As desired)
1 −1 2 1
3 0 2 2
Problem-04: Find the inverse of the matrix A = by using block matrix or
2 1 −1 1
1 0 1 1
row canonical form.
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 113 of 214
1 −1 2 1
3 0 2 2
Solution: The given matrix is, A =
2 1 −1 1
1 0 1 1
Now we form the block matrix M = ( A I ) and reduce M to echelon form.
1 −1 2 1 1 0 0 0
3 0 2 2 0 1 0 0
M =
2 1 −1 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 −1 2 1 1 0 0 '
0
R2 = R2 − 3R1
0 3 −4 −1 −3 1 0
0 '
R3 = R3 − 2 R1
0 3 −5 −1 −2 0 0 1
R4 = R4 − R1
'
0 1 −1 0 −1 0 1 0
1 −1 2 1 1 0 0 0
0 3 −4 −1 −3 1 0 0 R3' = R3 − R2
0 0 −1 0 1 −1 1 0 R4 ' = 3R4 − R2
0 0 1 1 0 −1 0 3
1 −1 2 1 1 0 0 0
0 3 −4 −1 −3 1 0 0 '
R4 = R4 + R3
0 0 −1 0 1 −1 1 0
0 0 0 1 1 −2 1 3
In echelon form, the left half of M is in triangular form; hence A is invertible. Further row reduce
M to row canonical form.
1 −1 2 0 0 2 −1 −3 '
R1 = R1 − R4
0 3 −4 0 −2 −1 1 3 '
R2 = R2 + R4
0 0 1 0 −1 1 −1 0
R3 = − R3
'
0 0 0 1 1 −2 1 3
1 −1 0 0 2 0 1 −3
0 3 0 0 −6 3 −3 3 R1' = R1 − 2 R3
0 0 1 0 −1 1 −1 0 R2 ' = R2 + 4 R3
0 0 0 1 1 −2 1 3
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 114 of 214
1 −1 0 0 2 0 1 −3
0 1 0 0 −2 1 −1 1 ' 1
R2 = R2
0 0 1 0 −1 1 −1 0 3
0 0 0 1 1 −2 1 3
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 −2
0 1 0 0 −2 1 −1 1 '
R1 = R1 + R2
0 0 1 0 −1 1 −1 0
0 0 0 1 1 −2 1 3
The final block matrix is in the form ( I A−1 )
0 1 0 −2
−1 −2 1 −1 1
Therefore, the required inverse matrix is A =
−1 1 −1 0
1 −2 1 3
(As desired)
Try Yourself:
1. Find the inverse of the following Matrices
1 −2 3 1 0 3 3 −3 4 −1 2 −3
a) A = 2
b) A = 2 1 0 c) A = 2 −3 4 d) A = 2 1 0 .
3 −1
−3 1 2 3 2 1 0 −1 1 4 −2 5
−1 2 −3 2 1 −1
2. If A = 2 1 0 and B = 0
2 1 then find A−1 B .
4 −2 5 5 2 −3
1 2 3
3. If A = 2 3 4 then show that AA−1 = I .
1 5 7
−1 −3 3 −1
1 1 −1 0
4. Find the inverse of the matrix A = by using block matrix or row
2 −5 2 −3
−1 1 1 0
canonical form.
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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0 −1 −2 −3
1 1 4 4
5. Find the inverse of the matrix A = by using block matrix or row
1 3 7 9
1 −2 −4 −6
canonical form.
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Chapter System of Linear Equations
03 SLEs
In this chapter, we have a concentration to solve the system of linear
equations in various methods. Methods are as follows:
➢ Crammer Rule
➢ Gauss Elimination Method
System of linear Equations:
A System of linear Equations is a collection of linear equations involving
the same set of variables. That is the equation of the following form –
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋯ ∙∙∙∙∙ ⋯ ⋯ ∙∙∙∙∙ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ∙ ⋯ ⋯
⋯⋯∙ ⋯ ⋯⋯∙ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯⋯∙ ⋯ ⋯
⋯⋯∙ ⋯ ⋯⋯∙ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯⋯∙ ⋯ ⋯
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚
We can write the above system as of the following matrix form
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥2 𝑏2
⋯∙ ⋯∙ ⋯∙ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ . ⋯ = ⋯
⋯∙ ⋯∙ ⋯∙ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
[𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚3 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 ] [𝑥𝑛 ] [𝑏𝑚 ]
We also write it in abridged form as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵,where A is Coefficient Matrix
and X is a solution vector and also B is a Constant Vector.
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥2 𝑏2
Here we Say 𝐴 = ⋯ ∙ ⋯ ∙ ⋯ ∙ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ , 𝑋 = ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = ⋯
⋯∙ ⋯∙ ⋯∙ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
[𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚3 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 ] [𝑥𝑛 ] [𝑏𝑚 ]
Augmented matrix:
An Augmented matrix is a Coefficient matrix adjoining with Constant
vector and it is denoted by the symbol (𝐴|𝐵) and is defined as
mathematically by as follows
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑏2
(𝐴|𝐵) = ⋯ ∙ ⋯ ∙ ⋯ ∙ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ | ⋯
|
⋯∙ ⋯∙ ⋯∙ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
( 𝑎 𝑚1 𝑎 𝑚2 𝑎 𝑚3 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎 𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑚)
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Homogeneous System:
A System of linear equation 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 is called Homogeneous system if 𝐵 = 𝑶.
That is 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑶 is called a Homogeneous system where O is a zero vector.
Generally, zero vector is the confirm solution of the Homogeneous system.
For example: The following system is a homogeneous system
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 0
𝑥+𝑦−𝑧 = 0
Non-Homogeneous System:
A System of linear equation 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 is called Non-homogeneous system if
𝐵 ≠ 𝑶.
For example: The following system is a Non-homogeneous system
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 5
2𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 2
𝑥+𝑦−𝑧 = 1
Solution of system of linear equations:
A solution of a system of linear equations is an n-tuple that satisfies all
equations in the system.
For example: The 3-tuple (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (1,1,1) is the solution of the following
system
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 4
2𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 4
𝑥+𝑦−𝑧 = 1
Fundamental (Basic) and Free Variables:
A variable which is associated with pivot or leading entry in a matrix
echelon form of coefficient matrix or Augmented matrix is called
fundamental (Basic) variable otherwise Free variable.
For example: Consider a system of linear equations
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 4
2𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 5
Its Augmented matrix is
1 2 −1 4 1 2 −1 4
(𝐴|𝐵) = ( | )≈ ( | ) ← 𝐸𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
2 −4 0 5 0 −8 2 −3
In echelon form marked number indicates the pivots where 1 associated
with x and -8 associated with y, so x, y are fundamental variables and z
is only free variable.
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Note:
➢ If a system consists at least one free variable then it possesses
infinitely many solutions and the system is called Redundant.
➢ If a homogeneous linear system has n unknows and reduced row
echelon form of its augmented matrix has r non-zero rows then the
system has (𝑛 − 𝑟) free variables.
Various types of solution of a system of linear equations:
➢ For 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑶
Trivial / Zero Solution:
A homogeneous system 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑂 has exactly a one solution 𝑋 = 𝑂 and if this
system also belongs another non-zero solution then the existing zero
solution is called Trivial / Zero solution.
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 8𝑧 = 0
For example: A homogeneous system } has two solutions
3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 0
(0 , 0 , 0) and (1 , 2, 3).Therefore this zero solution (0 , 0 , 0) is called Trivial
solution.
Non-zero / Non-trivial solution:
A homogeneous system 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑂 has exactly a one solution 𝑋 = 𝑂 but a
solution other than 𝑋 = 𝑂 is called Non-trivial solution.
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 8𝑧 = 0
For example: A homogeneous system } has two solutions
3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 0
(0 , 0 , 0) and (1 , 2, 3).Therefore the solution (1 , 2 , 3) is called Non-trivial
solution.
➢ For 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩
General Solution:
Set of all possible solution of the system is called General solution or Solution Set.
𝑥+𝑦−𝑍 =2
For example: A Non-homogeneous system 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 8 has a general solution
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 10
of the form {(−4 + 5𝑎 , 6 − 𝑎 , 𝑎 ) ∶ 𝑎 𝜖 𝑅 }.
Note: A non-homogeneous system has never a trivia solution.
Particular Solution:
A particular solution of a system of linear equations is an n-tuple that satisfies
all equations in the system and it is obtained by assigning the value to the
arbitrary constants.
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 119 of 214
𝑥+𝑦−𝑍 =2
For example: A Non-homogeneous system 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 8 has a particular
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 10
solution (−4 , 6 , 0 ) by letting 𝑎 = 0 and another particular solution is (1 , 5 , 1 ) for
𝑎 =1.
Classification of System of linear equations:
The system of linear equations can be classified into the following ways
Existence of the solution of system of linear equations:
Rouche’s Theorem:
The necessary and sufficient condition for linear system AX=B stated above is
consistent or having solution if and only if the coefficient matrix A and
augmented matrix (A|B) have the same Rank that is r (A) =r (A|B), otherwise the
system is inconsistent.
According to Rouche’s theorem, if
➢ Rank of A Rank of B, then system is inconsistent.
➢ Rank of A Rank of B = n, then system is consistent and has a unique
solution.
➢ Rank of A Rank of B n, then system is consistent and have infinite
number of solutions.
Cramer’s rule :
This technique was first published by the Swiss mathematician Gabriel Cramer
(1704-1752) in 1750 to solve systems of linear equations.
Consider the system of n linear equations with n unknowns as
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a11 a12 a13 ... ... ... a1n x1 b1
a a 23 a 23 ... ... ... a 2 n x b
21 2 2
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
=
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
a n1 an2 a n3 ... ... ... a nn x n bn
Let be the coefficient determinant such that
a11 a12 a1n
a 21 a 22 a 2 n
= 0
a n1 a n 2 a nn
b1 a12 a1n
b2 a 22 a 2 n
x1 =
bn a n 2 a nn
a11 b1 a1n
a 21 b2 a 2 n
x 2 =
a n1 bn a nn
Preceding in this way we can write,
a11 a12 b1
a 21 a 22 b2
x n =
a n1 a n 2 bn
Then we get,
x x x
x1 = 1 , x2 = 2 Similarly, we can find xn = n
This method of solving a system of non-homogeneous linear equations is called
Cramer’s Rule.
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Advantage and disadvantage:
This method is obviously unsuitable for solving large systems, since the
computation of A become exceedingly difficult. This method work will up-to
three variables as to matrix inversion method.
Problem: Solve the system of linear equations with the help of Cramer rules
method.
x+ y+z =6
x− y+z =2
2x + y − z = 1
Solution:
x+ y+z =6
Given system is x − y + z = 2
2x + y − z = 1
This system can be written in matrix form as
1 1 1 x 6
1 − 1 1 . y = 2
2 1 − 1 z 1
Or AX=B ………………………….… (1)
where
1 1 1 x 6
A = 1 − 1 1 , X = y and B = 2 .
2 1 − 1 z 1
Now A = 1(1 − 1) + 1(2 + 1) + 1(1 + 2) = 6 0 i.e., A is nonsingular and ( A) = 3 .Hence
the given system has a unique solution.
Calculation
A = 1(1 − 1) + 1(2 + 1) + 1(1 + 2) = 6
6 1 1
x = 2 − 1 1 = 6(1 − 1) + 1(1 + 2) + 1(2 + 1) = 6
1 1 −1
1 6 1
y = 1 2 1 = 1(−2 − 1) + 6(2 + 1) + 1(1 − 4) = 12
2 1 −1
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1 1 6
z = 1 − 1 2 = 1(−1 − 2) + 1(4 − 1) + 6(1 + 2) = 18
2 1 1
x 6 y 12 z 18
x== = 1, y = = = 2 and z = = =3
6 6 6
Hence the solution of the given system ( x, y, z ) = (1,2,3) .
Gauss elimination method:
Consider a non-homogeneous system of m linear equations in n unknowns is,
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... ... + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... ... + a2 n xn = b2
... ... ... (1) where, aij , bi R, m 2
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + ... ... + amn xn = bm
we can write it as AX = B .
a11 a12 ... a1n x1 b1
a21 a22 ... a2 n x2 b2
Where, A = , X = and B =
... ... ... ... ... ...
am1 am 2 ... amn xn bm
The augmented matrix is,
a11 a12 ... a1n b1
a21 a22 ... a2 n b2
... ... ... ... ...
am1 am 2 ... amn bm
reduce this matrix into the following form,
a11' a '12 ... a '1n l1
0 a22' ... a '2 n l2
... ... ... ... ...
0 0 ... amn ' lm
then the reduced system is,
1.x1 + a '1n .x2 + ... ... + a '1n .xn = l1
0.x1 + 1.x2 + ... ... + a '2 n .xn = l2
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
0.x1 + 0.x2 + ... ... + 1.xn = lm
Now, by back substitution, we solve for, xn , xn −1 , … …, x1 .
This process which eliminates unknowns from succeeding equations is known as
Gauss elimination.
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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Note: The system has no solution if there exist an inconsistent equation
like 0 = 1 in the Gaussian elimination method.
Mathematical Problems
Problem-01: Show that the following system of linear equations is not consistent
x + y + z = −3
3x + y − 2 z = −2
2x + 4 y + 7 z = 7
Solution: The given system of linear equations is,
x + y + z = −3
3x + y − 2 z = −2 ... … … (1)
2 x + 4 y + 7 z = 7
the system (1) can be written as,
AX = B … … … (2)
1 1 1 x −3
where, A = 3 1 −2 , X = y and B = −2 .
2 4 7 z 7
The augmented matrix is,
1 1 1 −3
A , B = 3 1 −2
−2
2 7
4 7
1 1 1 −3 '
R → R2 − 3R1
0 −2 −5 7 2'
0 R → R3 − 2 R1
2 5 13 3
1 1 1 −3
0 −2 −5 7 R3' → R3 + R2
0 0 0 20
which is the echelon form of the augmented matrix.
The reduced system is,
x + y + z = −3
− 2 y − 5z = 7
0 = 20
Since, 0 = 20 occurs, which is not possible so the given system of linear equations
is inconsistent. (Showed)
Problem-02: Show that the following system of linear equations is consistent
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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2 x − y + 3z = 8
−x + 2 y + z = 4
3x + y − 4 z = 0
and find the solution.
Solution : The given system of linear equations is,
2 x − y + 3z = 8
− x + 2 y + z = 4 ... … … (1)
3x + y − 4 z = 0
the system (1) can be written as,
AX = B … … … (2)
2 −1 3 x 8
where, A = −1 2
1 , X = y and B = 4 .
3 1 −4 z 0
The augmented matrix is,
2 −1 3 8
A , B = −1 2 1 4
3 1 −4 0
2 −1 3 8 '
R → 2 R2 + R1
0 3 5 16 2'
0 R → 2 R3 − 3R1
5 −17 −24 3
2 −1 3 8
0 3 5 16 R3' → 3R3 − 5R2
0 0 −76 −152
which is the echelon form of the augmented matrix.
The reduced system is,
2 x − y + 3z = 8
3 y + 5 z = 16
− 76 z = −152
By back substitution we get, z = 2 , y = 2 , x = 2 .
Hence the given system is consistent and the solution is,
x =2, y = 2 , z = 2 .
Problem-03:Show that the following system of linear equations is not consistent
x + y + 2z + w = 5
2 x + 3 y − z − 2w = 2
4 x + 5 y + 3z =7
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 125 of 214
Solution: The given system of linear equations is,
x + y + 2 z + w = 5
2 x + 3 y − z − 2w = 2 … … … (1)
4 x + 5 y + 3z = 7
the system (1) can be written as,
AX = B … … … (2)
x
1 1 2 1 5
y
where, A = 2 3 −1 −2 , X = and B = 2 .
z
4 5 3 0 7
w
The augmented matrix is,
1 1 2 1 5
A , B = 2 3 −1 −2 2
4 7
5 3 0
1 1 2 1 5 '
R → R2 − 2 R1
0 1 −5 −4 −8 2'
0 R → R3 − 4 R1
1 −5 −4 −13 3
1 1 2 1 5
0 1 −5 −4 −8 R3' → R3 − R2
0 0 0 0 −5
which is the echelon form of the augmented matrix.
The reduced system is,
x + y + 2z + w = 5
y − 5 z − 4w = −8
0 = −5
Since, 0 = −5 occurs, which is not possible so the given system of linear equations
is inconsistent. (Showed)
Problem-04: Find for what values of , the system of linear equations
x+ y+z=6
x + 2 y + 3z = 10
x + 2y + z =
has i). a unique solution, ii). no solution, iii). infinite solutions.
Solution: The given system of linear equations is,
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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x+ y+z=6
x + 2 y + 3z = 10 … … … (1)
x + 2 y + z =
the system (1) can be written as,
AX = B … … … (2)
1 1 1 x 6
where, A = 1 2 3 , X = y and B = 10 .
1 2 z
The augmented matrix is,
1 1 1 6
A , B = 1 2 3
10
1 2
1 1 1 6 '
R → R2 − R1
0 1 2 4 2'
0 R → R3 − R1
1 −1 − 6 3
1 1 1 6
0 1 2 4 R3' → R3 − R2
0 0 −3 − 10
which is the echelon form of the augmented matrix.
The reduced system is,
x+ y + z =6
y + 2z = 4
( − 3) z = − 10
If 3 , then the given system of equations possesses a unique solution for
any value of .
If = 3 and 10 , then the given system of equations possesses no solution.
If = 3 and = 10 , then the given system of equations possesses infinite
solutions.
Problem-05:Solve the following system of linear equations
5 x − 6 y + 4 z = 15
7 x + 4 y − 3z = 19
2 x + y + 6 z = 46
Solution:The given system of linear equations is,
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 127 of 214
5 x − 6 y + 4 z = 15
7 x + 4 y − 3z = 19 … … … (1)
2 x + y + 6 z = 46
the system (1) can be written as,
AX = B … … … (2)
5 −6 4 x 15
where, A = 7 4 −3 , X = y and B = 19 .
2 1 6 z 46
The augmented matrix is,
5 −6 4 15
A , B = 7 4 −3 19
2 46
1 6
5 −6 4 15 '
R → 5R2 − 7 R1
0 62 −43 −10 2'
0 R → 5R3 − 2 R1
17 22 200 3
5 −6 4 15
0 62 −43 −10 R3' → 62 R3 − 17 R2
0 0 2095 12570
which is the echelon form of the augmented matrix.
The reduced system is,
5 x − 6 y + 4 z = 15
62 y − 43z = −10
2095 z = 12570
By back substitution, we get z = 6 , y = 4 , x = 3 .
Hence the required result is, x = 3 , y = 4 , z = 6 . (As desired)
Problem-06: Solve the following system of linear equations
x + y − 2 z + s + 3t = 1
2 x − y + 2 z + 2s + 6t = 2
3x + 2 y − 4 z − 3s − 9t = 3
Solution:The given system of linear equations is,
x + y − 2 z + s + 3t = 1
2 x − y + 2 z + 2s + 6t = 2 … … … (1)
3x + 2 y − 4 z − 3s − 9t = 3
the system (1) can be written as,
AX = B … … … (2)
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x
1 1 −2 1 3 y 1
where, A = 2 −1 2
2 6 , X = z and B = 2 .
3 2 −4 −3 −9 3
s
t
The augmented matrix is,
1 1 −2 1 3 1
A , B = 2 −1 2 2 6 2
3 2 −4 −3 −9 3
1 1 −2 1 3 1 '
R → R2 − 2 R1
0 −3 6 0 0 0 2'
0 −1 2 −6 R → R3 − 3R1
−18 0 3
1 1 −2 1 3 1
0 −3 6 0 0 0 R3' → 3R3 − R2
0 0 0 −18 −54 0
1 1 −2 1 3 1 R2' → − 1 R2
3
0 1 −2 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 3 1
0 R3 → − R3
'
18
which is the echelon form of the augmented matrix.
The reduced system is,
x + y − 2 z + s + 3t = 1
y − 2z = 0
s + 3t = 0
There are 3 equations in 5 unknowns, so there are (5-3)=2free variables which are
z and t. Thus the system is consistent with an infinite number of solutions.
We put z = a and t = b . So by back substitution we have, s = −3b , y = 2a , x = 1 .
Hence the required result is, x = 1 , y = 2a , z = a , s = −3b , t = b . (As desired)
Problem-07: Solve the following system of linear equations
2 x + 3 y + 5z + t = 3
3x + 4 y + 2 z + 3t = −2
x + 2 y + 8z − t = 8
7 x + 9 y + z + 8t = 0
Solution: The given system of linear equations is,
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 129 of 214
2 x + 3 y + 5z + t = 3
3 x + 4 y + 2 z + 3t = −2
… … … (1)
x + 2 y + 8z − t = 8
7 x + 9 y + z + 8t = 0
the system (1) can be written as,
AX = B … … … (2)
2 3 5 1 x 3
3 4 2 3 y −2
where, A = , X = and B = .
1 2 8 −1 z 8
7 9 1 8 t 0
The augmented matrix is,
2 3 5 1 3
3 4 2 3 −2
A , B =
1 2 8 −1 8
7 9 1 8 0
1 2 8 −1 8
3 4 2 3 −2
R1 R3
2 3 5 1 3
7 9 1 8 0
1 2 8 −1 8 '
R2 → R2 − 3R1
0 −2 −22 6 −26 '
R3 → R3 − 2 R1
0 −1 −11 3 −13 '
R4 → R4 − 7 R1
0 −5 −55 15 −56
1 2 8 −1 8
0 −2 −22 6 −26 R3' → 2 R3 − R2
0 0 0 0 0 R4 ' → 2 R4 − 5 R2
0 0 0 0 18
1 2 8 −1 8
0 1 11 −3 13 ' 1
R2 → − R2
0 0 0 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 18
which is the echelon form of the augmented matrix.
The reduced system is,
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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x + 2 y + 8z − t = 8
y + 11z − 3t = 13
0 = 0
0 = 18
x + 2 y + 8z − t = 8
or, y + 11z − 3t = 13
0 = 18
Since, 0 = 18 occurs, which is not possible so the given system of linear equations
is inconsistent and it has no solution. (As desired)
Problem-08:Solve the following system of linear equations
x + 2 y − 2z − t = 0
2 x + 5 y − 3z − t = 1
3x + 8 y − 4 z − t = 2
x + 5 y + z + 2t = 3
Solution:The given system of linear equations is,
x + 2 y − 2z − t = 0
2 x + 5 y − 3 z − t = 1
… … … (1)
3x + 8 y − 4 z − t = 2
x + 5 y + z + 2t = 3
the system (1) can be written as,
AX = B … … … (2)
1 2 −2 −1 x 0
2 5 −3 −1 y 1
where, A = , X = and B = .
3 8 −4 −1 z 2
1 5 1 2 t 3
The augmented matrix is,
1 2 −2 −1 0
2 5 −3 −1 1
A , B
=
3 8 −4 −1 2
1 5 1 2 3
1 2 −2 −1 0 '
R2 → R2 − 2 R1
0 1 1 1 1 '
R3 → R3 − 3R1
0 2 2 2 2 '
R4 → R4 − R1
0 3 3 3 3
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Page 131 of 214
1 2 −2 −1 0
0 1 1 1 1 R3' → R3 − 2 R1
0 0 0 0 0 R4 ' → R4 − 3R2
0 0 0 0 0
which is the echelon form of the augmented matrix.
The reduced system is,
x + 2 y − 2z − t = 0
y + z + t = 1
0 =0
0 = 0
x + 2 y − 2 z − t = 0
or,
y + z + t = 1
There are 2 equations in 4 unknowns, so there are (4-2) = 2 free variables which
are z and t. Thus the system is consistent with an infinite number of solutions.
We put z = a and t = b . So by back substitution we have, y = 1 − a − b , x = 4a + 3b − 2 .
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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Hence the required result is, x = 4a + 3b − 2 , y = 1 − a − b , z = a , t = b . (As desired)
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Page 133 of 214
Try Yourself:
1. Solve the following system of linear equations
3x + 5 y − 7 z = 13
4 x + y − 12 z = 6
2 x + 9 y − 3z = 20
2. Solve the following system of linear equations
x+ y+ z = 3
x + 2 y + 3z = 4
x + 4 y + 9z = 6
3. Solve the following system of linear equations
2x − 3 y + 4z = 1
3x + 4 y − 5 z = 1
5x − 7 y + 2 z = 3
4. Determine for what value of a the following system of linear equations
x+ y − z =1
2 x + 3 y + az = 3
x + ay + 3z = 2
has i). no solution, ii). more than one solution, iii). a unique solution.
5. Determine for what values of and the following system of linear
equations
2x + 3 y + z = 5
3x − y + z = 2
x + 7 y − 6z =
has i). no solution, ii). more than one solution, iii). a unique solution.
6. Solve the following system of linear equations
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 134 of 214
x+ y+ z+ t = 4
x + 2 y + 2z − t = 4
x + 4 y + 9 z + 2t = 16
7.
8.
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Chapter Linear Combination of Vectors
04
In this chapter, we have a concentration to discuss about the linear
combination, linear dependence and independence of vectors.
Linear Combination of Vectors: Let V be a vector space over the scalar
field F and v1 , v2 , v3 , , vn V , then any vector v V is called a linear
combination of the vectors v1 , v2 , v3 , , vn if there exists scalars
1 , 2 , a3 , , an F such that
v = 1v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 + + nvn
Example: Observe that ( −13, −4, 4) = 2 ( 2, −1, 2 ) + ( −2 )( 4,1,0 ) + 3 ( −3,0,0 )
Thus ( −13, −4, 4) is a linear combination of ( 2, −1, 2) , ( 4,1,0) and ( −3,0,0 ) in R 3 .
The same vector may be a linear combination of more than one set of
vectors, viz,
( −13, −4, 4) = ( −13)(1,0,0) + ( −4)( 0,1,0) + 4 ( 0,0,1)
Problem-01: Write the vector v = ( 5,9,5) as a linear combination of the
vectors v1 = ( 2,1, 4) , v2 = (1, −1,3) and v3 = ( 3, 2,5) in R 3 .
Solution:
We know that, v will be a linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 and v3 if
there exists scalars x , y and z in R such that,
v = xv1 + yv2 + zv3
i.e, ( 5,9,5) = x ( 2,1, 4 ) + y (1, −1,3) + z (3, 2,5)
= ( 2 x, x, 4 x ) + ( y, − y,3 y ) + ( 3z, 2 z,5z )
= ( 2 x + y + 3z , x − y + 2 z , 4 x + 3 y + 5 z )
Equating corresponding components and forming linear system, we get
2 x + y + 3z = 5
x − y + 2z = 9
4 x + 3 y + 5z = 5
The augmented matrix is,
2 1 3 5
1 −1 2 9
4 3 5 5
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Page 136 of 214
2 1 3 5 '
R = 2 R2 − R1
0 −3 1 13 2'
0 1 −1 R = R3 − 2 R1
−5 3
2 1 3 5
0 −3 1 13 R3' = 3R3 + R2
0 0 −2 −2
The reduced system is,
2 x + y + 3z = 5
− 3 y + z = 13
− 2 z = −2
By back substitution, From 3rd equation we get,
z =1
From 2 nd
equation we get,
− 3 y + 1 = 13
− 3 y = 12
y = −4
From 1st equation we get,
2x − 4 + 3 = 5
2x = 6
x=3
Therefore, the required linear combination is,
v = 3v1 − 4v2 + v3 ( Ans.)
Problem-02: Write the vector (16,1, −11, −23) as a linear combination of the
vectors ( 2,0, −1,1) , ( −1,1, 2,0 ) , (1,1,0, −5) and (1,0,0, −1) in R 4 .
Solution:
We know that, (16,1, −11, −23) will be a linear combination of the vectors
( 2,0, −1,1) , ( −1,1, 2,0) , (1,1,0, −5) and (1,0,0, −1) if there exists scalars x , y , z and
t in R such that,
(16,1, −11, −23) = x ( 2,0, −1,1) + y ( −1,1, 2,0) + z (1,1,0, −5) + t (1,0,0, −1)
= ( 2 x,0, − x, x ) + ( − y, y, 2 y,0 ) + ( z, z,0, −5z ) + ( t ,0,0, −t )
= ( 2 x − y + z + t , y + z , − x + 2 y, x − 5 z − t )
Equating corresponding components and forming linear system, we get
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2 x − y + z + t = 16
y + z =1
−x + 2 y = −11
x − 5 z − t = −23
The augmented matrix is,
2 −1 1 1 16
0 1 1 0 1
−1 2 0 0 −11
1 0 −5 −1 −23
2 −1 1 1 16
0 1 1 0 1 R3' = 2 R3 + R1
0 3 1 1 −6 R4' = 2 R4 − R1
0 1 −11 −3 −62
2 −1 1 1 16
0 1 1 0 1 R3' = R3 − 3R2
0 0 −2 1 −9 R4' = R4 − R2
0 0 −12 −3 −63
2 −1 1 1 16
0 1 1 0 1 '
R4 = R4 − 6 R3
0 0 −2 1 −9
0 0 0 −9 −9
The reduced system is,
2 x − y + z + t = 16
y + z =1
− 2 z + t = −9
− 9t = −9
By back substitution, from 4th equation we get,
t =1
From 3 rd
equation we get,
− 2 z + 1 = −9
− 2 z = −10
z=5
From 2nd equation we get,
y +5 =1
y = −4
From 1st equation we get,
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 138 of 214
2x + 4 + 5 + 1 = 16
2x = 6
x=3
Therefore, the required linear combination is,
(16,1, −11, −23) = 3( 2,0, −1,1) + ( −4)( −1,1, 2,0) + 5 (1,1,0, −5) + (1,0,0, −1) ( Ans.)
Problem-03: Determine whether or not the vector (1, 2,6) as a linear
combination of the vectors ( 2,1,0) , (1, −1, 2) and ( 0,3, −4 ) in R 3 .
Solution:
We know that, (1, 2,6) will be a linear combination of the vectors ( 2,1,0) ,
(1, −1, 2) and ( 0,3, −4 ) if there exists scalars x , y and z in R such that,
(1, 2,6) = x ( 2,1,0) + y (1, −1, 2) + z ( 0,3, −4)
= ( 2 x, x,0) + ( y, − y, 2 y ) + ( 0,3z, −4 z )
= ( 2 x + y, x − y + 3 z , 2 y − 4 z )
Equating corresponding components and forming linear system, we get
2x + y = 1
x − y + 3z = 2
2 y − 4z = 6
The augmented matrix is,
2 1 0 1
1 −1 3 2
0 2 −4 6
2 1 0 1
0 −3 6 3 R2' = 2 R2 − R1
0 2 −4 6
2 1 0 1
0 −3 6 3 R3' = 3R3 + 2 R2
0 0 0 24
The reduced system is,
2x + y =1
− 3y + 6 = 3
0 = 24
Since, 0 = 24 arise, which is impossible, so the system of linear equations is
inconsistent.
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 139 of 214
Thus, our assumption regarding the linear combination was wrong.
Therefore, we conclude that, (1, 2,6) can’t be a linear combination of the
vectors ( 2,1,0) , (1, −1, 2) and ( 0,3, −4 ) in R 3 . (Ans).
5 1
Problem-04: Express the matrix B = as a linear combination of the
−2 3
1 0 1 −1 0 1
matrices B1 = , B2 = and B3 = .
1 0 0 1 −1 0
Solution:
We know that, B will be a linear combination of the matrices B1 , B2 and
B3 if there exists scalars x , y and z in R such that,
B = xB1 + yB2 + zB3
5 1 1 0 1 −1 0 1
i.e, = x + y + z
−2 3 1 0 0 1 −1 0
x 0 y −y 0 z
= + +
x 0 0 y −z 0
x + y −y + z
=
x−z y
Equating corresponding components and forming linear system, we get
x+ y =5
− y + z =1
x − z = −2
y=3
Solving these equations we get, x = 2 , y = 3 and z = 4
Therefore, the required linear combination of the matrices is,
B = 2 B1 + 3B2 + 4 B3 (Ans).
Exercise:
Problem-01: Express the vector v , if possible, as a linear combination (LC)
of the vectors, v1 , v2 , v3 where,
a). v = ( 2,3, 4 ) and v1 = (1,0,1) , v2 = ( 0, −1,1) , v3 = ( −1, −1, −1)
b). v = (1, −2,5) and v1 = (1, 2,3) , v2 = (1,1,1) , v3 = ( 2, −1,1)
c). v = ( 2, −5, 4) and v1 = (1, −3, 2) , v2 = ( 2, −1,1)
d). v = (15,17,0 ) and v1 = ( 2,1,0) , v2 = ( −1, −1,1) , v3 = (1, 2,3)
e). v = ( 5,1, −7 ) and v1 = ( −1, −2,10 ) , v2 = ( −1,0, 2) , v3 = (1, −1, −2 )
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f). v = ( 3,9, −4, −2) and v1 = (1, −2,0,3) , v2 = ( 2,3, −1,0 ) , v3 = ( 2, −1, 2,1)
ANS: a). v = −3v1 + 2v2 − 5v3 ; b). v = 3v1 − 6v2 + 2v3 ; c). not possible ;
−7 42 13
d). not possible ; e). not possible ; f). v = v1 + v2 − v3 .
17 17 17
Problem-02: Express, if possible
3 −1 1 1 1 1 1 −1
a). P = as a LC of P1 = , P2 = & P3 =
1 −2 0 −1 −1 0 0 0
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 −1
b). M = as a LC of M 1 = , M2 = & M3 =
−1 −2 0 1 −1 0 0 0
3 −1 1 1 1 1 1 −1
c). A = as a LC of A1 = , A2 = & A3 =
1 −2 0 1 −1 0 0 0
ANS: a). P = 2 P1 − P2 + 2P3 ; b). not possible ; c). not possible.
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Chapter Linear Dependence & Independence
of Vectors
05
Linear Dependence (LD) of vectors: Let V be a vector space over the scalar
field F .The vectors v1 , v2 , v3 , , vn V are said to be linearly dependent
over F , if there exist scalars 1 , 2 , a3 , , an F , not all of them zero, such
that
1v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 + + nvn = 0
Example: Observe that 3 (1, −1,0) + 2 (1,3, −1) + ( −1)(5,3, −2 ) = ( 0,0,0 )
Thus, the vectors (1, −1,0) , (1,3, −1) and ( 5,3, −2 ) are linear dependent in R 3 .
Linear Independence (LI) of vectors: Let V be a vector space over the
scalar field F .The vectors v1 , v2 , v3 , , vn V are said to be linearly
independent over F , if there exist scalars 1 , 2 , a3 , , an F , all of them
zero i.e, 1 = 2 = a3 = = an = 0 , such that
1v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 + + nvn = 0
Example: The vectors (1,0,0) , ( 0,1,0) and ( 0,0,1) are linearly independent in
R3 .
Since, x (1,0,0) + y ( 0,1,0) + z ( 0,0,1) = 0
x = 0; y = 0 & z = 0
Note: 1. Any set containing a zero vector is linearly dependent.
2. Any two vectors are linearly dependent iff one is scalar multiple
of the other i.e, they are
collinear.
3. The non- zero rows of a matrix in echelon form are linearly
independent.
4. Every singleton having a nonzero vector is linearly independent.
5. Any empty set is linearly independent.
6. In plane, any two nonzero vectors are linearly dependent iff they
are parallel.
7. In plane, any two nonzero vectors are linearly independent iff
they are intersecting.
Determination of Linear dependence & independence:
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Page 142 of 214
Let 1v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 + + nvn = 0 for some scalars 1 , 2 , a3 , , an . If we
substitute the values of v1 , v2 , v3 , , vn we get an n n system of linear
equations which yields the following matrix equation:
a11 a12 a1n 1 0
a21 a22 a2 n 2 0
=
an1 an 2 ann n 0
or , MX = 0
At this stage there are two methods to test the linear dependence or
independence as follows:
Method-01: Use of Determinant: If M 0 , then X = 0 i.e, 1 = 2 = = an = 0
and the vectors are linearly independent.
Again, if M = 0 , then the vectors are linearly dependent.
Method-02: Use of Echelon Matrix: If we apply elementary row or
column operations to obtain rk(M) , then
1). if we get, rk ( M ) = n , then the vectors are linearly independent and
2). if we get, rk ( M ) n , then the vectors are linearly dependent.
Problem-01: Check the linear dependency of S where,
i). S = (1, −1,3) , (1, 4,5) , ( 2, −3, −7 ) R3
ii). S = ( 2,1,1) , ( 3, −4,6) , ( 4, −9,11) R3
iii). S = ( 2,1,3, −1) , ( 2,3,1, 2) , (3, 2,5,6 ) , ( −2, −7,3, −8) R4
iv). S = (1,1, 2, −1) , (1, 2,5,0) , ( 0,1, 2,1) , ( 2,1, 2,5) R4
Solution: i). We have, S = (1, −1,3) , (1, 4,5) , ( 2, −3, −7 ) R3
Writing the vectors in S as column we form the following matrix,
1 1 2
M = −1 4 −3
3 5 −7
The determinant of this matrix is,
1 1 2
M = −1 4 −3
3 5 −7
= ( −28 + 15) − ( 7 + 9) + 2 ( −5 − 12)
= −13 −16 −120 = −149
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Page 143 of 214
Since M 0 , so S is a linear independent subset of vectors from R 3 .
ii). We have, S = ( 2,1,1) , ( 3, −4,6) , ( 4, −9,11) R3
Writing the vectors in S as column we form the following matrix,
2 3 4
M = 1 −4 −9
1 6 11
The determinant of this matrix is,
2 3 4
M = 1 −4 −9
1 6 11
= 2 ( −44 + 54) − 3 (11 + 9 ) + 4 ( 6 + 4 )
= 20 − 60 + 40
=0
Since M = 0 , so S is a linear dependent subset of vectors from R 3 .
iii). We have, S = ( 2,1,3, −1) , ( 2,3,1, 2) , (3, 2,5,6 ) , ( −2, −7,3, −8) R4
Writing the vectors in S as row we form the following matrix,
2 1 3 −1
2 3 1 2
M =
3 2 5 6
−2 −7 3 −8
Now we shall reduce this matrix into echelon form by elementary row
operations,
2 1 3 −1 '
R2 = R2 − R1
0 2 −2 3 R ' = 2 R − 3R
0 1 1 15 3 ' 3 1
R4 = R4 + R1
0 −6 6 −9
1 3 −1
2
2 −2 3 R3' = 2 R3 − R2
0
0
0 4 27 R4' = R4 + 3R2
0
0 0 0
Since, the echelon form of the matrix contains a zero row so S is a linear
dependent subset of vectors from R 4 .
iv). We have, S = (1,1, 2, −1) , (1, 2,5,0) , ( 0,1, 2,1) , ( 2,1, 2, −5) R4
Writing the vectors in S as row we form the following matrix,
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Page 144 of 214
12 −1
1
1
5 0 2
M =
02 1 1
22 5 1
Now we shall reduce this matrix into echelon form by elementary row
operations,
1 1 2 −1
'
0 1 3 1 R2 = R2 − R1
0 1 2 1 R4' = R4 − 2 R1
0 −1 −2 7
1 2 −1
1
1 3 1 R3' = R3 − R2
0
0
0 −1 0 R4' = R4 + R2
0
0 1 8
1 1 2 −1
0 1 3 1 R' = R + R
0 0 −1 0 4 4 3
0 0 0 8
Since, the echelon form of the matrix does not contain any zero row so S
is a linear independent subset of vectors from R 4 .
Problem-03: Test the linear dependency of the functions
−2 + t ,1 + t − t ,3 + 2t , −1 + 2 t in R
2 2 2 3
Solution: We have, −2 + t 2 = −2 + 0.t + t 2
1 + t − t 2 = 1 + t + ( −1) t 2
3 + 2t = 3 + 2t + 0.t 2
−1 + 2 t 2 = −1 + 0.t + 2 t 2
The matrix of the coefficients is,
−2 0 1
1 1 −1
M=
3 2 0
−1 0 2
Now we shall reduce this matrix into echelon form by elementary row
operations,
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Page 145 of 214
−2
0 1 '
R2 = 2 R2 + R1
2 −1 '
0R3 = 2 R3 + 3R1
0
4 3 '
R4 = 2 R4 − R1
0
0 0
−2 0 1
0 2 −1 R ' = R − 2 R
0 0 5 3 3 2
0 0 0
Since, the echelon form of the matrix contains a zero row, so the given
functions are linearly dependent in R 3 .
Exercise:
Problem-01: Test the linear dependency of S where,
i). S = (1, −2,1) , ( 2,1, −1) , ( 7, −4,1) R3
ii). S = ( −1,1,1) , (1, −4, 2 ) , (3, −5,1) R3
iii). S = (1,1, −1) , (1, 2,3) , (3,5, −3) R3
iv). S = (1, 4,0, −1) , ( 2,0,0,3) , ( −1, 4,0, −4 ) R4
v). S = (1, 4,0, −1, 2) , ( 2,0,0,3,1) , ( −2,1,5, 2,0 ) R5
vi). S = (1, −2, 4,1) , ( 2,1,0, −3) , (3, −6,1, 4 ) R4
ANS: i). LD ; ii). LI ; iii). LD ; iv). LD ; v). LI ; vi). LI.
Problem-02: Test whether or not the following vectors are linearly
dependent or not:
i). (1, 2,3) , ( 2,1, −2 ) , ( 3,3,1) in R3.
ii). ( 2,1,3) , ( 3, 2,1) , (1,1, −2) in R3
iii). t 2 + 2 t + 3,3t 2 − t + 2,5 t 2 + 3t + 8 in R3
iv). t 2 + t + 2, 2 t 2 + t,3t 2 + 2 t + 2 in R3
v). (1, 2, −1, −3) , (3,1, −1, 2) , ( 4, −1,0,3) in R4
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Chapter Linear Transformation of vectors
06
Chapter Contents: In this section learners are able to know about linear
transformation and its effect on matrices.
Linear Transformation: Transformations which have the property of
preserving linear combinations are called linear transformations. Let V
and U be two vector spaces over the same scalar field F . Then the
mapping T : V → U is called a linear transformation or linear mapping if it
satisfies the conditions:
1. For any u, v V , T ( u + v ) = T ( u ) + T ( v )
2. For any a F and v V , T ( av ) = aT ( v )
Alternatively, A mapping T : R n → R m defined by T ( v ) = Mv , where M is a
m n real matrix; is called a linear transformation.
Transformation matrix: If a linear mapping T : Rn → Rm defined by
T ( v ) = Mv , where M is a m n real matrix; then the transformation matrix
is T = M .
Problem-01: Test whether the mapping T : R3 → R 2 defined by
T ( x, y, z ) = ( x − 2 y, y + 5z ) is linear or not.
Solution: We have, T : R 3 → R 2
And T ( x, y, z ) = ( x − 2 y, y + 5z )
So, we must need a 2 3 matrix consisting of real numbers only.
The given transformation can be written as,
x
x − 2y
T y =
z y + 5z
x − 2 y + 0.z
=
0.x + y + 5 z
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Page 147 of 214
x
1 −2 0
= y
0 1 5
z
= Mv
1 −2 0
Since, T = M = is a matrix of order 2 3 , so we conclude that T is
0 1 5
a linear transformation
Problem-02: Test whether the mapping T : R3 → R 2 defined by
T ( x, y, z ) = ( x + y + 5z, yz ) is linear or not.
Solution: We have, T : R 3 → R 2
So, we must need a 2 3 matrix consisting of real numbers only.
The given transformation can be written as,
x
x + y + 5z
T y =
z yz
x
1 1 5
= y
0 z 0
z
Since the matrix contains variable so M does not exist. We conclude that
T is not a linear transformation.
Problem-03: Check the followings for linear transformations and find T −1
if it exists. Also verify for a non-zero vector.
1) T : R 3 → R 3 is given by T ( x, y, z ) = ( x − 2 y, −2z, z + x )
2) T : R 3 → R 2 is given by T ( x, y, z ) = ( − x − 2 y,6 z + 5x )
3) T : R 3 → R 2 is given by T ( x, y, z ) = ( 23x − 2 y + 5z,0 )
4) T : R 3 → R 4 is given by T ( x, y, z ) = (8x, − z, 4 z + 5x,5)
5) T : R 3 → R 3 is given by T ( x, y, z ) = ( 2 x + y,4 x − y,3z )
6) T : R 5 → R 3 is given by T ( p, q, r, s, t ) = ( s − t ,0,5)
7) T : R 3 → R 4 is given by T ( p, q, r ) = ( p − q,0, − z, y )
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Page 148 of 214
8) T : R 3 → R 3 is given by T ( p, q, r ) = ( 3x + y, −2 x − 4 y + 3z,5x + 4 y − 2 z )
Solution: 1). We have, T : R 3 → R 3
And T ( x, y, z ) = ( x − 2 y, −2 z, z + x )
So, we must need a 3 3 matrix consisting of real numbers only.
The given transformation can be written as,
x x − 2y
T y = −2 z
z z+x
x − 2 y + 0.z
= 0.x + 0. y − 2 z
x + 0. y + z
1 −2 0 x
= 0 0 −2 y
1 0 1 z
= Mv
1 −2 0
Since, T = M = 0 0 −2 is a matrix of order 3 3 , so we conclude that T
1 0 1
is a linear transformation.
1 −2 0
Now, T = 0 0 −2 = 0 − ( −2 )( 0 + 2 ) + 0 = 4
1 0 1
Since, T 0 , so T
−1
exists.
Hence, T −1 exists and T
−1
will be the transformation matrix.
The cofactors are, A11 = 0, A12 = −2, A13 = 0, A21 = 2, A22 = 1, A23 = −2, A31 = 4, A32 = 2, A33 = 0
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Page 149 of 214
0 −2 0
The matrix of cofactors is, 2 1 −2
4 2 0
0 −2 0 0 2 4
t
adj. (T ) = 2 1 −2 = −2 1 2
4 2 0 0 −2 0
0 1 1
0 2 4 2
adj. (T ) 1 1
T =
−1
= −2 1 2 = − 1 1
T 4
−
2 4 2
0
0 2 0
0 −1
2
The inverse transformation is,
0 1 1
a 2 a
1 b
T −1 b = − 1 1
2 4 2
c c
0 −1 0
2
b
2 +c
a b c
= − + +
2 4 2
b
−
2
b a b c b
T −1 ( a, b, c ) = + c, − + + , −
2 2 4 2 2
Verification: Verify for the non-zero vector (1,0,1) .
T (1,0,1) = (1 − 2.0, −2.1,1 + 1) = (1, −2,2)
−2 1 ( −2 ) 2 ( −2 ) = 1,0,1
And T −1 (1, −2, 2 ) = + 2, − + + ,− ( ) (Verified).
2 2 4 2 2
2). We have, T : R 3 → R 2
And T ( x, y, z ) = ( − x − 2 y,6 z + 5x )
So, we must need a 2 3 matrix consisting of real numbers only
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The given transformation can be written as,
x
−x − 2 y
T y =
z 6 z + 5x
− x − 2 y + 0.z
=
5 x + 0. y + 6 z
x
−1 −2 0
= y = Mv
5 0 6
z
−1 −2 0
Since, T = M = is a matrix of order 2 3 , so we conclude that T
5 0 6
is a linear transformation.
Again, since the transformation matrix T is not square, so T is not
possible. So that T −1 does not exist. (Ans.)
3). We have, T : R 3 → R 2
And T ( x, y, z ) = ( 23x − 2 y + 5z,0 )
So, we must need a 2 3 matrix consisting of real numbers only.
The given transformation can be written as,
x
23x − 2 y + 5 z
T y =
z 0
23x − 2 y + 5 z
=
0.x + 0. y + 0.z
x
23 −2 5
= y
0 0 0
z
= Mv
23 −2 5
Since, T = M = is a matrix of order 2 3 , so we conclude that T
0 0 0
is a linear transformation.
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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Again, since the transformation matrix T is not square, so T is not
possible. So that T −1 does not exist. (Ans.)
4). We have, T : R 3 → R 4
And T ( x, y, z ) = (8x, − z, 4 z + 5x,5)
So, we must need a 4 3 matrix consisting of real numbers only.
The given transformation can be written as,
8x
x
−z
T y =
z 4 z + 5 x
5
8 x + 0. y + 0.z
0.x + 0. y − z
=
5 x + 0. y + 4 z
5
Since, the transformation matrix T = M does not exist. So, we conclude
that T is not a linear transformation. (Ans.)
5). We have, T : R 3 → R 3
And T ( x, y, z ) = ( 2 x + y,4 x − y,3z )
So, we must need a 3 3 matrix consisting of real numbers only.
The given transformation can be written as,
x 2x + y
T y = 4 x − y
z 3z
2 x + y + 0.z
= 4 x − y + 0.z
0.x + 0. y + 3z
2 1 0 x
= 4 −1 0 y
0 0 3 z
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= Mv
2 1 0
Since, T = M = 4 −1 0 is a matrix of order 3 3 , so we conclude that T
0 0 3
is a linear transformation. (Ans.)
2 1 0
Now, T = 4 −1 0 = 2 ( −3 − 0 ) − 1(12 − 0 ) + 0 = −18
0 0 3
Since, T 0 , so T
−1
exists.
Hence, T −1 exists and T
−1
will be the transformation matrix.
The cofactors are, A11 = −3, A12 = −12, A13 = 0, A21 = −3, A22 = 6, A23 = 0, A31 = 0, A32 = 0,
A33 = −6 .
−3 −12 0
The matrix of cofactors is, −3 6 0
0 0 −6
−3 −12 0 −3 −3 0
t
adj. (T ) = −3 6 0 = −12 6 0
0 0 −6 0 0 −6
1 1 0
−3 −3 0 6 6
adj. (T ) 1 2
T = 0
−1
= − −12 6 0 = −1
T 18
−
3
3
0 0 6 0 0 1
3
The inverse transformation is,
1 1 0
a 6 6 a
T −1 b = 2 −1 0 b
3 3
c
0 0 1 c
3
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a b
6+6
= 2a b
−
3 3
c
3
( a + b ) ( 2a − b ) c
T −1 ( a, b, c ) = , ,
6 3 3
Verification: Verify for the non-zero vector (1,0,1) .
T (1,0,1) = ( 2.1 + 0,4.1 − 0,3.1) = ( 2,4,3)
( 2 + 4 ) ( 2.2 − 4 ) 3
And T −1 ( 2, 4,3) = , , = (1, 0,1) (verified)
6 3 3
6). We have, T : R 5 → R 3
And T ( p, q, r, s, t ) = ( s − t ,0,5)
So, we must need a 3 5 matrix consisting of real numbers only.
The given transformation can be written as,
p
q s −t
Tr= 0
s 5
t
0. p + 0.q + 0.r + s − t
= 0. p + 0.q + 0.r + 0.s + 0.t
5
Since, the transformation matrix T = M does not exist. So, we conclude
that T is not a linear transformation. (Ans.)
7). We have, T : R 3 → R 4
And T ( p, q, r ) = ( p − q,0, − z, y )
So, we must need a 4 3 matrix consisting of real numbers only.
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The given transformation can be written as,
p −q
p
0
Tq=
r − z
y
p − q + 0.r
0. p + 0.q + 0.r
=
−z
y
Since, the transformation matrix T = M does not exist. So, we conclude
that T is not a linear transformation. (Ans.)
8). We have, T : R 3 → R 3
And T ( x, y, z ) = ( 3x + y, −2 x − 4 y + 3z,5x + 4 y − 2 z )
So, we must need a 3 3 matrix consisting of real numbers only.
The given transformation can be written as,
x 3x + y
T y = −2 x − 4 y + 3z
z 5x + 4 y − 2 z
3x + y + 0.z
= −2 x − 4 y + 3z
5x + 4 y − 2 z
3 1 0 x
= −2 −4 3 y
5 4 −2 z
= Mv
3 1 0
Since, T = M = −2 −4 3 is a matrix of order 3 3 , so we conclude that
5 4 −2
T is a linear transformation. (Ans.)
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3 1 0
Now, T = −2 −4 3 = 3 ( 8 − 12 ) − 1( 4 − 15 ) + 0 = −12 + 11 = −1 .
5 4 −2
Since, T 0 , so T
−1
exists.
Hence, T −1 exists and T
−1
will be the transformation matrix.
The cofactors are, A11 = −4, A12 = 11, A13 = 12, A21 = 2, A22 = −6, A23 = −7, A31 = 3, A32 = −9,
A33 = −10 .
−4 11 12
The matrix of cofactors is, 2 −6 −7
3 −9 −10
−4 11 12 −4 2
t
3
adj. (T ) = 2 −6 −7 = 11 −6 −9
3 −9 −10 12 −7 −10
−4 2 3 4 −2 −3
adj. (T )
T =
−1
= −1 11 −6 −9 = −11 6 9
T 12 −7 −10 −12 7 10
The inverse transformation is,
a 4 −2 −3 a
−1
T b = −11 6 9 b
c −12 7 10 c
4a − 2b − 3c
= −11a + 6b + 9c
−12a + 7b + 10c
T −1 ( a, b, c ) = ( 4a − 2b − 3c, −11a + 6b + 9c, −12a + 7b + 10c )
Verification: Verify for the non-zero vector (1,1,1) .
T (1,1,1) = ( 3.1 + 1, −2.1 − 4.1 + 3.1,5.1 + 4.1 − 2.1) = ( 4, −3,7 )
And T
−1
( 4, −3,7) = ( 4.4 − 2.( −2) − 3.7, −11.4 + 6.( −2) + 9.7, −12.4 + 7.( −2) + 10.7 ) = (1,1,1)
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(Verified)
Exercise: Check the followings for linear transformations and find T −1 if
it exists. Also verify for a non-zero vector.
1) T : R 3 → R 4 is given by T ( x, y, z ) = ( 9 x − 2 y, − z,4 z + x, −5x − y − 3z ) .
2) T : R 3 → R 3 is given by T ( x, y, z ) = ( 9 x − 2 y, − xyz, z + x ) .
3) T : R 2 → R 3 is given by T ( x, y ) = ( 0, − y, y + x ) .
4) T : R 3 → R 4 is given by T ( x, y, z ) = (8x, − z, 4 z + 5x,5) .
5) T : R 3 → R is given by T ( x, y, z ) = ( −7 z + 9 x − y ) .
6) T : R 3 → R 3 is given by T ( x, y, z ) = ( 2 x + 8 y,5 y, −2 z ) .
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Chapter Linear Operators
07
Linear Operator: A mapping T : U → U is called linear operator.
Orthogonal Projection:
Projection of a point on a plane or a line or a space is also a point on that plane or line or space.
Like this way projection of a vector in a line or plane or space is a vector, we discuss here about
plane and space.
For Plane:
➢ Orthogonal projection on x-axis of 𝐱 = (𝑥, 𝑦):
x x x 1 0 x
T ( x, y ) = ( x, 0) T = T =
y 0 y 0 1 y
1 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, T = .
0 1
➢ Orthogonal projection on y-axis of 𝐱 = (𝑥, 𝑦):
x 0 x 0 0 x
T ( x, y ) = (0, y) T = T =
y y y 0 1 y
0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, T = .
0 1
For Space:
➢ Orthogonal projection on xy-plane of 𝐱 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧):
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x x x 1 0 0 x
T ( x, y, z ) = ( x, y, 0) T y = y T y = 0 1 0 y
z 0 z 0 0 0 z
1 0 0
Therefore the standard matrix is , T = 0 1 0 .
0 0 0
➢ Orthogonal projection on yz-plane of 𝐱 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧):
x 0 x 0 0 0 x
T ( x, y, z ) = (0, y, z ) T y = y T y = 0 1 0 y
z z z 0 0 1 z
0 0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, T = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
Solved Problems
Problem: If v = (2, −5) is a vector in plane and w = (−5, −10,15) is a vector in space, then
(i) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is orthogonally projected on x-axis.
(ii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is orthogonally projected on y-axis.
(iii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is orthogonally projected on xy-Plane.
(iv) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is orthogonally projected on yz-Plane.
(v) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is orthogonally projected on zx-Plane.
Solution: We have, v = (2, −5) and w = (−5, −10,15)
(i) The orthogonal projection of 𝐱 = (𝑥, 𝑦) on x- axis is,
T ( x, y ) = ( x, 0)
Putting 𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = −5 , we get
T (2, −5) = (2, 0) T(v) = (2, 0)
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2 2
T =
−5 0
2 2
T =
−5 0
2 1 0 2
T =
−5 0 0 −5
1 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, [T ] = .
0 0
(ii) The orthogonal projection of 𝐱 = (𝑥, 𝑦) on y- axis is,
T ( x, y ) = (0, y )
Putting 𝑥 = −5 , 𝑦 = −10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 15 , we get
T (2, −5) = (0, −5) T (v) = (0, −5)
2 0
T =
−5 −5
2 0 0 2
T =
−5 0 1 −5
0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, [T ] = .
0 1
(iii).The orthogonal projection of x = ( x, y, z ) on xy- Plane is,
T ( x, y, z ) = ( x, y, 0)
Putting 𝑥 = −5 , 𝑦 = −10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 15 , we get
T (−5, −10,15) = (−5, −10, 0) T ( w) = (−5, −10, 0)
T (−5, −10,15) = (−5, −10, 0)
−5 −5
T −10 = −10
15 0
−5 1 0 0 −5
T −10 = 0 1 0 −10
15 0 0 0 15
1 0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0 .
0 0 0
(iv).The orthogonal projection of x = ( x, y, z ) on yz- Plane is,
T ( x, y, z ) = (0, y, z )
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Putting 𝑥 = −5 , 𝑦 = −10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 15 , we get
T (−5, −10,15) = (0, −10,15) T ( w) = (0, −10,15)
−5 0
T −10 = −10
15 15
−5 0 0 0 −5
T −10 = 0 1 0 −10
15 0 0 1 15
0 0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
(v).The orthogonal projection of x = ( x, y, z ) on zx- Plane is,
T ( x, y, z ) = ( x, 0, z )
Putting 𝑥 = −5 , 𝑦 = −10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 15 , we get
T (−5, −10,15) = (−5, 0,15) T ( w) = (−5, 0,15)
−5 − 5
T −10 = 0
15 15
−5 1 0 0 −5
T −10 = 0 0 0 −10
15 0 0 1
15
1 0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 0 0 .
0 0 1
H.W: If 𝑉 = (4, −7) is a vector in a plane, Find image of 𝑉 if it is orthogonally projected on y-
axis.
Reflection of a vector:
A transformation in which a geometric figure is reflected across a line, creating a mirror image.
That line is called the axis of reflection. A reflection of a point ‘P’ about a line means that if the
plane is folded along that line then the point and its image coincides.
For Plane:
➢ Reflection about y-axis of ̅𝑥 = (𝑥, 𝑦)
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x −x x −1 0 x
T ( x, y ) = (− x, y) T = T =
y y y 0 1 y
−1 0
Therefore the standard matrix is = .
0 1
➢ Reflection about x-axis of ̅𝑥 = (𝑥, 𝑦)
x x x 1 0 x
T ( x, y ) = ( x, − y) T = T =
y −y y 0 −1 y
1 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is = .
0 −1
➢ Reflection about the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 of ̅𝑥 = (𝑥, 𝑦)
x y x 0 1 x
T ( x, y ) = ( y , x ) T = T =
y x y 1 0 y
0 1
Therefore, the standard matrix is = .
1 0
➢ Reflection about the line 𝑦 = − 𝑥 of ̅𝑥 = (𝑥, 𝑦)
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x −y x 0 −1 x
T ( x, y ) = ( − y , − x ) T = T =
y −x y −1 0 y
0 −1
Therefore, the standard matrix is = .
−1 0
For Space:
➢ Reflection about xy-plane of ̅𝑥 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧):
x x x 1 0 0 x
T ( x, y, z ) = (x, y, − z ) T y = y T y = 0 1 0 y
z −z z 0 0 −1 z
1 0 0
Therefore the standard matrix is = 0 1 0 .
0 0 −1
➢ Reflection about yz-plane of ̅𝑥 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧):
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x −x x −1 0 0 x
T ( x, y, z ) = (− x, y, z ) T y = y T y = 0 1 0 y
z z z 0 0 1 z
−1 0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
➢ Reflection about zx-plane of ̅𝑥 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧):
x x x 1 0 0 x
T ( x, y, z ) = (x, − y, z ) T y = − y T y = 0 −1 0 y
z z z 0 0 1 z
1 0 0
Therefore the standard matrix is = 0 −1 0 .
0 0 1
Solved Problems
If v = (3, 2) is a vector in plane and w = (−3, −5,9) is a vector in space, then
(i) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is reflected about x-axis.
(ii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is reflected about y-axis.
(iii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is reflected about y = x .
(iv) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is reflected about y = − x .
(v) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is reflected about XY-plane.
(vi) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is reflected about YZ-plane.
(vii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is reflected about XZ-plane.
Solution: We have, v = (3, 2) and w = (−3, −5,9)
(i) The reflection of v = (3, 2) about x-axis is,
T (v) = ( x, − y ) = (3, −2)
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1 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 −1
(ii) The reflection of v = (3, 2) about y-axis is,
T (v) = (− x, y ) = ( −3, 2)
−1 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
(iii) The reflection of v = (3, 2) about the line y = x is,
T (v) = ( y, x) = (2,3)
0 1
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
1 0
(iv) The reflection of v = (3, 2) about the line y = − x is,
T (v) = (− y, − x) = (−2, −3)
0 −1
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
−1 0
(v). The reflection of w = (−3, −5,9) about the XY- plane is,
T ( w) = ( x, y, − z ) = (−3, −5, −9)
1 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 −1
(vi). The reflection of w = (−3, −5,9) about the YZ- plane is,
T ( w) = (− x, y, z ) = (3, −5,9)
−1 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 1
(vii). The reflection of w = (−3, −5,9) about the XZ- plane is,
T ( w) = ( x, − y, z ) = (−3,5,9)
1 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 −1 0
0 0 1
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H.W:
1. If 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is reflection about the XZ-plane then find the standard matrix of 𝑇 and also find
𝑇(𝑤),where 𝑤 = (−5, −10,15) is a vector in space.
2. If 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) is reflection about the X-axis, then find standard matrix of T and also find (𝑣) where
𝑣 = (2, −5).
3. If 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) is reflection about the line 𝑦 = − 𝑥 , then find standard matrix of 𝑇 and also
find 𝑇(𝑣) where 𝑣 = (2, −5).
4. Find image of V if it is reflected about 𝑦 = −𝑥 where 𝑉 = (4, −7) is a vector in a plane.
Rotation of a vector (anti-clockwise):
The matrix that describes a rotation is called a rotation matrix and rotation matrix is special
orthogonal matrix as the determinant of any rotation matrix is one. Matrix operators on 𝑅 2 and
𝑅 3 that move points along circular arcs are called rotation operators.
For Plane:
Let us consider how to find the standard matrix for the rotation operator that moves points
counterclockwise about the origin through an angle θ.
T ( x, y ) = ( x cos − y sin , x sin + y cos )
x x cos − y sin
T =
y x sin + y cos
x cos − sin x
T =
y sin cos y
cos − sin
Therefore, the standard matrix is = .
sin cos
For Space:
The rotation in space is more complex than plane. In this case any one of the coordinate axes the
vector kept unchanged and hence one of the components of the vector remains as before and we
have to consider rotation occurs in other two axes.
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➢ Rotation about x-axis:
T ( x, y, z ) = (x, ycos − zsin , y sin + z cos )
x x
T y = ycos − zsin
z y sin + z cos
x 1 0 0 x
T y = 0 cos − sin y
z 0 sin cos z
1 0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is = 0 cos − sin .
0 sin cos
➢ Rotation about y-axis :
T ( x, y, z ) = (x cos + z sin , y, − x sin + z cos )
x x cos + z sin
T y = y
z − x sin + z cos
x cos 0 sin x
T y = 0 1 0 y
z − sin 0 cos z
cos 0 sin
Therefore, the standard matrix is = 0 1 0 .
− sin 0 cos
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➢ Rotation about z-axis:
T ( x, y, z ) = (x cos − y sin , x sin + y cos , z )
x x cos − y sin
T y = x sin + y cos
z z
x cos − sin 0 x
T y = sin cos 0 y
z 0 1
0 z
cos − sin 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is = sin
cos 0 .
0 1
0
Theorem related to rotation:
1. Matrix R is an operator for rotation iff R is orthogonal and R = 1 .
tr ( R ) − 1
2. If R stands for rotation in space by 𝜃 then cos = .
2
Solved Problems
Problem: Find [𝑇] when 𝑇 is a 225𝑜 clockwise rotation.
Shearing of vector:
In plane:
➢ Horizontal Shearing of ̅𝑥 = (𝑥, 𝑦) :
T ( x, y ) = (x + ky, y)
x x + ky x 1 k x
T = T =
y y y 0 1 y
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1 k
Therefore, the standard matrix is = .
0 1
➢ Vertical Shearing of ̅𝑥 = (𝑥, 𝑦) :
T ( x, y ) = (x, kx + y)
x x x 1 0 x
T = T =
y kx + y y k 1 y
1 0
Therefore the standard matrix is = .
k 1
In space:
➢ Shearing about x-axis of ̅𝑥 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) :
T ( x, y, z ) = ( x, y + kx, z + kx)
x x
T y = y + kx
z z + kx
x 1 0 0 x
T y = k 1 0 y
z k 0 1 z
1 0 0
Therefore, standard matrix is, [T ] = k 1 0
k 0 1
➢ Shearing about y-axis of ̅𝑥 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) :
T ( x, y, z ) = ( x + ky, y, z + ky )
x x + ky
T y = y
z z + ky
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x 1 k 0 x
T y = 0 1 0 y
z 0 k 1 z
1 k 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 k 1
➢ Shearing about z-axis of ̅𝑥 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) :
T ( x, y, z ) = ( x + kz, y + kz, z )
x x + kz
T y = y + kz
z z
x 1 0 k x
T y = 0 1 k y
z 0 0 1 z
1 0 k
Therefore, the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 k
0 0 1
Solved Problems
Prob If v = (4, 6) is a vector in plane and w = (−1, 0,5) is a vector in space, then
(i) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is sheared horizontally by the factor 3 .
(ii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is sheared vertically by the factor 3 .
(iii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is sheared by the factor 2 along the X-axis.
(iv) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is sheared by the factor 2 about Y-axis.
(v) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is sheared by the factor 2 about Z-axis.
Solution: We have, v = (4, 6) and w = (−1, 0,5)
(i) The horizontal shearing of v = (4, 6) by the factor k = 3 is,
T (v) = ( x + ky, y ) = (22, 6)
1 3
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
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(ii) The vertical shearing of v = (4, 6) by the factor k = 3 is,
T (v) = ( x, y + kx) = (4,18)
1 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
3 1
(iii) The shearing of w = (−1, 0,5) along x-axis by the factor k = 2 is,
T (v) = ( x, y + kx, z + kx) = (−1, −2,3)
1 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 2 1 0
2 0 1
(iv) The shearing of w = (−1, 0,5) along y-axis by the factor k = 2 is,
T (v) = ( x + ky, y, z + ky ) = (−1, 0,5)
1 2 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 2 1
(v). The shearing of w = (−1, 0,5) along z-axis by the factor k = 2 is,
T (v) = ( x + kz , y + kz , z ) = (9,10,5)
1 0 2
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 2
0 0 1
Dilation:
Dilation in Plane: The dilation of v = ( x, y ) by a non-zero factor k , 1 k is,
T (x, y) = (kx, ky )
x kx
T =
y ky
x k 0 x
T =
y 0 k y
k 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 k
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Dilation in Space: The dilation of v = ( x, y, z ) by a non-zero factor k , 1 k is,
T (x, y, z) = ( kx, ky, kz )
x kx
T y = ky
z kz
x k 0 0 x
T y = 0 k 0 y
z 0 0 k z
k 0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 k 0
0 0 k
Contraction:
Contraction in Plane: The dilation of v = ( x, y ) by a non-zero factor k , 0 k 1 is,
T (x, y) = (kx, ky )
x kx
T =
y ky
x k 0 x
T =
y 0 k y
k 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 k
Contraction in Space: The dilation of v = ( x, y, z ) by a non-zero factor k , 0 k 1 is,
T (x, y, z) = ( kx, ky, kz )
x kx
T y = ky
z kz
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x k 0 0 x
T y = 0 k 0 y
z 0 0 k z
k 0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 k 0
0 0 k
Solved Problems
Prob-: If v = (4, 6) is a vector in plane and w = (−1,5, 2) is a vector in space, then
3
(i) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is dilated by the factor .
2
(ii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is dilated by the factor 13 .
1
(iii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is contracted by the factor .
2
1
(iv) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is contracted by the factor .
4
Solution: We have, v = (4, 6) and w = (−1,5, 2)
3
(i) The dilation of v = (4, 6) by the factor k = is,
2
T (v) = (kx, ky ) = (6,9)
3
2 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 3
2
(ii). The dilation of w = (−1,5, 2) by the factor k = 13 is,
T ( w) = (kx, ky, kz ) = ( −13, 65, 26)
13 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 13 0
0 0 13
1
(iii). The contraction of v = (4, 6) by the factor k = is,
2
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T (v) = (kx, ky ) = (2,3)
1
2 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
2
1
(iv). The contraction of w = (−1,5, 2) by the factor k = is,
4
1 5 1
T ( w) = (kx, ky, kz ) = (− , , )
4 4 2
1
4 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 0
1
4
0 1
0
4
Expansion:
Expansion in Plane:
• The expansion of v = ( x, y ) along x- axis by a non-zero factor k , 1 k is,
T ( x, y ) = (kx, y )
x kx
T =
y y
x k 0 x
T =
y 0 1 y
k 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
• The expansion of v = ( x, y ) along y- axis by a non-zero factor k , 1 k is,
T ( x, y ) = ( x, ky )
x x
T =
y ky
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x 1 0 x
T =
y 0 k y
1 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is,, [T ] =
0 k
Expansion in Space:
• The expansion of v = ( x, y, z ) along x- axis by a non-zero factor k , 1 k is,
T ( x, y, z ) = (kx, y, z )
x kx
T y = y
z z
x k 0 0 x
T y = 0 1 0 y
z 0 0 1 z
k 0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is,, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 1
• The expansion of v = ( x, y, z ) along y- axis by a non-zero factor k , 1 k is,
T ( x, y, z ) = ( x, ky, z )
x x
T y = ky
z z
x 1 0 0 x
T y = 0 k 0 y
z 0 0 1 z
1 0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is,,, [T ] = 0 k 0
0 0 1
• The expansion of v = ( x, y, z ) along z- axis by a non-zero factor k , 1 k is,
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T ( x, y , z ) = ( x, y , k z )
x x
T y = y
z kz
x 1 0 0 x
T y = 0 1 0 y
z 0 0 k z
1 0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is,,, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 k
Compression:
Compression in Plane:
• The compression of v = ( x, y ) along x- axis by a non-zero factor k , 0 k 1 is,
T ( x, y ) = (kx, y )
x kx
T =
y y
x k 0 x
T =
y 0 1 y
k 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
• The compression of v = ( x, y ) along y- axis by a non-zero factor k , 0 k 1 is,
T ( x, y ) = ( x, ky )
x x
T =
y ky
x 1 0 x
T =
y 0 k y
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1 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is,, [T ] =
0 k
Compression in Space:
• The compression of v = ( x, y, z ) along x- axis by a non-zero factor k , 0 k 1 is,
T ( x, y, z ) = (kx, y, z )
x kx
T y = y
z z
x k 0 0 x
T y = 0 1 0 y
z 0 0 1 z
k 0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is,, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 1
• The compression of v = ( x, y, z ) along y- axis by a non-zero factor k , 0 k 1 is,
T ( x, y, z ) = ( x, ky, z )
x x
T y = ky
z z
x 1 0 0 x
T y = 0 k 0 y
z 0 0 1 z
1 0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is,,, [T ] = 0 k 0
0 0 1
• The compression of v = ( x, y, z ) along z- axis by a non-zero factor k , 0 k 1 is,
T ( x, y , z ) = ( x, y , k z )
x x
T y = y
z kz
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x 1 0 0 x
T y = 0 1 0 y
z 0 0 k z
1 0 0
Therefore, the standard matrix is,,, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 k
Reflection of T about a line y = mx :
1 1 − m2 2m
For reflection of T about 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 where 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 we have [T ] =
1 + m 2 2m m 2 − 1
Try yourself:
1
1. If 𝑉 = (−2,3,0).Find 𝑇(𝑉) when 𝑇 is compressed by factor along the Y-axis.
4
2. If 𝑉 = (−2,3,0).Find 𝑇(𝑉) when 𝑇 is a shearing along the Y-axis.
3. Find [𝑇] when 𝑇 is a 225𝑜 clockwise rotation.
4. If 𝑣 = (2, −5) is a vector in plane and 𝑤 = (−5, −10,15) is a vector in space.
• If 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) is reflection about the X-axis, then find standard matrix of T and also find (𝑣) .
• If 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) is reflection about the line 𝑦 = − 𝑥 , then find standard matrix of 𝑇 and also find 𝑇(𝑣) .
• If 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is reflection about the XZ-plane then find the standard matrix of 𝑇 and also find (𝑤) .
• If 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) is vertically sheared by factor 2 then find the standard matrix of 𝑇 and also find (𝑣) .
1
• If 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is sheared along Z-axis by factor 3 then find the standard matrix of 𝑇 and also find (𝑤) .
5. 𝑉 = (4, −7) is a vector in a plane,
• Find image of 𝑉 if it is orthogonally projected on Y-axis.
• Find image of V if it is reflected about 𝑦 = −𝑥 .
• Find image of V if it is vertically sheared by factor 8.
3
6. Find the image of (−2,0,4) if it is contracted by factor 2 .
1 0 0
7. Find the image of [𝑇] = (0 1 0) and what is the name of this linear operator?
0 0 1
Orthogonal Projection in Plane:
(a). The orthogonal projection of v = ( x, y ) onto the X-axis is,
T (v) = ( x, 0)
1 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 0
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(b). The orthogonal projection of v = ( x, y ) onto the Y-axis is,
T (v) = (0, y )
0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
Orthogonal Projection in Space:
(a). The orthogonal projection of v = ( x, y, z ) onto the XY-plane is,
T (v) = ( x, y, 0)
1 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 0
(b). The orthogonal projection of v = ( x, y, z ) onto the XZ-plane is,
T (v) = ( x, 0, z )
1 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 0 0
0 0 1
(c). The orthogonal projection of v = ( x, y, z ) onto the YZ-plane is,
T (v) = ( x, 0, z )
0 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 1
Prob-01: If v = (2, −5) is a vector in plane and w = (−5, −10,15) is a vector in space, then
(vi) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is orthogonally projected on X-axis.
(vii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is orthogonally projected on Y-axis.
(viii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is orthogonally projected on XY-Plane.
(ix) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is orthogonally projected on YZ-Plane.
(x) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is orthogonally projected on XZ-Plane.
Solution: We have, v = (2, −5) and w = (−5, −10,15)
(ii) The orthogonal projection of v = (2, −5) on X- axis is,
T (v) = ( x, 0) = (2, 0)
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1 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 0
(ii) The orthogonal projection of v = (2, −5) on Y- axis is,
T (v) = (0, y ) = (0, −5)
0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
(iii). The orthogonal projection of w = (−5, −10,15) on XY- Plane is,
T ( w) = ( x, y, 0) = (−5, −10, 0)
1 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 0
(iv). The orthogonal projection of w = (−5, −10,15) on YZ- Plane is,
T ( w) = (0, y, z ) = (0, −10,15)
0 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 1
(iv). The orthogonal projection of w = (−5, −10,15) on XZ- Plane is,
T ( w) = ( x, 0, z ) = (−5, 0,15)
1 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 0 0
0 0 1
Dilation in Plane:
(a). The dilation of v = ( x, y ) by a non-zero factor k , 1 k is,
T (v) = (kx, ky )
k 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 k
Dilation in Space:
(a). The dilation of v = ( x, y, z ) by a non-zero factor k , 1 k is,
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T (v) = (kx, ky, kz )
k 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 k 0
0 0 k
Contraction in Plane:
(a). The dilation of v = ( x, y ) by a non-zero factor k , 0 k 1 is,
T (v) = (kx, ky )
k 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 k
Contraction in Space:
(a). The dilation of v = ( x, y, z ) by a non-zero factor k , 0 k 1 is,
T (v) = (kx, ky, kz )
k 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 k 0
0 0 k
Prob-02: If v = (4, 6) is a vector in plane and w = (−1,5, 2) is a vector in space, then
3
(v) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is dilated by the factor .
2
(vi) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is dilated by the factor 13 .
1
(vii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is contracted by the factor .
2
1
(viii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is contracted by the factor .
4
Solution: We have, v = (4, 6) and w = (−1,5, 2)
3
(ii) The dilation of v = (4, 6) by the factor k = is,
2
T (v) = (kx, ky ) = (6,9)
3
2 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 3
2
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(ii). The dilation of w = (−1,5, 2) by the factor k = 13 is,
T ( w) = (kx, ky, kz ) = ( −13, 65, 26)
13 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 13 0
0 0 13
1
(iii). The contraction of v = (4, 6) by the factor k = is,
2
T (v) = (kx, ky ) = (2,3)
1
2 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
2
1
(iv). The contraction of w = (−1,5, 2) by the factor k = is,
4
1 5 1
T ( w) = (kx, ky, kz ) = (− , , )
4 4 2
1
4 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 0
1
4
0 1
0
4
Expansion in Plane:
(a). The expansion of v = ( x, y ) along x- axis by a non-zero factor k , 1 k is,
T (v) = (kx, y )
k 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
(b). The expansion of v = ( x, y ) along y- axis by a non-zero factor k , 1 k is,
T (v) = ( x, ky )
1 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 k
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Expansion in Space:
(a). The expansion of v = ( x, y, z ) along x- axis by a non-zero factor k , 1 k is,
T (v) = (kx, y, z )
k 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 1
(b). The expansion of v = ( x, y, z ) along y- axis by a non-zero factor k , 1 k is,
T (v) = ( x, ky, z )
1 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 k 0
0 0 1
(c). The expansion of v = ( x, y, z ) along z- axis by a non-zero factor k , 1 k is,
T (v) = ( x, y, kz )
1 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 k
Compression in Plane:
(a). The compression of v = ( x, y ) along x- axis by a non-zero factor k , 0 k 1 is,
T (v) = (kx, y )
k 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
(b). The compression of v = ( x, y ) along y- axis by a non-zero factor k , 0 k 1 is,
T (v) = ( x, ky )
1 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 k
Compression in Space:
(a). The compression of v = ( x, y, z ) along x- axis by a non-zero factor k , 0 k 1 is,
T (v) = (kx, y, z )
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k 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 1
(b). The compression of v = ( x, y, z ) along y- axis by a non-zero factor k , 0 k 1 is,
T (v) = ( x, ky, z )
1 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 k 0
0 0 1
(c). The compression of v = ( x, y, z ) along z- axis by a non-zero factor k , 0 k 1 is,
T (v) = ( x, y, kz )
1 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 k
Reflection in Plane:
(a). The reflection of v = ( x, y ) about x- axis is,
T ( v ) = ( x, − y )
1 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 −1
(b). The reflection of v = ( x, y ) about y- axis is,
T ( v ) = ( − x, y )
−1 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
(c). The reflection of v = ( x, y ) about the line y = x is,
T (v ) = ( y , x )
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
1 0
(d). The reflection of v = ( x, y ) about the line y = − x is,
T (v ) = ( − y , − x )
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0 −1
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
−1 0
Reflection in Space:
(a). The reflection of v = ( x, y, z ) about XY- Plane is,
T ( v ) = ( x, y , − z )
1 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 −1
(b). The reflection of v = ( x, y, z ) about YZ- Plane is,
T ( v ) = ( − x, y , z )
−1 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 1
(c). The reflection of v = ( x, y, z ) about XZ- Plane is,
T ( v ) = ( x, − y , z )
1 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 −1 0
0 0 1
Prob-03: If v = (3, 2) is a vector in plane and w = (−3, −5,9) is a vector in space, then
(viii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is reflected about x-axis.
(ix) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is reflected about y-axis.
(x) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is reflected about y = x .
(xi) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is reflected about y = − x .
(xii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is reflected about XY-plane.
(xiii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is reflected about YZ-plane.
(xiv) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is reflected about XZ-plane.
Solution: We have, v = (3, 2) and w = (−3, −5,9)
(v) The reflection of v = (3, 2) about x-axis is,
T (v) = ( x, − y ) = (3, −2)
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1 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 −1
(vi) The reflection of v = (3, 2) about y-axis is,
T (v) = (− x, y ) = ( −3, 2)
−1 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
(vii) The reflection of v = (3, 2) about the line y = x is,
T (v) = ( y, x) = (2,3)
0 1
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
1 0
(viii) The reflection of v = (3, 2) about the line y = − x is,
T (v) = (− y, − x) = (−2, −3)
0 −1
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
−1 0
(v). The reflection of w = (−3, −5,9) about the XY- plane is,
T ( w) = ( x, y, − z ) = (−3, −5, −9)
1 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 −1
(vi). The reflection of w = (−3, −5,9) about the YZ- plane is,
T ( w) = (− x, y, z ) = (3, −5,9)
−1 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 0 1
(vii). The reflection of w = (−3, −5,9) about the XZ- plane is,
T ( w) = ( x, − y, z ) = (−3,5,9)
1 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 −1 0
0 0 1
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Shearing in Plane:
(a). The horizontal shearing of v = ( x, y ) by factor k is,
T (v) = ( x + ky, y )
1 k
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
(b). The vertical shearing of v = ( x, y ) by factor k is,
T (v) = ( x, y + kx)
1 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
k 1
Shearing in Space:
(a). The shearing of v = ( x, y, z ) along the X- axis is,
T (v) = ( x, y + kx, z + kx)
1 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = k 1 0
k 0 1
(b). The shearing of v = ( x, y, z ) along the Y- axis is,
T (v) = ( x + ky, y, z + ky )
1 k 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 k 1
(c). The shearing of v = ( x, y, z ) along the Z- axis is,
T (v) = ( x + kz , y + kz , z )
1 0 k
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 k
0 0 1
Prob-04: If v = (4, 6) is a vector in plane and w = (−1, 0,5) is a vector in space, then
(vi) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is sheared horizontally by the factor 3 .
(vii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T (v) if it is sheared vertically by the factor 3 .
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(viii) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is sheared by the factor 2 along the X-axis.
(ix) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is sheared by the factor 2 about Y-axis.
(x) Find the standard matrix [T ] and T ( w) if it is sheared by the factor 2 about Z-axis.
Solution: We have, v = (4, 6) and w = (−1, 0,5)
(v) The horizontal shearing of v = (4, 6) by the factor k = 3 is,
T (v) = ( x + ky, y ) = (22, 6)
1 3
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
0 1
(vi) The vertical shearing of v = (4, 6) by the factor k = 3 is,
T (v) = ( x, y + kx) = (4,18)
1 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] =
3 1
(vii) The shearing of w = (−1, 0,5) along x-axis by the factor k = 2 is,
T (v) = ( x, y + kx, z + kx) = (−1, −2,3)
1 0 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 2 1 0
2 0 1
(viii) The shearing of w = (−1, 0,5) along y-axis by the factor k = 2 is,
T (v) = ( x + ky, y, z + ky ) = (−1, 0,5)
1 2 0
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 0
0 2 1
(v). The shearing of w = (−1, 0,5) along z-axis by the factor k = 2 is,
T (v) = ( x + kz , y + kz , z ) = (9,10,5)
1 0 2
And the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 1 2
0 0 1
Rotation in Plane:
(a). The rotation of v = ( x, y ) about the origin through an angle is,
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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T (v) = ( x cos − y sin , x sin + y cos )
cos − sin
and the standard matrix is, [T ] =
sin cos
Rotation in Space:
(a). The anticlockwise rotation of v = ( x, y, z ) about the X- axis through an angle is,
T (v) = ( x, y cos − z sin , y sin + z cos )
1 0 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0 cos
− sin
0 sin cos
(b). The anticlockwise rotation of v = ( x, y, z ) about the Y- axis through an angle is,
T (v) = ( x cos + z sin , y, − x sin + z cos )
cos 0 sin
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = 0
1 0
− sin 0 cos
(c). The anticlockwise rotation of v = ( x, y, z ) about the Z- axis through an angle is,
T (v) = ( x cos − y sin , x sin + y cos , z )
cos − sin 0
and the standard matrix is, [T ] = sin
sin 0
0 1
0
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Chapter Eigen Values
08
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors: Let A be an n-square matrix. A scalar is
called an eigenvalue or characteristic root of A if there exists a non-zero
column vector v such that,
Av = v or ( A − I ) v = 0
Where, I is the n-square identity matrix. Every vector satisfying this
relation is called an eigenvector or characteristic vector of A associated
with the eigenvalue .
Spectrum: The set of all eigenvalues of a matrix A is called the spectrum
of A.
Eigenspace: If A be an n-square matrix and be an eigenvalue of A, then
the set of all vectors satisfying the relation Av = v including the zero
vector is called an eigenspace of A corresponding to .
Characteristic Matrix: If A be an n-square matrix and be an eigenvalue
of A, then the matrix A − I n or I n − A is called a characteristic matrix of
A.
Characteristic Polynomial: If A be an n-square matrix and be an
eigenvalue of A, then the determinant of the characteristic matrix A − I n
or I n − A is called a characteristic polynomial of A.
i.e, = A − I n
or, = In − A .
Characteristic Equation: If A be an n-square matrix and be an
eigenvalue of A, then the equation A − I n = 0 or I n − A = 0 is called a
characteristic equation of A.
NOTE: If A be an n n matrix then,
1. An eigenvalue of A is a scalar such that A − I n = 0
2. An eigenvectors of A corresponding to are the non-zero solutions
of ( A − I n ) v = 0 .
Algebraic Multiplicity: The number of times an eigenvalue occurs is called
its algebraic multiplicity. For example, if = −2, − 2, 0,3,3,5 ; then algebraic
multiplicities of −2, 0,3,5 are 2,1, 2,1 respectively.
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Geometric Multiplicity: The geometric multiplicity of an eigenvalue is the
dimension of the eigenspace associated with that eigenvalue.
NOTE: The geometric multiplicity of an eigenvalue is either less than or,
equal to the algebraic multiplicity of that eigenvalue.
NOTE: If A is an n n triangular matrix (upper triangular, lower
triangular, or diagonal), then the eigenvalues of A are the entries on the
main diagonal of A.
a11 a12 ... a1n
0 a22 ... a2 n
Example: If A = , then its eigenvalues are, a11 , a22 , … … , ann .
... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ann
NOTE:
1). Every polynomial equation of odd degree with real coefficients does posses a
real solution.
2). = 0 is an eigenvalue of a matrix A iff A is singular.
3). All eigenvalues of a matrix A are non-zero iff A is non-singular.
4). If a matrix A has an eigenvalue and k N , then will become an
k
eigenvalue of Ak .
5). Same eigenvalues belong to similar matrices.
6). Characteristic values of a symmetric matrix are real numbers.
7). Characteristic values of a skew-symmetric matrix are either zeroes or
imaginary numbers.
8). Characteristic values of a Hermitian matrix are real numbers.
9). Characteristic values of an orthogonal matrix are 1 or -1.
10). The eigenvalues of a matrix A are same as the eigenvalues of A .
t
11). For, a non-singular matrix, the inverse of an eigenvalue will be the
eigenvalue of the inverse matrix.
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem: Every square matrix satisfies its
characteristics equation.
1 3 7
Problem-01: Verify Cayley-Hamilton Theorem for A = 4 2 3 .
1 2 1
Solution: The given matrix is,
1 3 7
A = 4 2 3
1 2 1
The characteristic matrix of A is,
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1 3 7 1 0 0
A − I = 4 2 3 − 0 1 0
1 2 1 0 0 1
1 3 7 0 0
= 4 2 3 − 0 0
1 2 1 0 0
1 − 3 7
= 4 2− 3
1 1 −
2
The characteristic polynomial of A is,
= A − I
1− 3 7
= 4 2− 3
1 2 1−
= (1 − ) ( 2 − )(1 − ) − 6 − 34 (1 − ) − 3 + 7 8 − ( 2 − )
= (1 − ) ( 2 − 3 − 4 ) − 3 (1 − 4 ) + 7 ( 6 + )
= − 3 + 4 2 + − 4 − 3 + 12 + 42 + 7
= − 3 + 4 2 + 20 + 35
The characteristic equation of A is,
A − I = 0
− 3 + 4 2 + 20 + 35 = 0
3 − 4 2 − 20 − 35 = 0
To verify Cayley–Hamilton Theorem we need to show:
A3 − 4 A2 − 20 A − 35I = 0
Now we have,
1 3 7 1 3 7
A = 4 2 3 4 2 3
2
1 2 1 1 2 1
1 + 12 + 7 3 + 6 + 14 7 + 9 + 7
= 4 + 8 + 3 12 + 4 + 6 28 + 6 + 3
1+ 8 +1 3 + 4 + 2 7 + 6 +1
20 23 23
= 15 22 37
10 9 14
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Page 192 of 214
A3 = AA2
1 3 7 20 23 23
= 4 2 3 15 22 37
1 2 1 10 9 14
135 152 232
= 140 163 208
60 76 111
135 152 232 20 23 23 1 3 7 1 0 0
A − 4 A − 20 A − 35I = 140 163 208 − 4 15 22 37 − 20 4 2 3 − 35 0 1 0
3 2
60 76 111 10 9 14 1 2 1 0 0 1
135 152 232 80 92 92 20 60 140 35 0 0
= 140 163 208 − 60 88 148 − 80 40 60 − 0 35 0
60 76 111 40 36 56 20 40 20 0 0 35
0 0 0
= 0 0 0
0 0 0
Hence, the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem is verified for the given matrix.
1 2 3
Problem-02: Find the inverse of the matrix A = 2 −1 1 by using Cayley-
3 1 1
Hamilton Theorem.
Solution: The given matrix is,
1 2 3
A = 2 −1 1
3 1 1
The characteristic matrix of A is,
1 2 3 1 0 0
A − I = 2 −1 1 − 0 1 0
3 1 1 0 0 1
1 2 3 0 0
= 2 −1 1 − 0 0
3 1 1 0 0
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Page 193 of 214
1 − 2 3
= 2 −1 − 1
3 1 −
1
The characteristic polynomial of A is,
= A − I
1− 2 3
= 2 −1 − 1
3 1 1−
= (1 − ) ( −1 − )(1 − ) − 1 − 22 (1 − ) − 3 + 32 − ( −1 − )
= (1 − ) ( 2 − 2 ) − 2 ( −1 − 2 ) + 3 ( 3 + )
= − 3 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 4 + 9 + 3
= − 3 + 2 + 9 + 11
The characteristic equation of A is,
A − I = 0
− 3 + 2 + 9 + 11 = 0
3 − 2 − 9 − 11 = 0
By Cayley–Hamilton Theorem we can write:
A3 − A2 − 9 A − 11I = 0
Multiplying both sides by A−1 we have,
A2 − A − 9 I − 11A−1 = 0
A−1 = ( A2 − A − 9 I )
1
(1)
11
Now
1 2 3 1 2 3
A = 2 −1 1 2 −1 1
2
3 1 1 3 1 1
1+ 4 + 9 2 − 2 + 3 3 + 2 + 3
= 2 − 2 + 3 4 + 1 + 1 6 −1 +1
3 + 2 + 3 6 −1 +1 9 + 1 + 1
14 3 8
= 3 6 6
8 6 11
From (1) we have,
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14 3 8 1 2 3 1 0 0
−1 1
A = 3 6 6 − 2 −1 1 − 9 0 1 0
11
8 6 11 3 1 1 0 0 1
14 3 8 1 2 3 9 0 0
1
= 3 6 6 − 2 −1 1 − 0 9 0
11
8 6 11 3 1 1 0 0 9
4 1 5
1
= 1 −2 5
11
5 5 1
4 1 5
11 11 11
= 1 −2 5
11 11 11
5 5 1
11 11 11
This is required inverse matrix of the given matrix. Similarly, we can find
A−2 and A−3 . (Ans.)
Exercise: Verify the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem for the following matrices
and also find inverse matrices A−1 , A−2 & A−3 :
2 −2 1 2 −1 1 0 1 2
a). A = 2 −8 −2 ; b). A = −1 2 −1 ; c). A = 2 3 0 .
1 2 2 1 −1 2 1 1 −2
Problem-03: Find the eigenvalues and associated eigenvectors of the
matrix
−3 2 2
A = −6 5 2 .
−7 4 4
Solution: The given matrix is,
−3 2 2
A = −6 5 2
−7 4 4
The characteristic matrix of A is,
−3 2 2 1 0 0
A − I = −6 5 2 − 0 1 0
−7 4 4 0 0 1
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Page 195 of 214
−3 2 2 0 0
= −6 5 2 − 0 0
−7 4 4 0 0
−3 − 2 2
= −6 5− 2
−7 4 −
4
The characteristic polynomial of A is,
= A − I
−3 − 2 2
= −6 5− 2
−7 4 4−
= ( −3 − ) ( 5 − )( 4 − ) − 8 − 2−6 ( 4 − ) + 14 + 2−24 + 7 (5 − )
= ( −3 − ) ( 20 − 9 + 2 − 8 ) − 2 ( −24 + 6 + 14 ) + 2 ( −24 + 35 − 7 )
= ( −3 − ) ( 2 − 9 + 12 ) − 2 ( 6 − 10 ) + 2 ( −7 + 11)
= −3 2 + 27 − 36 − 3 + 9 2 − 12 − 12 + 20 − 14 + 22
= − 3 + 6 2 − 11 + 6
The characteristic equation of A is,
A − I = 0
− 3 + 6 2 − 11 + 6 = 0
3 − 6 2 + 11 − 6 = 0
3 − 2 − 5 2 + 5 + 6 − 6 = 0
2 ( −1) − 5 ( −1) + 6 ( −1) = 0
( − 1) ( 2 − 5 + 6 ) = 0
( − 1)( − 2)( − 3) = 0
= 1, 2, 3
The eigenvalues of A are 1, 2, 3.
2nd part:
x
Let v1 = y be a non-zero eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue = 1
z
.
( A − I ) v1 = 0
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−4 2 2 x 0
−6 4 2 y = 0
−7 4 3 z 0
−4 x + 2 y + 2 z = 0
or , −6 x + 4 y + 2 z = 0
−7 x + 4 y + 3z = 0
−2 x + y + z = 0 L1' → 1 L1
2
or , −3x + 2 y + z = 0
1
−7 x + 4 y + 3z = 0
L2 → 2 L2
'
−2 x + y + z = 0
L → 2 L2 − 3L1
'
or , y − z = 0 2'
L3 → 2 L3 − 7 L1
y − z = 0
−2 x + y + z = 0
or , y − z = 0 L3' → L3 − L2
0 = 0
−2 x + y + z = 0
L3 → L3 − L2
'
or ,
y − z = 0
There are 2 equations in 3 unknowns. So there is (3-2) = 1 free variable
which is z. Thus the system has only one independent solution.
1
Putting z = 1 then we get v1 = 1 .
1
1
Thus the independent eigenvector is v1 = 1 corresponding to the eigenvalue
1
1 = 1 and (1,1,1) is a basis of the eigenspace corresponding to the eigenvalue
1 = 1 .
x
Again, Let v2 = y be a non-zero eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue
z
= 2.
( A − I ) v2 = 0
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−5 2 2 x 0
−6 3 2 y = 0
−7 4 2 z 0
−5 x + 2 y + 2 z = 0
or , −6 x + 3 y + 2 z = 0
−7 x + 4 y + 2 z = 0
−5 x + 2 y + 2 z = 0
L2 → 5L2 − 6 L1
'
or , 3y − 2z = 0
L3' → 5L3 − 7 L1
6 y − 4z = 0
−5 x + 2 y + 2 z = 0
1
or , 3 y − 2 z = 0 L3' → L3
2
3y − 2z = 0
−5 x + 2 y + 2 z = 0
or , 3 y − 2 z = 0 L3' → L3 − L2
0 = 0
−5 x + 2 y + 2 z = 0
or ,
3y − 2z = 0
There are 2 equations in 3 unknowns. So there is (3-2) = 1 free variable which is z.
Thus the system has only one independent solution.
2
Putting z = 3 then we get v2 = 2 .
3
2
Thus the independent eigenvector is v2 = 2 corresponding to the eigenvalue
3
2 = 2 and ( 2, 2,3) is a basis of the Eigen space corresponding to the eigenvalue
2 = 2 .
x
Again, let v3 = y be a non-zero eigenvector corresponding to the
z
eigenvalue = 3 .
( A − I ) v3 = 0
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−6 2 2 x 0
−6 2 2 y = 0
−7 4 1 z 0
−6 x + 2 y + 2 z = 0
or , −6 x + 2 y + 2 z = 0
−7 x + 4 y + z = 0
−6 x + 2 y + 2 z = 0
L2 → L2 − L1
'
or , 0 = 0
L3' → 6 L3 − 7 L1
10 y − 8 z = 0
−6 x + 2 y + 2 z = 0
or ,
10 y − 8 z = 0
−6 x + 2 y + 2 z = 0 ' 1
or , L2 → L2
5 y − 4z = 0 2
There are 2 equations in 3 unknowns. So there is (3-2) = 1 free variable
which is z. Thus the system has only one independent solution.
3
Putting z = 5 then we get v3 = 4 .
5
3
Thus the independent eigenvector is v3 = 4 corresponding to the
5
eigenvalue 3 = 3 and ( 3, 4,5) is a basis of the Eigen space corresponding
to the eigenvalue 3 = 3 .
1 −3 3
Problem-04: If a matrix is, A = 3 −5 3
6 −6 4
Then, (a). Find an spectrum of A .
(b). Find eigenvalues of AT , A3 , A−1 , A−3 .
(c). Find A−1 by using Cayley-Hamilton Theorem.
Solution: The given matrix is,
1 −3 3
A = 3 −5 3
6 −6 4
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The characteristic matrix of A is,
1 −3 3 1 0 0
A − I = 3 −5 3 − 0 1 0
6 −6 4 0 0 1
1 −3 3 0 0
= 3 −5 3 − 0 0
6 −6 4 0 0
1 − −3 3
= 3 −5 − 3
6 −6 4 −
The characteristic polynomial of A is,
= A − I
1− −3 3
= 3 −5 − 3
6 −6 4−
= (1 − )( −5 − )( 4 − ) + 18 + 33 ( 4 − ) − 18 + 3−18 − 6 ( −5 − )
= (1 − ) ( 2 + − 20 + 18 ) + 3 (12 − 3 − 18 ) + 3 ( −18 + 30 + 6 )
= (1 − ) ( 2 + − 2 ) − 9 − 18 + 36 + 18
= 2 + − 2 − 3 − 2 + 2 − 9 − 18 + 36 + 18
= − 3 + 12 + 16
The characteristic equation of A is,
A − I = 0
− 3 + 12 + 16 = 0
3 − 12 − 16 = 0 (1)
3 + 2 2 − 2 2 − 4 − 8 − 16 = 0
2 ( + 2) − 2 ( + 2) − 8 ( + 2) = 0
( + 2 ) ( 2 − 2 − 8 ) = 0
( + 2)( + 2)( − 4) = 0
= −2, − 2, 4
The eigenvalues of A are -2, -2, 4.
(a). The spectrum is, −2, 4 .
(b).The eigenvalues of the matrix AT are, -2, -2, 4.
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The eigenvalues of the matrix A3 are, ( −2 ) , ( −2 ) , 43 or −8, −8, 64.
3 3
1 1 1
The eigenvalues of the matrix A−1 are, ( −2 ) , ( −2 ) , 4 −1 or − , − , .
−1 −1
2 2 4
1 1 1
The eigenvalues of the matrix A−3 are, ( −2 ) , ( −2 ) , 4 −3 or − , − , .
−3 −3
8 8 64
(c). From Eq. (1) we have,
3 − 12 − 16 = 0
By Cayley-Hamilton Theorem we have,
A3 − 12 A − 16 I = 0
A2 − 12 I − 16 A−1 = 0
−16 A−1 = − A2 + 12 I
1 3
A−1 = A2 − I (2)
16 4
1 −3 3 1 −3 3
Now, A2 = 3 −5 3
3 −5 3
6 −6 4 6 −6 4
1 − 9 + 18 −3 + 15 − 16 3 − 9 + 12
= 3 − 15 + 18 −9 + 25 − 18 9 − 15 + 12
6 − 18 + 24 −18 + 30 − 24 18 − 18 + 16
10 −4 6
= 6 −2 6
12 −12 16
From Eq. (2) we have,
10 −4 6 1 0 0
−1 1 3
A = 6 −2 6 − 0 1 0
16 4 0 0 1
12 −12 16
5 1 3 3
8 − 0 0
4 8 4
=
3
0
3 1 3
− − 0
8 8 8 4
3 3 3
− 1 0 0
4 4 4
−1 −1 3
8 4 8
= 3 −7 3
8 8 8
3 1
− 3
4 4 4
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Page 201 of 214
0 4 2
Problem-05: If a matrix is, A = −3 8 3
4 −8 −2
Then, (a). Find an spectrum of A .
(b). Find eigenvalues of AT , A3 , A−1 , A−3 .
(c). Find A−1 by using Cayley-Hamilton Theorem.
Solution: The given matrix is,
0 4 2
A = −3 8 3
4 −8 −2
The characteristic matrix of A is,
0 4 2 1 0 0
A − I = −3 8 3 − 0 1 0
4 −8 −2 0 0 1
0 4 2 0 0
= −3 8 3 − 0 0
4 −8 −2 0 0
− 4 2
= −3 8 − 3
4 −8 −2 −
The characteristic polynomial of A is,
= A − I
− 4 2
= −3 8 − 3
4 −8 −2 −
= − (8 − )( −2 − ) + 24 − 4−3 ( −2 − ) − 12 + 224 − 4 (8 − )
= − ( 2 − 6 − 16 + 24 ) − 4 ( 6 + 3 − 12 ) + 2 ( 24 − 32 + 4 )
= − ( 2 − 6 + 8 ) − 4 ( 3 − 6 ) + 2 ( 4 − 8 )
= − 3 + 6 2 − 8 − 12 + 24 + 8 − 16
= − 3 + 6 2 − 12 + 8
The characteristic equation of A is,
A − I = 0
− 3 + 6 2 − 12 + 8 = 0
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3 − 6 2 + 12 − 8 = 0 (1)
− 2 − 4 + 8 + 4 − 8 = 0
3 2 2
2 ( − 2) − 4 ( − 2) + 4 ( − 2) = 0
( − 2 ) ( 2 − 4 + 4 ) = 0
( − 2)( − 2)( − 2) = 0
= 2, 2, 2
The eigenvalues of A are 2, 2, 2.
(a). The spectrum is, 2 .
(b).The eigenvalues of the matrix AT are, 2, 2, 2.
The eigenvalues of the matrix A3 are, 23 , 23 , 23 or 8,8,8.
1 1 1
The eigenvalues of the matrix A−1 are, 2−1 , 2−1 , 2−1 or , , .
2 2 2
1 1 1
The eigenvalues of the matrix A−3 are, 2−3 , 2−3 , 2−3 or , , .
8 8 8
(c). From Eq. (1) we have,
3 − 6 2 + 12 − 8 = 0
By Cayley-Hamilton Theorem we have,
A3 − 6 A2 + 12 A − 8I = 0
A2 − 6 A + 12 I − 8 A−1 = 0 ( Multipying by A )
−1
−8 A−1 = − A2 + 6 A − 12 I
1 3 3
A−1 = A2 − A + I (2)
8 4 2
0 4 2 0 4 2
Now, A = −3 8 3
2
−3 8 3
4 −8 −2 4 −8 −2
0 − 12 + 8 0 + 32 − 16 0 + 12 − 4
= 0 − 24 + 12 −12 + 64 − 24 −6 + 24 − 6
0 + 24 − 8 16 − 64 + 16 8 − 24 + 4
−4 16 8
= −12 28 12
16 −32 −12
From Eq. (2) we have,
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−4 16 8 0 4 2 1 0 0
1
−1 3 3
A = −12 28 12 − −3 8 3 + 0 1 0
8 4 4 −8 −2 2 0 0 1
16 −32 −12
− 1 2 1 0 3 3 3 0 0
2 2 2
= − 3 7 3 −−9 6 9 + 0 3 0
2 2 2 4 4 2
2 −4 − 3 3 −6 − 3 0 0 3
2 2 2
1 −1 − 1
2
=3 2 −3
4 4
−1 2 3
2
1 2 2
Problem-06:If
A = 1 2 −1 , then find its
−1 1 4
i). eigenvalues
ii). a lg ebraic multiplicities of eigenvalues
iii). geometric multiplicities.
Solution: The given matrix is,
1 2 2
A= 1 2 −1
−1 1 4
The characteristic matrix of A is,
1 2 2 1 0 0
A − I = 1 2 −1 − 0 1 0
−1 1 4 0 0 1
1 2 2 0 0
= 1 2 −1 − 0 0
−1 1 4 0 0
1 − 2 2
= 3 2− −1
−1 4 −
1
The characteristic polynomial of A is,
= A − I
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1− 2 2
= 3 2− −1
−1 1 4−
= (1 − ) ( 2 − )( 4 − ) + 1 − 2( 4 − ) −1 + 21 + ( 2 − )
= (1 − ) ( 8 − 6 + 2 + 1) − 2 ( 3 − ) + 2 ( 3 − )
= (1 − ) ( 9 − 6 + 2 ) − 6 + 2 + 6 − 2
= (1 − ) ( 2 − 6 + 9 )
= (1 − )( − 3)( − 3)
The characteristic equation of A is,
A − I = 0
(1 − ) ( 2 − 6 + 9 ) = 0
(1 − )( − 3)( − 3) = 0
= 1, 3, 3
The eigenvalues of A are 1, 3, 3.
The algebraic multiplicity of = 1 is 1. So its geometric multiplicity must
be 1.
The algebraic multiplicity of = 3 is 2. So its geometric multiplicity may
be 1 or, 2.
a
To become sure we use v = b in the characteristic equation.
c
i.e, ( A − I ) v = 0
−2 2 2 a
1 −1 −1 b = 0
−1 1 1 c
−2a + 2b + 2c = 0
or, a− b − c = 0
− a + b + c = 0
−2a + 2b + 2c = 0 '
L = 2 L2 + L1
or, 0 = 0 2'
L = 2 L3 − L1
0 = 0 3
or, −2a + 2b + 2c = 0
or, a −b −c = 0
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Page 205 of 214
or, a =b+c
a
v = b
c
b + c
v= b
c
1 1
v = b 1 + c 0 where, b 0 and c 0
0 1
Here, the resulting eigenspace is 2-dimentional.
Hence, the geometric multiplicity of = 3 is 2.
−3 1 −1
Problem-07: Find the eigenvalues of the matrix A = −7 5 −1 .
−6 6 −2
Solution: The given matrix is,
−3 1 −1
A = −7 5 −1
−6 6 −2
The characteristic matrix of A is,
−3 1 −1 1 0 0
A − I = −7 5 −1 − 0 1 0
−6 6 −2 0 0 1
−3 1 −1 0 0
= −7 5 −1 − 0 0
−6 6 −2 0 0
−3 − 1 −1
= −7 5− −1
−6 −2 −
6
The characteristic polynomial of A is,
= A − I
−3 − 1 −1
= −7 5− −1
−6 6 −2 −
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= ( −3 − ) ( 5 − )( −2 − ) + 6 − −7 ( −2 − ) − 6 − −42 + 6 ( 5 − )
= ( −3 − ) ( 2 − 3 − 10 ) + 6 − (14 + 7 − 6 ) − ( −42 + 30 − 6 )
= ( −3 − ) ( 2 − 3 − 4 ) − ( 7 + 8 ) − ( −12 − 6 )
= −3 2 + 9 + 12 − 3 + 3 2 + 4 − 7 − 8 + 12 + 6
= − 3 + 12 + 16
The characteristic equation of A is,
A − I = 0
− 3 + 12 + 16 = 0
3 − 12 − 16 = 0
3 − 4 2 + 4 2 − 16 + 4 − 16 = 0
2 ( − 4) + 4 ( − 4) + 4 ( − 4 ) = 0
( − 4 ) ( 2 + 4 + 4 ) = 0
( − 4)( + 2)( + 2) = 0
= −2, − 2, 4
The eigenvalues of A are -2, -2, 4.
1 0 −2
Problem-08: If a matrix is, A = 0 0 0 .
−2 0 4
Then, (a). Find an spectrum of A .
(b). Find eigenvalues of AT , A3 , A−1 , A−3 .
(c). Find A−1 by using Cayley-Hamilton Theorem.
Solution: The given matrix is,
1 0 −2
A= 0 0 0
−2 0 4
The characteristic matrix of A is,
1 0 −2 1 0 0
A − I = 0 0 0 − 0 1 0
−2 0 4 0 0 1
1 0 −2 0 0
= 0 0 0 − 0 0
−2 0 4 0 0
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 207 of 214
1 − 0 −2
= 0 − 0
−2 0 4 −
The characteristic polynomial of A is,
= A − I
1− 0 −2
= 0 − 0
−2 0 4−
= (1 − ) − ( 4 − ) − 0 − 0 − 2 ( 0 − 2 )
= (1 − ) ( −4 + 2 ) + 4
= −4 + 2 + 4 2 − 3 + 4
= − 3 + 5 2
The characteristic equation of A is,
A − I = 0
− 3 + 5 2 = 0
3 − 5 2 = 0
2 ( − 5) = 0
= 0, 0, 5
The eigenvalues of A are 0, 0,5.
(a). The spectrum is, 0,5 .
(b).The eigenvalues of the matrix AT are, 0, 0, 5.
The eigenvalues of the matrix A3 are, 03 ,03 ,53 or 0, 0,125.
Since, 0 is the eigenvalue of the matrix A so it is a singular matrix and
we know that singular matrix does not possess inverse matrix. So, the
eigenvalues of matrices A−1 & A−3 are not possible.
(c).Since, the matrix is singular so its inverse does not exist.
2 1 0
Problem-09: Find the eigenvalues of the matrix A = 3 2 0 .
0 0 4
Then, (a). Find an spectrum of A .
(b). Find eigenvalues of AT , A3 , A−1 , A−3 .
(c). Find A−1 by using Cayley-Hamilton Theorem.
Solution: The given matrix is,
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 208 of 214
2 1 0
A = 3 2 0
0 0 4
The characteristic matrix of A is,
2 1 0 1 0 0
A − I = 3 2 0 − 0 1 0
0 0 4 0 0 1
2 1 0 0 0
= 3 2 0 − 0 0
0 0 4 0 0
2− 1 0
= 3 2− 0
0 4 −
0
The characteristic polynomial of A is,
= A − I
2− 1 0
= 3 2− 0
0 0 4−
= ( 2 − ) ( 2 − )( 4 − ) − 0 − 3 ( 4 − ) − 0 + 0
= (2 − ) (4 − ) − 3(4 − )
2
= (4 − ) (2 − ) − 3
2
= ( 4 − ) ( 4 − 4 + 2 − 3)
= ( 4 − ) ( 2 − 4 + 1)
The characteristic equation of A is,
A − I = 0
( 4 − ) ( 2 − 4 + 1) = 0
4 − = 0 or , 2 − 4 + 1 = 0
4 16 − 4
= 4 or , =
2
4 12
or , =
2
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 209 of 214
42 3
or , =
2
or , = 2 3
= 4, 2 + 3, 2 − 3
The eigenvalues of Aare 4, 2 + 3, 2 − 3. .
(a). The spectrum is, 4, 2 + 3, 2 − 3 .
(b). The eigenvalues of the matrix AT are, 4, 2 + 3, 2 − 3 .
( )( )
3 3
The eigenvalues of the matrix A3 are, 43 , 2 + 3 , 2 − 3 or
( ) ( )
3 3
64, 2 + 3 , 2 − 3 .
( ) ( )
−1 −1
The eigenvalues of the matrix A−1 are, 4−1 , 2 + 3 , 2 − 3 .
,(2 + 3) ,(2 − 3)
−3 −3
The eigenvalues of the matrix A−3 are, 4−3 .
(c).Try yourself.
1 2 3
Problem-10: Find the eigenvalues of the matrix A = 0 1 2 .
0 −2 1
Solution: The given matrix is,
1 2 3
A = 0 1 2
0 −2 1
The characteristic matrix of A is,
1 2 3 1 0 0
A − I = 0 1 2 − 0 1 0
0 −2 1 0 0 1
1 2 3 0 0
= 0 1 2 − 0 0
0 −2 1 0 0
1 − 2 3
= 0 1− 2
0 −2 1 −
The characteristic polynomial of A is,
= A − I
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 210 of 214
1− 2 3
= 0 1− 2
0 −2 1−
= (1 − ) (1 − ) + 4
2
= (1 − ) ( 2 − 2 + 1 + 4 )
= (1 − ) ( 2 − 2 + 5 )
The characteristic equation of A is,
A − I = 0
(1 − ) ( 2 − 2 + 5 ) = 0
1 − = 0 or , 2 − 2 + 5 = 0
2 4 − 20
=1 or , =
2
2 −16
or , =
2
2 16i 2
or , =
2
2 4i
or , =
2
or , = 1 2i
= 1, 1 2i
The eigenvalues of A are 1, 1 2i .
1 0 0
Problem-11: Find the eigenvalues of the matrix A = 0 1 −1 .
0 1 1
Solution: The given matrix is,
1 0 0
A = 0 1 −1
0 1 1
The characteristic matrix of A is,
1 0 0 1 0 0
A − I = 0 1 −1 − 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 211 of 214
1 0 0 0 0
= 0 1 −1 − 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
1 − 0 0
= 0 1 − −1
0 1 −
1
The characteristic polynomial of A is,
= A − I
1− 0 0
= 0 1− −1
0 1 1−
= (1 − ) (1 − ) + 1
2
= (1 − ) ( 2 − 2 + 2 )
The characteristic equation of A is,
A − I = 0
(1 − ) ( 2 − 2 + 2 ) = 0
1 − = 0 or , 2 − 2 + 2 = 0
2 4−8
= 1 or , =
2
2 −4
or , =
2
2 4i 2
or , =
2
2 2i
or , =
2
or , = 1 i
= 1, 1 i
The eigenvalues of Aare 1, 1 i .
2 −1 0 0
−2 3 0 0
Problem-12: Find the eigenvalues of the matrix A =
2 0 4 2
1 3 − 2 −1
Solution: The given matrix is,
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 212 of 214
2 −1 0 0
−2 3 0 0
A=
2 0 4 2
1 3 − 2 −1
The characteristic matrix of A is,
2 −1 0 0 1 0 0 0
−2 3 0 0 0 1 0 0
A − I = −
2 0 4 2 0 0 0 1
1 3 −2 −1 0 0 1 0
2 −1 0 0 0 0 0
−2 3 0 0 0 0 0
= −
2 0 4 2 0 0 0
1 3 −2 −1 0 0 0
2 − −1 0 0
−2 3 − 0 0
=
2 0 4− 2
1 3 −2 −1 −
The characteristic polynomial of A is,
= A − I
2− −1 0 0
−2 3 − 0 0
=
2 0 4− 2
1 3 −2 −1 −
3− 0 0 −2 0 0
= (2 − ) 0 4− 2 +1 2 4 − 2
3 −2 −1 − 1 −2 −1 −
4− 2 4− 2
= ( 2 − )( 3 − ) −2
−2 −1 − −2 −1 −
= ( 2 − )( 3 − )( 4 − )( −1 − ) + 4 − 2( 4 − )( −1 − ) + 4
= ( 2 − )( 3 − ) ( 2 − 3 − 4 + 4 ) − 2 ( 2 − 3 − 4 + 4 )
= ( 2 − )( 3 − ) ( 2 − 3 ) − 2 ( 2 − 3 )
= ( 2 − 3 ) ( 2 − )( 3 − ) − 2
= ( 2 − 3 )( 2 − 5 + 6 − 2 )
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 213 of 214
= ( 2 − 3 )( 2 − 5 + 4 )
= ( − 1)( − 3)( − 4 )
The characteristic equation of A is,
A − I = 0
( −1)( − 3)( − 4) = 0
= 0 ; −1 = 0 ; − 3 = 0 ; − 4 = 0
= 0 ; =1 ; = 3 ; = 4
= 0,1,3, 4
The eigenvalues of A are 0 ,1,3, 4 . (Ans)
Exercise: Find an spectrum &eigenvalues of AT , A3 , A−1 , A−3 . Also find A−1
by using Cayley-Hamilton Theorem. Where,
2 −2 1 1 2 3 −2 2 −3 0 1 0
a). A = 2 −8 −2 b). A = 0 2 3
c).
A= 2 1
d).
−6
A = 0 0 1
1 2 2 0 0 2 −1 −2 0 4 −17 8
3 1 1 4 6 6 1 2 −1 5 0 0
e). A = 2 4 2 f). A = 1 3
2
g).
A = 0 −2 0
h).
A = −1 3 0
1 1 3 −1 −4 −3 0 −5 2 0 2 −1
1 2 3 0 1 0 1 2 2 3 2 4
i). A = 0 −4 2 j). A = 0 0 1
k).
A = 1 2 −1
l). A = 2 0 2
0 0 7 0 1 0 −1 1 4 4 2 3
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
Page 214 of 214
Mohammad Abdul Halim, Assistant professor in Mathematics, CSE, FSIT, DIU
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