Chapter 03

Lecture Outline
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 Introduction

All organisms are composed of

cells
Cells are responsible for all
structural and functional
properties of a living organism
Important for understanding
Workings of human body
Mechanisms of disease
Rationale of therapy
Concepts of Cellular Structure

Expected Learning Outcomes

Discuss the development and modern
tenets of the cell theory.
Describe cell shapes from their descriptive
terms.
State the size range of human cells and
discuss factors that limit their size.
Discuss the way that developments in
microscopy have changed our view of cell
structure.
Outline the major components of a cell.
Development of the Cell Theory

Cytology—scientific study of cells

Began when Robert Hooke coined the word
cellulae to describe empty cell walls of cork in 17th
century

Theodor Schwann concluded, about two

centuries later, that all animals are made of
cells
Louis Pasteur demonstrated in 1859 that
“cells arise only from other cells”
Refuted idea of spontaneous generation—living
things arising from nonliving matter
Development of the Cell Theory
Cell theory
All organisms composed of cells and cell products
Cell is the simplest structural and functional unit
of life
An organism’s structure and functions are due to
activities of cells
Cells come only from preexisting cells
Cells of all species exhibit biochemical similarities
 Cell Shapes and Sizes
About 200 types of cells in human body with
varied shapes
Squamous—thin, flat, scaly
Cuboidal—squarish-looking
Columnar—taller than wide
Polygonal—irregularly angular shapes, multiple sides
Stellate—star-like
Spheroid to ovoid—round to oval
Discoid—disc-shaped
Fusiform—thick in middle, tapered toward the ends
Fibrous—thread-like
Note: A cell’s shape can appear different if viewed
in a different type of section (longitudinal vs.
cross section)
 Cell Shapes and Sizes
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Squa Cubo Colu

mous idal mnar

Polyg Ste Spher

onal llat oidal
e

Dis Fusiform (spindle- Fibr

coi shaped) ous
d
Figure 3.1
 Cell Shapes and Sizes
Human cell size
Most cells about 10–15 micrometers (µm)
in diameter
Egg cells (very large) 100 µm diameter
Some nerve cells over 1 meter long
Limit on cell size: an overly large cell
cannot support itself, may rupture
For a given increase in diameter, volume
increases more than surface area
Volume proportional to cube of diameter
Surface area proportional to square of diameter
Cell Shapes and Sizes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2 m
Gr
0
ow
th

2 m
0
1 m
0
1 m
0
Large cell
Diameter = 20 μm
Surface area = 20 μm × 20 μm × 6 =
2,400 μm2
Volume = 20 μm × 20 μm × 20 μm
= 8,000 μm3

Small cell
Diameter = 10 μm
Surface area = 10 μm × 10 μm × 6 =
600 μm2
Figure 3.2
Volume = 10 μm × 10 μm × 10 μm
= 1,000 μm3
Effect of cell growth:
Diameter (D) increased by a factor
of 2
Surface area increased by a factor
of 4 (= D2)
 Basic Components of a Cell
Light microscope (LM) revealed plasma membrane,
nucleus, and cytoplasm (fluid between nucleus and
surface)
Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
improved resolution (ability to reveal detail)
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) improved
resolution further, but only for surface features

Figure 3.4a Figure

Basic Components of a Cell
 Basic Components of a Cell
Plasma (cell) membrane
Surrounds cell, defines boundaries
Made of proteins and lipids

Cytoplasm
Organelles
Cytoskeleton
Inclusions (stored or
foreign particles)
Cytosol (intracellularfluid, ICF)

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

Fluid outside of cells
Includes tissue (interstitial) fluid

Figure 3.5
 The Cell Surface
Expected Learning Outcomes
Describe the structure of the plasma
membrane.
Explain the functions of the lipid, protein, and
carbohydrate components of the plasma
membrane.
Describe a second-messenger system and
discuss its importance in human physiology.
Describe the composition and functions of the
glycocalyx that coats cell surfaces.
Describe the structure and functions of
microvilli, cilia, and flagella.
 The Plasma Membrane
Plasma membrane—border of the cell
Appears as pair of dark parallel lines when
viewed with electron microscope
Has intracellular and extracellular faces
Functions
Defines cell boundaries
Governs interactions with other cells
Controls passage of materials in and out of cell

Figure 3.6a
 The Plasma Membrane

Figure 3.6b
Oily film of lipids with embedded proteins
 Membrane Lipids
98% of membrane molecules are
lipids

Phospholipids
75% of membrane lipids are phospholipids
Amphipatic molecules arranged in a bilayer
Hydrophilic phosphate heads face water on
each side of membrane
Hydrophobic tails—are directed toward the
center, avoiding water
Drift laterally, keeping membrane fluid
 Membrane Lipids

Cholesterol
20% of the membrane lipids
Holds phospholipids still and can stiffen
membrane

Glycolipids
5% of the membrane lipids
Phospholipids with short carbohydrate
chains on extracellular face
Contributes to glycocalyx—carbohydrate
coating on cell surface
 Membrane Proteins
Membrane proteins
2% of the molecules but 50% of the weight of
membrane
Integral proteins—penetrate membrane
Transmembrane proteins pass completely
through
Hydrophilic regions contact cytoplasm, extracellular
fluid
Hydrophobic regions pass through lipid of the
membrane
Some drift in membrane; others are anchored to
cytoskeleton

Figure 3.7
 Membrane Proteins

Peripheral proteins
Adhere to one face of the membrane (do not
penetrate it)
Usually tethered to the cytoskeleton

Figure 3.7
 Membrane Proteins
Functions of membrane proteins
include:
Receptors, second-messenger systems,
enzymes, channels, carriers, cell-identity
markers, cell-adhesion molecules

Figure 3.8
 Membrane Proteins
Receptors—bind chemical signals
Second messenger systems—communicate
within cell receiving chemical message
Enzymes—catalyze reactions including digestion
of molecules, production of second messengers
Channel proteins—allow hydrophilic solutes and
water to pass through membrane
Some are always open, some are gated
Ligand-gated channels—respond to chemical messengers
Voltage-gated channels—respond to charge changes
Mechanically-gated channels—respond to physical stress on
cell
Crucial to nerve and muscle function
 Membrane Proteins

Carriers—bind solutes and transfer them across

membrane
Pumps—carriers that consume ATP
Cell-identity markers—glycoproteins acting as
identification tags
Cell-adhesion molecules—mechanically link cell
to extracellular material
 Second Messengers
Chemical first messenger (epinephrine)
binds to a surface receptor
Receptor activates G protein
An intracellular peripheral protein that gets
energy from guanosine triphosphate (GTP)
G protein relays signal to adenylate
cyclase which converts ATP to cAMP
(second messenger)
cAMP activates cytoplasmic kinases
Kinases add phosphate groups to other
enzymes turning some on and others
off
Up to 60% of drugs work through G
proteins and second messengers
 Second Messenger System
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1 A messenger such as epinephrine

(red triangle)
First binds to a receptor in the plasma
mess membrane.
enge Rec
r Adenylate
ept cyclase
or

G G
P
2 The receptor A P i
releases T i
a G protein, 3 The GP protein
which binds to an
then travels enzyme,
freely in adenylate
the cytoplasm cyclase, in
cAMP
and the plasma
(seco
can go on to membrane.
nd
step 3 Adenylate
messe
or have cyclase
nger)
various other converts ATP to
4 cAMP
effects on the cyclic
In activate
cell. AMP (cAMP),
ac sa
the
tiv cytoplas
second
mic
messenger. e
ki enzyme
na Acti called
se vatea
d kinase.
kina
se
Pi 5 Kinases add
Ina phosphate groups
ctiv (Pi)
e to other
enz cytoplasmic
ym enzymes. This
es activates
some enzymes and
deactivates
Acti others, leading

Figure 3.9 vate to varied

d metabolic effects
enz in the cell.
Variousymemetabolic
 The Glycocalyx

Fuzzy coat external to plasma

membrane
Carbohydrate moieties of glycoproteins and
glycolipids
Unique in everyone but identical twins

Functions
Protection – Cell adhesion
Immunity to infection – Fertilization
Defense against cancer – Embryonic
development
Transplant compatibility
 Microvilli
Extensions of membrane (1–2 μm)
Gives 15 to 40 times more surface area
Best developed in cells specialized in absorption

On some absorptive cells they are very dense

and appear as a fringe—“brush border”
Some microvilli contain actin filaments that are
tugged toward center of cell to milk absorbed
contents into cell
 Microvilli

Figure 3.10a Figure 3.10b

Actin microfilaments are centered in each
 Cilia
Cilia—hairlike processes 7–10 μm long
Single, nonmotile primary cilium found on nearly every cell
“Antenna” for monitoring nearby conditions
Helps with balance in inner ear; light detection in retina
Multiple nonmotile cilia
Found on sensory cells of nose
Ciliopathies—defects in structure and function of cilia
Motile cilia—respiratory tract, uterine tubes, ventricles of brain,
ducts of testes
50 to 200 on each cell
Beat in waves sweeping material across a surface in one direction
Power strokes followed by recovery strokes
 Cilia

Figure
3.11a
Cilia inside
trachea
 Cilia
Axoneme—core of motile
cilium
Has 9 + 2 structure of
microtubules
Two central microtubules
surrounded by ring of nine pairs
Ring of nine pairs anchors cilium
to cell as part of basal body
Dynein arms “crawl” up
adjacent microtubule, bending
the cilium
Uses energy from ATP

Figure 3.11
 Cilia
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

M
uc
S
us
ali
ne
Epit
la
helia
ye
lr
cells

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Power Recovery
( Figure 3.12 (
stroke stroke
a b
) )

Cilia beat freely within a saline layer at

cell surface
Chloride pumps pump Cl- into ECF
Na+ and H2O follow
Mucus floats on top of saline layer
 Cystic Fibrosis

Cystic fibrosis—hereditary
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction
or display.

disease in which cells make M

chloride pumps, but fail to uc

S
us
ali
install them in the plasma ne
Epit
la

membrane
helia
ye
lr
cells
Chloride pumps fail to create
adequate saline layer on cell ( Figure 3.12a
surface a
)

Thick mucus plugs

pancreatic ducts and
respiratory tract
Inadequate digestion of
nutrients and absorption of
oxygen
Chronic respiratory infections
 Flagella

Tail of a sperm—only functional

flagellum in humans

Whip-like structure with axoneme

identical to cilium’s
Much longer than cilium
Stiffened by coarse fibers that support the tail

Movement is undulating, snake-like,

corkscrew
No power stroke and recovery strokes
 Pseudopods
Pseudopods—continually changing
extensions of the cell that vary in shape
and size
- Can be used for cellular locomotion,
capturing
- foreign particles

Figure 3.13
 Membrane Transport
Expected Learning Outcomes
Explain what is meant by a selectively
permeable membrane.
Describe various mechanisms for transporting
material through the plasma membrane.
Define osmolarity and tonicity and explain
their importance.
 Membrane Transport
Plasma membrane is selectively permeable
—allowing some things through, but
preventing others from passing
Passive mechanisms require no ATP
Random molecular motion of particles provides necessary
energy
Filtration, diffusion, osmosis

Active mechanisms consume ATP

Active transport and vesicular transport

Carrier-mediated mechanisms use a membrane

protein to transport substances across membrane
 Filtration
Filtration—particles Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction
or display.

Blood pressure in
are driven through capillary
forces water and small
solutes such as salts
membrane by Sol
ut
through
narrow clefts between
e
physical pressure
W capillary cells.
at
er
Capillary
wall

Red
Examples blood
cell
Clefts hold
Filtration of water and back
larger
small solutes through particles
such as red
blood
gaps in capillary walls cells.

Allows delivery of water Figure 3.14

and nutrients to tissues
Allows removal of waste
from capillaries in
kidneys
 Simple Diffusion
Simple diffusion—net movement of
particles from place of high concentration
to place of lower concentration
Due to constant, spontaneous molecular
motion
Molecules collide and bounce off each other

Substances diffuse down their

concentration gradient
Does not require a membrane
Substance can diffuse through a membrane if
the membrane is permeable to the substance
 Simple Diffusion

Factors affecting diffusion rate through a

membrane
Temperature: ↑ temp., ↑ motion of particles
Molecular weight: larger molecules move slower
Steepness of concentrated gradient:
↑difference, ↑ rate
Membrane surface area: ↑ area, ↑ rate
Membrane permeability: ↑ permeability, ↑ rate
 Osmosis
Osmosis—net flow of water through a selectively
permeable membrane
Water moves from the side where it (water) is more
concentrated to the side where it is less concentrated
Solute particles that cannot pass through the membrane
“draw” water from the other side
Crucial consideration for I.V. fluids
Osmotic imbalances underlie diarrhea,
constipation, edema
Water can diffuse through phospholipid bilayers, but
osmosis is enhanced by aquaporins—channel
proteins in membrane specialized for water passage
Cells can speed osmosis by installing more aquaporins
Osmosis

Figure
 Osmosis

Osmotic pressure—
hydrostatic pressure
required to stop
osmosis
Increases as amount of
nonpermeating solute
rises

Reverse osmosis—
process of applying
mechanical pressure to Figure
3.15b
override osmotic
pressure
Allows purification of
water
 Osmolarity and Tonicity
One osmole (osm) = 1 mole of dissolved
particles
Takes into account whether solute ionizes in water
1 M glucose is 1 osm/L
1 M NaCl is 2 osm/L
Osmolarity—number of osmoles per liter of
solution
Body fluids contain a mix of many chemicals, and
osmolarity is the total osmotic concentration of all
solutes
Blood plasma, tissue fluid, and intracellular fluid
are 300 milliosmoles per liter (mOsm/L)
Osmolality is number of osm per kg of water
In physiology osmolality and osmolarity are nearly the
same
 Osmolarity and Tonicity

Tonicity—ability of a surrounding solution (bath) to

affect fluid volume and pressure in a cell
Depends on concentration of nonpermeating solutes
Hypotonic solution—causes cell to absorb water and
swell
Has a lower concentration of nonpermeating solutes than
intracellular fluid (ICF)
Distilled water is an extreme example
Hypertonic solution—causes cell to lose water and
shrivel (crenate)
Has a higher concentration of nonpermeating solutes than ICF

Isotonic solution—causes no change in cell volume

Concentrations of nonpermeating solutes in bath and ICF are
the same
Normal saline (o.9% NaCl) is an example
 Effects of Tonicity on RBCs

Figure 3.16a Figure 3.16b Figure 3.16c

Hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic solutions affect the

fluid volume of a red blood cell. Notice the crenated and
swollen cells.
 Carrier-Mediated Transport
Transport proteins in membrane carry
solutes into or out of cell (or organelle)

Specificity
Transport proteins are specific for particular
solutes
Solute (ligand) binds to receptor site on carrier
protein
Solute is released unchanged on other side of
membrane

Saturation
As solute concentration rises, the rate of
transport rises, but only to a point—transport
maximum (Tm)
 Carrier-Mediated Transport
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Transport
maximum (Tm)

Rate Figure 3.17

of
solu Concentration of
te solute
tranTransport maximum—transport rate at which all
sporcarriers are occupied
t
(mol
Carrier-Mediated Transport
Three kinds of carriers
Uniport—carries one type of solute
Example: Calcium pump
Symport—carries two or more solutes
simultaneously in same direction
(cotransport)
Example: sodium-glucose transporters
Antiport—Carries two or more solutes in
opposite directions (countertransport)
Example: sodium-potasium pump removes Na+, brings
in K+
Three mechanisms of carrier-mediated
transport
Facilitated diffusion, primary active transport,
secondary active transport
 Carrier-Mediated Transport
Facilitated diffusion—carrier moves solute
down its concentration gradient

Does not consume ATP

Solute attaches to binding site on carrier,

carrier changes conformation, then
releases solute on other side of
membrane Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

E
C
F

I
C
Figure 3.18
F
1 A solute particle 2 The solute binds to a 3 The carrier
enters receptor releases the
the channel of a site on the carrier solute on the
membrane and the other side of
protein (carrier). carrier changes the membrane.
 Carrier-Mediated Transport
Primary active transport—carrier moves
solute through a membrane up its
concentration gradient
The carrier protein uses ATP for energy
Examples:
Calcium pump (uniport) uses ATP while expelling
calcium from cell to where it is already more
concentrated
Sodium–potassium pump (antiport) uses ATP
while expelling sodium and importing potassium
into cell
 Carrier-Mediated Transport

The sodium-potassium
pump (Na+−K+ pump)
Each pump cycle
consumes one ATP and
exchanges three Na+ for
two K+
Keeps K+ concentration
higher and Na+
concentration lower
within the cell than in ECF
Necessary because Na+
and K+ constantly leak
through membrane
Half of daily calories utilized for
Na+−K+ pump Figure 3.20
 Carrier-Mediated Transport

Na+−K+ pump
functions
Maintains steep Na+
concentration gradient
allowing for secondary
active transport
Regulates solute
concentration and thus
osmosis and thus cell
volume
Maintains negatively charged
resting membrane
potential
Produces heat
Figure 3.20
 Carrier-Mediated Transport
Secondary active transport
Carrier moves solute through membrane but
only uses ATP indirectly
Example: sodium-glucose transporter
(SGLT) (symport)
Moves glucose into cell while simultaneously carrying
sodium down its gradient
Depends on the primary transport performed by Na+-
K+pump
Does not itself use ATP
 Carrier-Mediated Transport

SGLTs work in kidney

cells that have Na+−K+
pump at other end of
cell
Prevents loss of glucose
to urine

Figure 3.19
 Vesicular Transport
Vesicular transport—moves large particles, fluid
droplets, or numerous molecules at once through the
membrane in vesicles—bubble-like enclosures of
membrane

Endocytosis—vesicular processes that bring material

into cell
Phagocytosis—“cell eating,” engulfing large particles
Pseudopods; phagosomes; macrophages
Pinocytosis—“cell drinking,” taking in droplets of ECF
containing molecules useful in the cell
Membrane caves in, then pinches off pinocytic vesicle
Receptor-mediated endocytosis—particles bind to
specific receptors on plasma membrane
Clathrin-coated vesicle

Exocytosis—discharging material from the cell

Utilizes motor proteins energized by ATP
 Vesicular Transport

Figure 3.21
Phagocytosis keeps tissues free of debris and infectious
microbes
 Vesicular Transport

Receptor-mediated endocytosis
More selective endocytosis
Enables cells to take in specific molecules that
bind to extracellular receptors

Clathrin-coated vesicle in cytoplasm

Uptake of LDL from bloodstream
 Vesicular Transport

Figure 3.22
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Vesicular Transport

Figure 3.23

Transcytosis—transport of material across the cell

by capturing it on one side and releasing it on the
other
Receptor-mediated endocytosis moves it into the
cell and exocytosis moves it out the other side
 Vesicular Transport
Exocytosis
Secreting material
Replacement of plasma membrane removed by
endocytosis

Figure 3.24
 The Cell Interior
Expected Learning Outcomes
List the main organelles of a cell,
describe their structure, and explain
their functions.
Describe the cytoskeleton and its
functions.
Give some examples of cell inclusions
and explain how inclusions differ from
organelles.
 The Cytoskeleton

Cytoskeleton—network of protein
filaments and cylinders
Determines cell shape, supports structure,
organizes cell contents, directs movement
of materials within cell, contributes to
movements of the cell as a whole

Composed of: microfilaments,

intermediate fibers, microtubules
 The Cytoskeleton
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Mic
rov
illi

Microfil
aments

T ermin
Sec
al
ret
web
ory
vesi L yso
Desm
cle so
osome
in me
tra Ki
nsp n
Micro
ort es
tubul
in
e
Inter
media
Inter
te
media
filame
te
nts
filame
Centr Microtu
nts
osom bule
Microt
e in the
ubule process
under of
going assemb
Nu
disass ly
cl
Mitocho
embly eu
ndrion s

(
a
)

Base
men
t
mem
bran
e
Hemidesm
osome

Figure 3.25a
 The Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
6 nm thick
Made of actin protein
Forms terminal web
Intermediate filaments
8–10 nm thick
Within skin cells, made of protein keratin
Give cell shape, resist stress
Microtubules
25 nm thick
Consist of protofilaments made of protein tubulin
Radiate from centrosome; can come and go
Maintain cell shape, hold organelles, act as railroad tracks
for walking motor proteins, make axonemes of cilia and
flagella, form mitotic spindle
EM and Fluorescent Antibodies
Demonstrate Cytoskeleton

Figure 3.25b
 Microtubules
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

(
a (
b (
) c
)
)

Microtub
ule

Protofilament
s

Dynein
arms

Tubul
in

Figure 3.26
 Organelles

Internal structures of a cell, carry out

specialized metabolic tasks
Membranous organelles
Nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi complex
Nonmembranous organelles
Ribosomes, centrosomes, centrioles, basal
bodies
 The Nucleus

Nucleus—largest organelle (5 μm in
diameter)
Most cells have one nucleus
A few cell types are anuclear or multinucleate

Nuclear envelope—double membrane

around nucleus
Perforated by nuclear pores formed by rings of
proteins
Regulate molecular traffic through envelope
Hold the two membrane layers together
 The Nucleus
Nuclear envelope is supported by
nuclear lamina
Web of protein filaments
Provides points of attachment for chromatin
Helps regulate cell life cycle

Nucleoplasm—material in nucleus
Chromatin (thread-like) composed of DNA and
protein
Nucleoli—masses where ribosomes are
produced
 The Nucleus

Figure Figure
3.27a 3.27b
 Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum—system of
channels (cisternae) enclosed by
membrane

Rough endoplasmic reticulum—parallel,

flattened sacs covered with ribosomes
Continuous with outer membrane of nuclear
envelope
Produces phospholipids and proteins of the
plasma membrane
Synthesizes proteins that are packaged in other
organelles or secreted from cell
 Endoplasmic Reticulum

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Lack ribosomes
Cisternae more tubular and branching
Cisternae thought to be continuous with rough
ER
Synthesizes steroids and other lipids
Detoxifies alcohol and other drugs
Calcium storage
Rough and smooth ER are functionally
different parts of the same network
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
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Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum

Riboso
mes

Cister
nae
(
c Smooth
) endopla
smic
reticulu
m

Figure 3.28c
 Ribosomes

Ribosomes—small granules of protein

and RNA
Found in nucleoli, in cytosol, and on outer
surfaces of rough ER, and nuclear envelope

They “read” coded genetic messages

(messenger RNA) and assemble amino
acids into proteins specified by the code
 Golgi Complex
Golgi complex—a system of cisternae that
synthesizes carbohydrates and puts finishing
touches on protein synthesis
Receives newly synthesized proteins from rough ER
Sorts proteins, splices some, adds carbohydrate
moieties to some, and packages them into
membrane-bound Golgi vesicles
Some vesicles become lysosomes
Some vesicles migrate to plasma membrane and
fuse to it
Some become secretory vesicles that store a protein
product for later release
Golgi Complex

Figure
3.29
 Lysosomes
Lysosomes—package of enzymes bound by
a membrane
Generally round, but variable in shape

Functions
Intracellular hydrolytic digestion of proteins,
nucleic acids, complex carbohydrates,
phospholipids, and other substances
Autophagy—digestion of cell’s surplus organelles
Autolysis—“cell suicide”: digestion of a surplus
cell by itself
 Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes—resemble lysosomes but
contain different enzymes and are produced
by endoplasmic reticulum
Function is to use molecular oxygen to
oxidize organic molecules
Reactions produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
Catalase breaks down excess peroxide to H2O
and O2
Neutralize free radicals, detoxify alcohol, other
drugs, and a variety of blood-borne toxins
Break down fatty acids into acetyl groups for
mitochondrial use in ATP synthesis
In all cells, but abundant in liver and
kidney
Lysosome and Peroxisomes

Figure Figure
3.30a 3.30b
 Proteosomes

Proteosomes—
hollow, cylindrical
organelle that disposes
of surplus proteins
Contain enzymes that
break down tagged,
targeted proteins into
short peptides and
amino acids

Figure
3.31
 Mitochondria
Mitochondria—organelles
specialized for synthesizing ATP
Continually change shape from
spheroidal to thread-like
Surrounded by a double
membrane
Inner membrane has folds called
cristae
Spaces between cristae called matrix
Matrix contains ribosomes, enzymes
used for ATP synthesis, small
circular DNA molecule
– Mitochondrial
DNA (mtDNA) Figure 3.32
“Powerhouses” of the cell
Energy is extracted from organic
molecules and transferred to ATP
Mitochondrion

Figure
3.32
 Evolution of Mitochondrion
Mitochondria evolved from bacteria that
invaded another primitive cell, survived
in its cytoplasm, and became
permanent residents.
The bacterium provided inner membrane; host
cell’s phagosome provided outer membrane
Mitochondrial ribosomes resemble bacterial
ribosomes
mtDNA resembles circular DNA of bacteria
mtDNA is inherited through the mother
mtDNA mutates more rapidly than nuclear DNA
Responsible for hereditary diseases affecting tissues
with high energy demands
 Centrioles

Centriole—a short cylindrical assembly of

microtubules arranged in nine groups of
three microtubules each
Two centrioles lie perpendicular to each
other within the centrosome—small clear
area in cell
Play important role in cell division
Form basal bodies of cilia and flagella
Each basal body is a centriole that originated in
centriolar organizing center and then migrated
to the membrane
Centrioles

Figure
3.33a,b
 Inclusions
Two kinds of inclusions
Stored cellular products
Glycogen granules, pigments, and fat droplets
Foreign bodies
Viruses, intracellular bacteria, dust particles, and
other debris phagocytized by a cell
Never enclosed in a unit membrane
Not essential for cell survival