A STUDY ON

COMPUTER HARDWARE AND

NETWORKING At
L&T, KANSBAHAL WORKS

GUIDED BY:
XXXXXX

SUBMITTED BY-
XXXXXX

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
“It is not possible to prepare a project report without the
assistance & encouragement of other people. This one is certainly
no exception.”

First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to the Training

and Placement Department of XXXX for facilitating the
recommendation letter to L & T, Kansbahal Works, Kansbahal to
undergo Industrial Training.

I also express my deep gratitude to XXXX, Head, HR at L & T

Kansbahal for considering me worthy enough to undergo
industrial training here and to be able to gain practical as well
as theoretical knowledge during this training period.

I would also like to express my deep sense of gratitude to

Mr.Arun Kumar Mishra, head of IT dept. and xxxxxx for
providing me the opportunity to do this project under his
guidance and providing me with all necessary support and
materials for the same. I was privileged to experience a
sustained enthusiastic and involved interest from his side. This
fuelled my enthusiasm even further and encouraged me to
boldly step into what was a totally dark and unexplored
expanse before me. He always fuelled my thoughts to think
broad and out of the box.

I would also like to thank all the staff, workers and supervisors
of the Assembly for their support who cleared my doubts and
helped in enriching my knowledge.

I also thank some of my friends who helped me in collecting

and collating materials for this project.

NAME.
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that:-

Mr.XXXX a student of B.Tech in XXX, 3 rd Year at XXXX
has undergone a Industrial Training 1st June 2016 to 30th
June 2016 at LARSEN & TOUBRO LTD. , KANSBAHAL.
During this tenure he was found sincere and very
creative. He was assigned with a project on which he
worked very smartly.
I am extremely overwhelmed to mention that his
performance during this training period was far above
the satisfactory level.

XXXXX
CONTENTS

1. Introduction…………………………………
…. 18
2. Hardware………………………………........
... 19
3. Inside the system box.…….
………………. 21
4. Power…………………….….
………………….. 23
5. Networking…………………….
……………… 33
6. Topologies………………………………….
…. 42
7. Networking
Devices……………………….. 43
8. Rules of Network
…………………………… 44
 9. OSI
Model…………………………………......45

10.Connectivity………………………...46
11.Future of Networking………………… 47

INTRODUCTION
Larsen & Toubro Limited, also known as L&T, is an
Indian multinational conglomerate headquartered in Mumbai,
India. The company has business interests in engineering,
construction, manufacturing goods, information technology
and financial services.
 L&T is India's largest engineering and construction
company. Considered to be the "bellwether of India's
engineering sector", L&T was recognized as the Company of
the Year in 2010.

History

The company was founded in Mumbai in 1938 by two

Danish engineers, Henning Holck-Larsen and SorenKristian
Toubro. The company began as a representative of Danish
manufacturers of dairy equipment. However, with the start of
the Second World War in 1939 and the resulting restriction on
imports, the partners started a small workshop to undertake
jobs and provide service facilities

Germany's invasion of Denmark in 1940 stopped supplies

of Danish products. The war-time need to repair and refit
ships offered L&T an opportunity, and led to the formation of a
new company, Hilda Ltd., to handle these operations. L&T also
started to repair and fabrication shops signaling the expansion
of the company .The sudden internment of German engineers
in India (due to suspicions caused by the War), who were to
put up a soda ash plant for the Tata’s, gave L&T a chance to
enter the field of installation In 1944, ECC was incorporated by
the partners; the company at this time was focused on
construction projects (Presently, ECC is the construction
division of L&T). L&T decided to build a portfolio of foreign
collaborations. By 1945, the company represented British
manufacturers of equipment used to manufacture products
such as hydrogenated oils, biscuits, soaps and glass.

In 1945, the company signed an agreement with

Caterpillar Tractor Company, USA, for marketing earth moving
equipment. At the end of the war, large numbers of war-
surplus Caterpillar equipment were available at attractive
prices, but the finances required were beyond the capacity of
the partners. This prompted them to raise additional equity
capital, and on 7 February 1946, Larsen & Toubro Private
Limited was born.

Post-Independence

acres of undeveloped marsh and jungle was acquired

in Powai, Mumbai. That uninhabitable swamp subsequently
became the site of its main manufacturing hub.

In December 1950, L&T became a public company with a

paid-up capital of Rs. 20 lakhs (2 million rupees). The sales
turnover in that year was Rs. 1.09 crore (10.9 million rupees).
In 1956, a major part of the Offices were set up
in Kolkata (Calcutta), Chennai (Madras) and New Delhi. In
1948, fifty-five company's Mumbai office moved to ICI House
in Ballard Estate, Mumbai; which would later be purchased by
the company and renamed as L&T House, its present
corporate office. The sixties witnessed the formation of many
new ventures: UTMAL (set up in 1960), Audco India Limited
(1961), Eutectic Welding Alloys (1962) and TENGL (1963).

Operating Divisions

L&T has delivered Engineering and Construction (EPIC)

services for many projects in the upstream hydrocarbon
sector over the last two decades, in India, Middle East, Africa,
South-East Asia and Australia.

L&T has formed a joint venture with Sapura Crest

Petroleum Berhad, Malaysia for providing services to offshore
construction industry worldwide. The joint venture will own
and operate the LTS 3000, a Heavy Lift cum Pipe lay Vessel.
L&T has more than 38000 employees in India.L&T Power has
set up an organization focused on coal-based, gas-based and
nuclear power projects. L&T has formed two joint ventures
with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Japan to manufacture super
critical boilers and steam turbine generators.
 L&T is among the top five fabrication companies in the
world. L&T has a shipyard capable of constructing vessels of
up to 150 meters long and displacement of 20,000 tons at its
heavy engineering complex at Hazira. The shipyard is geared
up to take up construction of niche vessels such as specialized
Heavy lift Cargo Vessels, CNG carriers, Chemical tankers,
defense&para military vessels, submarines and other role
specific vessels.The design wing of L&T ECC is called EDRC
(Engineering Design and Research Centre). EDRC provides
consultancy, design and total engineering solutions to
customers. It carries out basic and detailed design for both
residential and commercial projects.

L&T Solar

L&T Construction a subsidiary of the Larsen & Toubro

conglomerate also undertakes solar projects. In April ’12, L&T
commissioned India's largest solar photo voltaic-based power
plant (40 MWp) owned by Reliance Power at Jaisalmer,
Rajasthan from concept to commissioning in 129 days. In
2011, L&T entered into a partnership with Sharp for EPC
(engineering, procurement and construction) in megawatt
solar project and plan to construct about 100 MW in the next
12 months in most of the metros. L&T Infra Finance, promoted
by the parent L&T Ltd, is also active in the funding of solar
projects in India.

Electrical and electronics

L&T is an international manufacturer of a wide range of

electrical and electronic products and systems. L&T also
manufactures custom-engineered switchboards for industrial
sectors like power, refineries, petrochemicals and cement. In
the electronic segment, L&T offers a range of meters and
provides control and automation systems for industries.
Medical Equipment.

Information technology

L&T InfoTech focuses on information technology and

software services. Larsen & Toubro InfoTech Limited, a 100
per cent subsidiary of the L&T, offers software and services
with a focus on Manufacturing, BFS Land Communications and
Embedded Systems. It also provides services in the embedded
intelligence and engineering space.

L&T Machinery & Industrial Products

 L&T manufactures, markets and provides service support
for construction and mining machinery, surface miners,
hydraulic excavators, aggregate crushers, loader backhoes
and vibratory compactors; supplies a wide range of rubber
processing machinery; and manufactures and markets
industrial valves and allied products and a range of
application-engineered welding alloys

Subsidiaries & Joint Ventures

L&T – Komatsu Limited

Having its registered office at Mumbai, India and focusing

on construction equipment and mining equipment, L&T-
Komatsu Limited is a joint venture of Larsen and Toubro, and
Komatsu Asia Pacific Pte Limited, Singapore, a wholly owned
subsidiary of Komatsu Limited, Japan. Komatsu is the world’s
second largest manufacturer of hydraulic excavators and has
manufacturing and marketing facilities.

The plant was started in the year 1975 by L&T to

manufacture Hydraulic Excavators for the first time in India. In
1998, it became a joint venture. L&T–Komatsu Limited’s
manufacturing facility—The Bangalore Works—comprises
Machinery Works and Hydraulics Works. Machinery Works has
a modern manufacturing facility with ISO 9001:2008
accreditation for design, manufacture and servicing of
earthmoving equipment. Hydraulics Works, with a precision
machine shop, manufactures the complete range of high
pressure hydraulic components and systems, and is ISO
9001:2008 certified for design, development, manufacturing
and servicing of hydraulic pumps, motors, cylinders, turning
joints, hose assemblies, valve blocks, hydraulic systems and
power drives as well as allied gear boxes.

L&T Finance

Larsen & Toubro financial services Financial Services is a

subsidiary which was incorporated as a Non-Banking Finance
company in November 1994. The subsidiary has a spectrum of
financial products and services for corporate, construction
equipment etc. L&T Finance was able to withstand the market
dynamics and adapt as per that. This is a new division after
the company declared its restructuring

L & T Mutual Fund is the mutual fund company of the L&T

group. This company provides mutual fund schemes for
investors in India.

Larsen & Toubro Infrastructure Finance

 Larsen and Toubro Infrastructure Finance Company
Limited was set up as a 100% subsidiary of L&T. It
commenced its business in January 2007 upon obtaining Non-
Banking Financial Company (NBFC) license from the Reserve
Bank of India (RBI).As of 31 March 2008, L&T Infrastructure
Finance has approved financing of more than a billion USD to
select projects in the infrastructure sector.

L&T Infrastructure Finance has received the status of

"Infrastructure Finance Company" from the Reserve Bank of
India within the overall classification of "Non-Banking Financial
Company".

L&T–Technology Services (TS)

L&T Technology Services (previously known as Integrated

Engineering Services or L&T IES), a business unit of L&T,
offers a combination of mechanical, electrical and electronic
design (mechatronics/embedded systems), civil and
architectural services. L&T TS has its design and delivery
locations in Vadodara, Chennai, Bangalore, Mysore and
Mumbai in India.

L&T TS services also encompass architectural, civil,

structural design and building utility systems design. Practices
include both product and plant engineering services in the
automotive, trucks and off-highway vehicles, industrial
products, off-shore and marine, oil and gas and consumer
goods sectors. Emerging areas include aerospace, railways
and power and consumer electronics.Mysore based campus of
Electronic design unit of TS works predominantly for
embedded systems with a variety of range of operations from
Avionics, Automotive, Industrial automation and metering,
Medical etc.

L&T Valves

L&T’s Valves Business Group markets valves

manufactured by L&T's Valve Manufacturing Unit and L&T's
joint ventures, Audco India Limited, India and Larsen & Toubro
Valves Manufacturing Unit, Coimbatore as well as allied
products from major international manufacturers.The
company's valve manufacturing Unit in Coimbatore
manufactures industrial valves specifically for the Power
Industry. It also sells value-added flow control solutions to oil
and gas, refining, petrochemical, and chemical and power
industries, industrial valves and customized products for
major Refinery, LNG, GTL, Petrochemical and Power
projects.L&T Valves Business Group has offices in the USA,
South Africa, Dubai, Abu Dhabi, India and China, and alliances
with valve distributors and agents in these countries.

Corporate structure

In January 2011, Mr. A.M. Naik announced that the

company will be restructured into nine virtual
companies. Each will be called an independent company, and
will have a CEO, CFO and HR head, its own profit and loss
account, and a board of directors with at least three
independent directors. Each board will not have any legal or
statutory standing, but will merely advise management.

The nine virtual companies will operate in different

segments, the nine sectors for which companies are formed
are:

1. Building and Factories

2. Civil Infrastructure

3. Mechanical-Metal Handling and Supply of Equipment

for steel industry

4. Electric Power transmission and distribution

5. Hydrocarbon and Chemicals

 6. Heavy Engineering Catering to defense and
Aerospace

7. Electrical Equipment and Automation Products

8. Mechanical and Industrial Products

9. Power Equipment and building Power Plants

L&T, KANSBAHAL WORKS AT A GLANCE

LARSEN & TOUBRO LIMITED, Kansbahal Works is

diversified Multi-faceted organization with leading edge
capacity in all its operational areas. It is the largest heavy
engineering unit in the private sector having a licensed
capacity of 12,000 tons of machinery equipment and casting
per annum. Kansbahal Works, which started as an Indo-
German venture in the year1960, has evolved into a world
class integrated manufacturing center with facilities for
casting, machining, assembly and fabrication. This is
complemented by excellent design, engineering, quality
control and logistic expertise. Kansbahal Works has been
certified by ISO-9001.
 MANUFACTURING FACILITIES IN KANSBAHAL WORKS:-

FOUNDRY SHOP:-
The foundry is designed to manufacture quality wear
and abrasion resistant castings and arrange of steel, iron
alloy iron including Spheroidised graphite castings. It has
its own pattern shop with machinery to cater with
intricate patterns.

MACHINE SHOP:-
It has a wide range of machines for turning, boring, and
cylinder Grinding and planning of complex welded
structures/castings. It is equipped With slant bed type CNC
lathes, 7 axis CNC horizontal milling and boring Machines,
4700mm diameter vertical borer etc.

ASSEMBLY SHOP:-
Its core strengths lie in the fields of hydraulics and
piping, Bearing assembly, shrink fitting, dynamic balancing,
vibration analysis, field balancing and fixturing and template
development. It carries out Assembly, pre-shipment
performance and functional testing of electrically,
hydraulically and mechanically operated equipment.

FABRICATION SHOP:-

It has covered area of 9760 sq.mts. And can handle

upto100 tons Single unit. 68 qualified welders deal with a
variety of materials such as Carbon steel, low alloy steel,
nickel alloys etc. up to a maximum thickness (For test joints)
of 150mm. It is equipped with CNC oxy-acetylene profile
Cutting machine, bogie hearth type oil fired relieving furnace,
rolling Machine etc.

ENGINEERING DESIGN AND RESEARCH CENTRE:-

A team of highly qualified and experienced workers

equipped with Up-to-date sophisticated design tools
carry out basic design and detailed Engineering.
Designers perform in-situ performance analysis and
focus on Customized product development.

QUALITY ASSURANCE:-
At the L&T, Kansbahal Works, the commitment to
quality is evident from raw materials to the final product,
testing and certification. A modern laboratory with sand
testing, spectroscopy, photometry and Microscopy facilities
monitors quality and reliability. Its mechanical Testing
facilities include UTM and impact testing, UTS, composition
testing (using spectrolab). It is equipped with digital,
optical, laser type levelling and conventional measuring
instruments along with noise level meter and vibrometer.
Over the years L&T, Kansbahal Works has developed its
product Portfolios catering to various core sector industries
like cement, chemical, power, steel, paper and pulp,
mineral, railway etc.

MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT:-
Maintenance department is responsible for all equipment
present in shop. It is continuously looking after the
machineries & equipment’s health status. In shop
maintenance is classified into 3 major

Groups:

Preventive maintenance
Breakdown maintenance
Predictive maintenance
- Preventive maintenance is done in monthly basis,
which is pre-planned.
- Breakdown maintenance is never planned and is carried
instantly as per the requirement.
- Predictive maintenance is the regularly health check-
up of machines. It is sub-divided into 4 categories.
1. WDA (Wear Debris Analysis), which is done by
lubricants where the Source identity of the particles is,
determined i.e. form where they have been detached.

2. Thermography that is done with the help of thermo-

camera. In this Method the hot spots and cold spots on
the surface of the metal are determined.

3. Blocking the bearing of the rotary part carries out

vibration monitoring. It achieved through signature
analysis. From the graph we can know about
misalignment, bearing damage, foundation structure
loose.

4. MCA (Motor Current Analysis) gives information about

the current flowing through the motor circuit.
About the Project

A computer network allows sharing of resources and information among

interconnected devices. In the 1960s, the Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA) started funding the design of the Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network ARPANET for the United States Department of
Defense. It was the first computer network in the world. Development of
the network began in 1969, based on designs developed during the 1960s

Purpose

Computer networks can be used for several purposes:

 Facilitating communications: Using a network, people can

communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging, chat
rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.

 Sharing hardware: In a networked environment, each computer on a

network may access and use hardware resources on the network,
such as printing a document on a shared network printer.

 Sharing files, data, and information: In a network environment,

authorized user may access data and information stored on other
computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data
and information on shared storage devices is an important feature of
many networks.
  Sharing softwareUsers connected to a network may run application
program on remote computers.

 Information preservation.

 Security.

 Speed up.

Hardware:-
 Computer hardware is the collection of physical parts of a computer
system.
 This includes the computer case, monitor, keyboard, and mouse.
 It also includes all the parts inside the computer case, such as the
hard disk drive, motherboard, video card, and many others.
 Computer hardware is what you can physically touch.

The basic components inside System box

 Central Processing Unit.

 Main Memory(RAM).
 Motherboard or Electronic circuit board.
 Secondary storage devices.
 Different type of connectors.
 Different types of card’s.

 The CPU is the primary component of a computer that processes

instructions.
 Memory refers to the computer hardware devices used to store
information for immediate use in a computer and operates at a high
speed, for example random-access memory (RAM).
  A motherboard is the main circuit board inside a computer that
connects the different parts of a computer together. The board has
input output ports, ram, PCI slots, IDE port, chipset, Power
connector, AGP slot, other expansion slots, floppy port.
 Secondary memory is a non-volatile memory (does not lose stored
data when the device is powered down) that is not directly
accessible by the CPU and is stored externally.

Different types of connectors:-

 Keyboard connector
 Mouse connector
 Usb connector
 Serial port connector
 Power supply connector
 ATX connector
 Fan connector
 V-core connector
 Cd audio jack connector
  Different type of card’s:-

 video card.

 Sound card.

 Network card.

 Bluetooth card.

Power sources:-
SMPS :-It is the power supply system used in the system box. The switch
mode power supply(SMPS) uses 220v as the input and at the output it
gives DC current with different values used by different component of the
computer as +5v used by keyboard LED , +12v used by SMPS cooling fan
and +12v for processor cooling fan.

UPS :- An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a device that allows a

computer to keep running for at least a short time when the primary
power source is lost. It also provides protection from power surges.

NETWORKING
A network is a set of devices connected by media links. A node can be a
computer, printer or any other device capable of sending and receiving
data generated by other nodes on the network.

Network

The links connecting the devices are often called communication channels.

NETWORK CRITERIA:-To be considered effective and efficient a network

must meet a number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability and security.

1. PERFORMANCE:-Performance can be measured in many ways,

including transit time and response time.

 Transit time:-It is amount of time required for a message to travel

from one device to another.
  Response time:-Response time is the elapsed time between an
inquiry and a response.

The performance of a network depending on a number of factors including

the number of users , the type of transmission medium, the capability of
the connected hardware and the efficiency of the software.

 Number of users:-Having a large number of concurrent users can

slow response time in a network not designed to coordinate heavy
traffic loads. The design of a given network is based on an assessment
of users that will be communicated at any one time.

 Type of transmission medium:-The medium defines the speed at

which data can travel through a connection(the data rate).Today’s
networks are moving to faster and faster transmission media, such
as fiber – optic cabling. A medium that can carry data at 100
megabits per second is 10 times more powerful than a medium
that can carry data at only 10 megabits per second.

 Hardware:-The type of hardware included in a network in a

network affects both the speed and capacity of transmission.

 Software:-The software used to process data at the sender,

receiver and intermediate modes also affects network
 performance. Well designed software can speed the process and
make transmission more effective and efficient.

Performance is often evaluated by to network matrices:-throughput and

delay. We often need more throughputs and less delay try to send more
data to the network, we may increase the delay because of traffic
congestion in the network.

 Throughput: - It is the total output of a network is known as the

throughput.

 Delay: - The time lack behind while completing the task is called as
delay.

2. RELIABILITY: - Network reliability is measured by the frequency of

failure, the time it takes a link to receiver from a failure and the
networks robustness in a catastrophe.

Frequency of failure: - All networks fail occasionally. A Network that fails

often however is more useful than one that does not.

Catastrophe: - Networks must be protected from catastrophic events such

as fire, earthquake, or theft. One protection against unforeseen damage is
a reliability system to back up network software.
3. SECURITY: - Network security issues include protecting data from
unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and development
and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches
and data losses.

Unauthorized access:-For a network to be useful sensitive data must be

protected from unauthorized access .Protection can be accomplished at a
number of levels .At the lowest level are user identification codes and
passwords. At the higher level are encryption techniques. In these
mechanisms, data are systematically altered in such a way that if they are
intercepted by an unauthorized user, there will be unintelligible.

Viruses:-Because a network is accessible from many points, it can be

susceptible to computer viruses. A virus is illicitly introduced code that
damages the system. A good network is protected from viruses by
hardware and software designed specifically for that purpose.

Models of Network Computing:-

1) Centralized:-The centralize model uses the star topology. At the center

there is one server and called as hub. The devices are not directly linked
to each other. If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the
data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other
connected device. This network is totally dependent on the server.
  Advantages:-

1) Easy Backup:-Centralized network computing is having easy backup

means that all the data is secure in the server.

2) Low cost: - The system also has low cost as compare to another system.
It requires less cabling, so it having low cost.

3) Security: - This system provides the security from unauthorized

person’s .We can secure our data by using the password at server.

Centralized

 Disadvantages:-

1) Low speed:-The system has low speed for transferring of data from
one system to another. So it is also time consuming.

2) Dependency:-If the server fails then the whole system will fail
because the system is dependent on the server.
2) Distributed: - It uses the bus topology. All the devices are connected
through one main cable to another. If one device wants to
communicate with another then it can easily communicate. There is no
server in the system and data can transfer directly from one system to
another.

Distributed

 Advantages:-

1) Direct communication: - There is no complexity in the system so there

direct communication is easily available from one system to another.

2) Quick Access: - The data can be reach to their destination very fast
without any server so it having quick access of data.
3) Independently working: - The systems are independently working
means that they are not dependent on any server.

4) Multiple users can work:-This system can be accessed by many users as

wants to access the data at a time.

 Disadvantages:-

1) More acceptable to virus: - In this the virus can transfer from one
computer to another very easily through data because only one main
cable is responsible for this system. So it is very prone to virus.

2) Backup difficult:- If one system fails then the data also will destroy
but if the main cable fails then whole system will broken as there is
backup very difficult.

 Advantages:-

1) Extremely fast:-This system is very fast as compare to centralized

and distributed system.

2) Multiple users can work:-It can be accessed by many users at a

time.

 Disadvantages:-

1) More prone to virus:-This system is very much acceptable to

viruses. The viruses can be easily defect this system.
 2) Backup difficult:-There is very much difficulty for backup.

NETWORKING MODELS

Network model tells us how the computer can be inter-

connected .Computer network are created by different entities. Standard
are needed so that these heterogeneous networks can communicate with
one another. The two best known standards are the OSI model and the
internet model.

There are the two types of connection-:

1) Peer to peer

2) Client to server

Peer to peer-: In peer to peer networking each node acts as a client as well
as server. A peer to peer network exploits diverse connectivity between
nodes in the network and the commutative band width of network node
rather than conventional centralized resources where a relatively low no.
of servers provides the centralized resources where a relatively low no. of
servers provides the centralized management.

Client to server-: It is a computing architecture which separates the client

from a server and is almost implemented over a computer network. Each
client or server connected to a network can also be refers as a node. This
type of architect is sometime refers to as two tier.

1. LAN:-Local Area Network

LAN’s are privately owned networks within a single building or campus of

up to a few kilometers in size. They are widely used to connect personal
computers and workstations in company offices and factories to share
resources and exchange information.

LAN

LAN’s are distinguishing from other kinds of networks by three

characteristics:-

 Size

 Transmission Technology

 Topology
LAN’s are restricted in size, which means that worst case transmission
time is bounded and known in advance. It also simplifies network
management. LAN’s uses a transmission technology consisting of a cable to
which all the machines are attached like the telephone company used in
rural areas.

Traditional LAN’s run at speeds of 10 MBPS to 100 MPBS, have low delay
and make very few errors. Newer LAN’s operate at up to 10 GBPS. LAN uses
ring topology and ring topology.

2. WAN:-Wide Area Network

A WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. It

contains a collection of machines intended for running programs. In WAN,
the subnet consists of two distinct components:

 Transmission lines

 Switching elements

Subnet is a collection of routers and communication lines that moved

packets from the source host to the destination. Transmission lines move
bits between machines. They can be made of copper wire, optical fiber or
even radio links. In most WAN’s, the network contains numerous
transmission lines, each one connecting a pair of router. Nearly all WAN’s
have store and forward subnets.

Speed of WAN is around 20 GBPS.

WAN

1) MAN:-Metropolitan area network

A MAN covers a city .The best example of MAN is the cable television
network available in many cities.
A MAN might be operated by a single organization but it usually will be
used by many organizations to interconnect all its branches across a city.

TOPOLOGIES:-

The term topology refers to the way in which a network s laid out
physically. Two or more devises connect to a link two or more links form a
topology. The topology of a network is geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linking devices to one another. Network
topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements
(links, nodes etc.) of a computer network.

Classification of topology:-

 Physical Topology

 Logical Topology

 Signal Topology

Any particular network topology is determined only by the graphical

mapping of the configuration of physical and/or logical connections
between nodes. A local area network (LAN) is one example of a network
that exhibits both a physical topology and a logical topology.

I. Physical Topology: - Physical topology means the physical design of a

network including the devices, location and cable installation. Any
 given node in the LAN has one or more links to one or more nodes in
the network and the mapping of these links and nodes in a graph
results in a geometric shape that may be used to describe the
physical topology of the network.

II. Logical Topology: - Likewise, the mapping of the data flow between
the nodes in the network determines the logical topology of the
network. The physical and logical topologies may or may not be
identical in any particular network. Logical topologies are often
closely associated with media access control (MAC) methods and
protocols.

III. Signal Topology: - The mapping of the actual connections between

the nodes of a network, as evidenced by the path that the signals
take when propagating between the nodes.

Types of Topologies:-

1. Bus Topology: - It is a multipoint point topology. One long cable acts as a

backbone to link the devices in a network. Nodes are connected to bus
cable by drop line and taps. A drop line is a connection running between
the device and the main cable.
A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the
sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. There
should be limited number of taps used because signal becomes weaker and
weaker as it travels farther and farther.

Bus Topology

Types of bus topology:-

 Linear bus: - The type of network topology in which all of the nodes
of the network are connected to a common transmission medium
which has exactly two endpoints (this is the 'bus', which is also
commonly referred to as the backbone) all data that is transmitted
between nodes in the network is transmitted over this common
 transmission medium and is able to be received by all nodes in the
network virtually simultaneously.

 Distributed bus: - The type of network topology in which all of the

nodes of the network are connected to a common transmission
medium which has more than two endpoints that are created by
adding

Distributed Star

branches to the main section of the transmission medium – the physical

distributed bus topology functions in exactly the same fashion as the
physical linear bus topology?

1) Star Topology: - Each device has a dedicated point to point link only to
the central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not
directly linked to each other.
Star Topology

If one device wants to send data to anther it sends the data to the
controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device. In a
Star Network the entire network is dependent on the hub so if the entire
network is not working then there could be a problem with the hub.

This feature makes it easy to troubleshoot by offering a single point for

error connection ad at the same time the dependency is also very high on
that single point.

 Extended Star:- A type of network topology in which a network that

is based upon the physical star topology has one or more repeaters
between the central node (the 'hub' of the star) and the peripheral or
'spoke' nodes, the repeaters being used to extend the maximum
transmission distance of the point-to-point links
Extended Star

Between the central node and the peripheral nodes beyond that this is
supported by the transmitter power of the central node or beyond that
which is supported by the standard upon which the physical layer of the
physical star network is based. If the repeaters in a network that is based
upon the physical extended star topology is replaced with hubs or
switches, then a hybrid network topology is created that is referred to as a
physical hierarchical star topology, although some texts make no
distinction between the two topologies.

 Distributed Star: - A type of network topology that is composed of

individual networks that are based upon the physical star topology.
Connected together in a linear fashion – i.e., 'daisy-chained' – with no
 central or top level connection point (e.g., two or more 'stacked'
hubs, along with their associated star connected nodes or 'spokes').

2) Ring Topology: - In ring topology, each device has a dedicated point to

point line configuration only with the two devices on either side of it.

A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device, until it
reaches its destination. Each machine or computer has a unique address
that is used for identification purposes. The signal passes through each
machine or computer connected to the ring in one direction.

Ring topologies typically utilize a token passing scheme, used to control

access to the network. By utilizing this scheme, only one machine can
transmit on the network at a time. A token is used for addressing which is a
kind of value, address or identification.The device which has the token can
transmit the data and token can be one system at one time. A signal is
circulate at all time. If one device does not receive a signal within a
specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network
operator to the problem and its location.

Dual ring: - It is bidirectional that it can transmit the data in both the
directions. But at a time it can transmit data only in one direction either
clockwise or anticlockwise.

3) Mesh Topology: - In a mesh topology, every device as a dedicated

point to point link to every other device. The term dedicated means
that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.
Types of mesh topology:-

 Fully mesh: - The physical fully connected mesh topology is generally

too costly and complex for practical networks, although the topology
is used when there are only a small number of nodes to be
interconnected. No nodes are separated.

4) Partially mesh: - The type of network topology in which some of the

nodes of the network are connected to more than one other node in
the network with a point-to-point link – this makes it possible to take
advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical
fully connected mesh topology without the expense and complexity
required for a connection between every node in the network.
5) Tree Topology: - A tree is a variation of a star. As in star, nodes in tree
are linked to a control hub that controls the traffic to the network. The
central hub in tree is an active hub.

Hybrid Topology

 A Star Ring network consists of two or more star topologies

connected using a multi-station access unit (MAU) as a centralized
hub.

 A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected

using a bus trunk (the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).

Network Devices:-
  Hub:-A hub receives a packet of data at one of its ports from a
PC on the network, it transmits (repeats) the packet to all of its
ports and, thus, to all of the other PCs on the network.

 Switch:-A network switch also connects computers to each

other, like a hub. Where the switch differs from a hub is in the
way it handles packets of data.

 Router:-A network router is quite different from a switch or hub

since its primary function is to route data packets to other
networks, instead of just the local computers.

Communication channel
A communication channel refers either to a physical
transmission medium such as a wire, or to a logical connection
over a multiplexed medium such as a radio channel.
OSI MODEL:-(open source interconnect) used to be followed in a
network.
Domain vs workgroup

Domain or DNS group:

 A user at a client computer can log in to a domain to access

shared resources for any server in the domain.
 And each node is known by its domain name.
Workgroup:

 Each computer in a workgroup keeps track of its own user

accounts and security settings, so no single computer is in
charge of the workgroup.
 Each node is known by their own IP address.

Future of Networking
Several types of positions exist in networking; each
with different averagesalariesandlong-term
potential,andoneshouldpossessaclear understanding of
these.
Unfortunately, job titles innetworkingand in
informationtechnology(IT)
generally,oftenleadtoconfusionamong
beginnersandexperiencedfolksalike.
Bland,Vagueoroverlybombastictitlesoftenfailtodescribe
theactualwork assignments of a person in this field.
Thebasicjobtitlesoneseesforcomputernetworkingand
networking- related positions include.

Network administrator:
 Is responsible for analysis, installation and
configuration of company networks. Daily activities
include monitoring network performance, troubleshooting
problems and maintaining network security.

• Network(system) Engineer
Network engineers focus primarily on system
upgrade,evaluating vendor products, security testing, and
so on.

• Network(service) Technician
Network technician tends to focus
more on the setup,
troubleshooting and repair of specific hardware and
software products. Service technicians in particular often
travel to remote customer sites to perform “field” upgrades
and support.

•Network Programmer/Analyst
They generally write scripts that aid in network
analysis, such as diagnostics or monitoring utilities. They
alsospecializein evaluatingthirdparty
productsandintegratingnew
software/hardwaretechnologiesintoanexisting network
environment or to build a new environment.

• Network Security Analyst

The work of the security analyst Is basically
confined to the security solutions in large networks. They
basically check the unauthorized of the network by any
external user.