What is Logic?

Logic is one of the branches of philosophy, together with metaphysics, epistemology,

and axiology. According to Copi and Cohen (2019, 2), logic is “the study of the methods and
principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.”
As the science of reasoning, we construct or build (sound) argument and evaluate
arguments. From basic to complex arguments, they are all built with propositions wherein one
of which is the premise, while the other is the conclusion. In other words, propositions are the
building blocks of reasoning. These propositions are asserting or claiming that something is
either the case or is not the case. Hence, proposition is either true or false, which are the
proposition’s property.

What is proposition?
When proposition asserts something, it uses declarative sentence. In English grammar,
there are four types of sentences, namely, declarative, imperative, interrogative, and
exclamatory. Of the four, only declarative sentence can be treated as proposition since it
proposes something as true or false. The other three sentences (Closed the door. for imperative,
What is your name? for interrogative, and Ouch! For exclamatory) make no proposal.
Sometimes declarative statement is called assertoric because it asserts as true or false. But note
that the truth or falsity, or the truth value of a proposition, may be unknown.
Some logicians would avoid using proposition and statement at all since they are too
metaphysical. Instead, they prefer to use the word “sentence.” But in the history of logic,
proposition is used to distinguish itself from sentence according to the other three types, and
from sentence that is being asserted.
Propositions are either simple or compound. It is simple when it appears with a single
component such as “All humans are mortal beings.” However, there are propositions that are
compound when it appears with two or more components into one compact sentence. The
compound propositions are conjunctive, disjunctive, and conditional.
An example of conjunctive proposition is “Lucas is playing, and Robin is studying.” It
asserts two propositions, namely, “Lucas is playing” and “Robin is studying.”
An example of disjunctive proposition is “Jose is either playing or studying.” Each
component (“Jose is playing” and “Jose is studying”) asserts nothing. May be the proposition
is true, but one of the components might be false.
An example of conditional proposition is “If today is Tuesday, then tomorrow is
Wednesday.” Each component does not assert, but the whole proposition of “if-then” is. The
compound statement might be true even if the components are false.
Of the three, only conjunctive propositions whose components express assertion. In
disjunctive (or alternative) and conditional (hypothetical), their components are not asserted
but only either true or false.

What is an argument?
There are two distinct senses of argument, namely, dispute and inference. The first sense
is operative in which there is disagreement. The second sense is inference in more rigorous
where there are group of propositions in which one proposition is claimed to be supported by
another proposition/s. Here, an argument is not merely a collection of propositions.
In every argument, one proposition is affirmed on the basis on one or more propositions.
This is where the inference is drawn). An argument is constituted of a cluster of propositions
where there exists a relationship between two or more propositions. One proposition is affirmed
or inferred based on another proposition/s that is/are inferred from or on which inference is
based. This means that other propositions are also affirmed or assumed as providing support

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for the proposition inferred. Hence, an argument is also called inference. Some inferences are
warranted or have a correct conclusion.

The structure of an argument has a premise and a conclusion.

Premises Conclusion Premises Premise

Premise
\ Conclusion
Conclusion

Recognizing Arguments
Before we evaluate an argument, first we must recognize it. The problem of recognizing
an argument lies in the peculiarities of formulation. Some arguments have clear premises and
conclusions while others do not. If there is no clear premise and conclusion, it is difficult to
make judgment.

Premise Indicators

Since As shown by May be inferred from

Because Inasmuch as May be derived from
For As indicated by May be deduced from
As The reason is that In view of the fact that
Follows from For the reason that

Conclusion Indicators

therefore consequently for these reasons which entails that

hence proves that it follows that which implies that
so as a result I conclude that which allows us to infer that
accordingly for this reason which shows that which points to the conclusion
in consequence thus which means that that
we may infer

Other matters on argument:

• Arguments in Context
• Ps or Cs Not in Declarative Form (Rhetorical)
• Unstated Propositions (Enthymeme)
• Arguments and Explanations

Inductive and Deductive Arguments

There are two ways in which premises support the conclusion, namely, deductive and
inductive. These are two classes of argument. The mark of an argument is the claim, that is,
how the premises provide the basis for the truth of the conclusion.
In deductive argument, it makes the claim that the support given by the premise to the
conclusion is conclusive – if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true.
In inductive argument, it makes the claim that the support given by the premise to the
conclusion is inconclusive – if the premises are true, then the conclusion might be true or false.

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 The claim in deductive argument is either correct or incorrect. If it is correct (if true
premise provides the ground for the truth of the conclusion), then the argument is valid. If not
(if true premise fails to provide the ground for the truth of the conclusion), then the argument
is invalid. Moreover, validity is applicable to deductive argument only, for it is deductive
argument’s characteristic. This validity means that it cannot have all true premises and a false
conclusion.
The central task of deductive argument is to distinguish between valid from invalid
arguments, or evaluate the validity or invalidity of the arguments. The techniques are
differently used by the traditional logic and the modern logic. The traditional is called the
Aristotelian Symbolic Logic while the modern is called the Modern Symbolic Logic.
The central task of inductive argument is to ascertain the facts on which arguments are
built, or assess the strength or weakness of the argument. Empirical investigations are used to
lead to factual conclusions. The conclusion is known depending on the degree of probability
(high or low), unlike in the deductive argument whose conclusion is known with certainty. If
the degree is higher, then greater is the merit of the argument.
Additional information can be added to strengthen or weaken the inductive argument.
New evidence can be introduced since not all evidence are in. New discoveries can either
confirm or disconfirm earlier conclusion. But this is not the case in the deductive argument,
that is, no additional information is needed to make the argument strong. Deductive argument
is either valid or invalid, or either it succeeds or do not succeed in inference. If it succeeds,
then the conclusion is necessary and conclusive.

Deductive argument: Additional information:

All humans are mortal. All humans are mortal.

Socrates is human. Socrates is human.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal. Socrates is ugly.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Inductive argument: Most corporation lawyers are conservative.

Juan dela Cruz is a corporation lawyer.
Therefore, Juan dela Cruz is probably a conservative.

Additional information:
Juan dela Cruz is a member of LGBTQ.
or
Most LGBTQ members are not conservative.
Or No LGBTQ members are conservative.

Deductive Logic
A deductive argument is VALID if and only if it cannot have all true premises and a
false conclusion. It is an inferential relation between two propositions – premise and conclusion
– with logical necessity. Validity and invalidity are the attributes of deductive arguments.

The TRUTH and FALSITY of a deductive argument is found in the individual

propositions. It may be that the premise is true and the conclusion is false, or the premise is

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false and the conclusion is true. Truth and falsity are the attributes of individual propositions
or statements.

Elements of Proposition
There are three basic elements of a proposition, namely, S – C – P: S stand for Subject,
C stands for Copula, and P stands for Predicate.

The subject is “that about which something is affirmed or denied or the subject matter
or topic of the proposition.” The subject of the proposition is called logical subject.

The predicate is “what is affirmed or denied of the subject.”

The copula, also called the linking verb, is primarily what links between two ideas –
the subject and the predicate. The copulas are either ‘is (am, are)’ or ‘is (am, are) not.’

Examples:

Some people are rich and poor in our society.

Each thing is either in existence or nothingness.
A few countries near North Pole are not experiencing winter and summer season.

Subject Copula Predicate

Some people are rich and poor in our society.

Each thing is either in existence or nothingness.
Few countries near North Pole are not experiencing winter and summer
season.

Quantity of the Subject

The subject of a proposition is the topic or what is talked about. Without the subject,
we do not know what we are talking about. It is quantifiable. However, whatever is the quantity
of the subject dictates the quantity of the whole proposition. The three quantities are singular,
particular and universal.

Singular

The quantity of the subject in a proposition is considered singular when it presents

itself for one individual or group and designates that individual or group definitely. These are
the ways to signify the singular subject in propositions.

1. Proper names
The Promised Land is found in the Middle East.
The Philippines is the only Christian nation in the continent of Asia.

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2. Superlatives
The best student in Central Mindanao University is Juan dela Cruz.
The highest building in the Philippines is PBCom Tower in Metro Manila.

3. Demonstrative pronouns
This book I am holding right now belongs to me.
That car with plate number 123 is a government service.

4. Common noun plus demonstrative adjectives or another modifier:

The tallest man in the room is Juan dela Cruz.
The girl in the front row nearest the window is Juana Gregoria.

5. Collective noun – herd, team, army, group – if they stand for a definite group that they
designate definitely.
The Philippine army troops into the lair of terrorists.
Group of businessmen are gathered in the city for the summit.

Particular

The quantity of the subject is particular when it presents itself indeterminately. These
are the ways to signify the particular subject in proposition.

1. It is when the term stands for a single person or object, or a group without designating it
definitely.

2. It is when the term stands for more than one, but not clearly for all, of the persons or objects,
or groups to which it can be applied.

A lizard is climbing on the wall.

Some lizards are wild.

Universal

The quantity of the subject is universal when it presents itself for each of the subject
to which it can be applied.

Everyone is obliged to come for the Christmas party.

All CMUan students are punctual.

Symbols of Proposition – A, E, I, & O

There are four symbols of logical propositions – A, E, I, and O. These symbols are
coming from two Latin words “affirmo” and “nego,” which means “I affirm” and “I negate”
respectively. The A and I symbols are from “AffIrmo” while the E and O “nEgO.” Thus, A and
I are affirmative propositions, and, E and O are negative propositions.

In the schematic diagram below, the four symbols are shown with its quality –
affirmative and negative propositions – and its quantity – singular, particular, and universal.

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 Schematic Diagram:

Quantity Quality
Affirmative Negative
Universal & Singular A E
Particular I O

A propositions E propositions

All voters are citizens. No green mango is sweet.

I am a professional doctor. I am not a teacher.

I propositions O propositions

Some dog is black. Some dog is not black.

Many rich people are selfish. Some bananas are not yellow.

Other ways to write the A (all A is B) propositions:

• Every (each, any) A is B. • Only B’s are A’s.

• Whoever is A is B. • None but B’s are A’s.
• A’s are B’s. • No one is A unless he or she is B.
• Those who are A are B. • No one is A without being B.
• If a person is A, then he or she is B. • A thing isn’t A unless it’s B.
• If you’re A, then you’re B. • It’s false that some A is not B.

Other ways to write the E (no A is B) propositions:

• A’s aren’t B’s. • No one that’s A is B.

• Every (each, any) A is a non-B. • There isn’t a single A that’s B.
• Whoever is A is not B. • Not any A is B.
• If a person is A, then he or she isn’t • It’s false that there’s an A that’s B.
B. • It’s false that some A is B.
• If you’re A, then you aren’t B.

Other ways to write the I (some A is B) propositions:

• A’s are sometimes B’s. • There are A’s that are B’s.
• One or more A’s are B’s. • It’s false that no A is B.

Other ways to write the O (some A is not B) propositions:

• One or more A’s aren’t B’s. • Not all A’s are B’s.
• There are A’s that aren’t B’s. • It’s false that all A is B.

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 Quantity of the Predicate
There are three parts of a proposition – subject, predicate, and copula. The subject is
quantified as singular or universal and particular and is at the same time the reference point of
the quantity of the whole proposition. In this topic, the predicate is also quantified, but it cannot
be the reference point of the quantity of the whole proposition.

To help us determine the quantity of the predicate, all we need to do is to follow the
two rules.

1. The predicate of an affirmative proposition is particular or undistributed (unless it is

singular). The two affirmative propositions are A proposition and I proposition.
2. The predicate of a negative proposition is universal or distributed (unless it is singular). The
two negative propositions are E proposition and O proposition.

There are two diagrams to assist us in understanding the quantities of both subjects and
the predicate, namely, the Euler’s diagram and the Venn’s diagram.

Euler’s Diagram on Categorical Propositions

For A proposition ‘All mortal beings are creatures of God.’

Mortal
“Creatures of God”
beings

The illustration shows that the circle “mortal beings” is within the circle of the
“creatures of God,” but the subject did not occupy the space of the predicate because there are
other creatures aside from beings that are mortal.

For I proposition, ‘Some mortal beings are creatures of God.’

Some mortal Creatures

beings of God

The illustration shows that the circle “some mortal beings” occupies partly the circle of
“creatures of God.” The implication is that some other mortal beings are not creatures of God.

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 For E proposition, ‘No mortal being is a creature of God.’

Mortal beings Creatures of God

The illustration shows that the circle “mortal beings” and the circle “creatures of God”
are excluded from each other.

For O proposition, ‘Some mortal beings are not creatures of God.’

Some
mortal Creatures of God
beings

The illustration shows that the circle “creatures of God” occupies partly the circle
“some mortal beings.” The implication is that some mortal beings are creatures of God.

The logical symbols A and E can also be singular in quantity. Both the subject and
predicate are singular terms.

For A singular proposition, ‘Jose Rizal is our National Hero.’

National Hero

Jose Rizal

For E singular proposition, ‘Jose Rizal is not our National Hero.’

Our NaDonal
Jose Rizal
Hero

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 Venn Diagram on Categorical Propositions

Shaded area means empty while ‘X’ means it contains something.

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 The Six Logical Structures
If we are to combine the quantity of the subject, along with the quality of the
proposition, we will have the six variations of logical structure. These are:

Propositions Logical Logical Symbols

Structures
All mortal beings are creatures of God. A
Su is Pp
No mortal being is a creature of God. E
Su is not Pu
Some mortal being is a creature of God. I
Sp is Pp
Some mortal being is not a creature of God. O
Sp is not Pu
Pnoy is the 15th President of the Philippines. A
Ss is Ps
Pnoy is not the 15th President of the Philippines. E
Ss is not Ps

Categorical Inference
I. Immediate Inference
There are three kinds of immediate inference, namely, opposition, conversion, and
obversion.

A. Oppositional Inference

The oppositional inference is primarily a relationship between two propositions. The

propositions concerned are the four logical propositions bearing the symbols A, E, I, & O. It
can be between 1) A and E, A and I, A and O; 2) E and A, E and I, E and O; 3) I and A, I and
E, I and O; and 4) O and A, O and E, O and I. In such propositional relationships, there exists
an opposition between them. Below is the traditional square of opposition where relationships
of logical propositions are shown.

A Contrary E

Subaltern Contradictory Subaltern

I Subcontrary O

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 In the two opposed propositions, we make an analysis by seeing the inferential
relationship starting from the truth-value of first proposition and to be compared with the truth-
value of second proposition. This truth-value is the kind of relationship that exists between
them as true, false, or doubtful.

But this truth-value has already been laid out by logicians in the form of rules. All you
need to do is to get familiarized and memorized them. Here they are:

I. Contradictory Opposition

The propositions involved under the contradictory opposition are between A and O,
and, E and I. The rules of contradictories are as follows:

(1) If one is true, the other is false.

(2) If one is false, the other is true.

If A is true, then O is false. If O is true, then A is false.

And if A is false, then O is true. And if O is false, then A is true.

If E is true, then I is false. If I is true, then E is false.

And if E is false, then I is true. And if I is false, then E is true.

If (A) All men are mortal beings is true, then, it is false that (O) Some men are not mortal
beings.
And if (A) All men are mortal beings is false, then, it is true that (O) Some men are not mortal
beings.

If (O) Some men are not mortal beings is true, then, it is false that (A) All men are mortal
beings.
And if (O) Some men are not mortal beings is false, then, it is true that (A) All men are mortal
beings.

If (E) No men are mortal beings is true, then, it is false that (I) Some men are mortal beings.
And if (E) No men are mortal beings is false, then, it is true that (I) Some men are mortal
beings.

If (I) Some men are mortal beings is true, then, it is false that (E) No men are mortal beings.
And if (I) Some men are mortal beings is false, then, it is true that (E) No men are mortal
beings.

II. Contrary Opposition

The propositions involved under the contrary opposition are between A and E only. The
rules of contraries are as follows:

(1) If one is true, the other is false.

(2) If one is false, the other is doubtful.

If A is true, then, E is false. If E is true, then, A is false.

And if A is false, then, E is doubtful. And if E is false, then, A is doubtful.

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If (A) Every cat is cute is true, then, it is false that (E) No cat is cute.
And if (A) Every cat is cute is false, then, it is doubtful that (E) No cat is cute.

If (E) No cat is cute is true, then, it is false that (A) Every cat is cute.
And if (E) No cat is cute is false, then, it is doubtful that (A) Every cat is cute.

III. Subcontrary Opposition

The propositions involved under the subcontrary opposition are between I and O only.
The rules of subcontraries are as follows:

(1) If one is false, the other is true.

(2) If one is true, the other is doubtful.

If I is false, then, O is true. If O is false, then, I is true.

And if I is true, then, O is doubtful. And if O is true, then, I is doubtful.

If (I) Some houses are white is false, then, it is true that (O) Some houses are not white.
And if (I) Some houses are white is true, then, it is doubtful that (O) Some houses are not white.

If (O) Some houses are not white is false, then, it is true that (I) Some houses are white.
And if (O) Some houses are not white is true, then, it is doubtful that (I) Some houses are white.

IV. Subaltern Opposition

The propositions involved under the subaltern opposition are between universal
propositions A and E, and particular propositions I and O. The A and E are called the
subalternant or superior, while the I and O are called subalternate or subaltern. The rules of
subalterns are as follows:

(1) If the universal is true, the particular is true; but if the universal is false, the particular
is doubtful.
(2) If the particular is true, the universal is doubtful; but if the particular is false, the
universal is false.

If A is true, then, I is true. If E is true, then, O is true.

But if A is false, then, I is doubtful. But if E is false, then, O is doubtful.

If I is true, then, A is doubtful. If O is true, then, E is doubtful.

And if I is false, then, A is false. And if O is false, then, E is false.

If (A) Every dog is an animal is true, then, it is true that (I) Some dog is an animal.
And if (A) Every dog is an animal is false, then, it is doubtful that (I) Some dog is an animal.

If (E) No dog is an animal is true, then, it is true that (O) Some dog is not an animal.
And if (E) No dog is an animal is false, then, it is doubtful that (O) Some dog is not an animal.

If (I) Some men are voters is true, then, it is doubtful that (A) All men are voters.
And if (I) Some men are voters is false, then, it is false that (A) All men are voters.

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If (O) Some men are not voters is true, then, it is doubtful that (E) No men are voters.
And if (O) Some men are not voters is false, then, it is false that (E) No men are voters.

Synoptic Scheme

A – (T) A– f A– ? A – (F)
E–f E – (T) E – (F) E–?
I–t I – (F) I – (T) I–?
O – (F) O–t O–? O – (T)

B. Conversion
In conversion, we formulate a new proposition only by interchanging the subject and
the predicate coming from the original proposition. The only thing remain unchanged is the
quality of the proposition, that is, if the original proposition is affirmative, then the new
proposition is also affirmative. Same thing happens when it is negative. Now there are two
types: simple and partial.
Before we proceed to the procedures and illustrations, some terms to be remembered.
The original proposition is called the convertend, the new proposition is called the converse,
and the process of formulation from the original to new proposition is called the conversion.

Simple Conversion

In simple conversion, the quantity of the converse remains the same as in the
convertend. See illustration below.

If the convertend is Then the converse is

Universal Universal
Particular Particular
Singular Singular

Among the four logical symbols, only E, I, and singular propositions can be converted,
considering that the quantity of their subjects and predicates have the same value. (Review the
six logical structures in lesson nine.)

E: “No cat is a dog” to “No dog is a cat”

Convertend (E) No cat is a dog. Su is not Pu

Converse (E) No dog is a cat. Pu is not Su
Cat Dog
Or “No cat is a dog.” to “No dog is a cat.”

Or “No cat is a dog.” to “Therefore, no dog is a cat.”

I: “Some houses are white” to “Some white things are houses”

Convertend (I) Some houses are white. Sp is Pp

White
Houses
Things
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Converse (I) Some white things are houses. Pp is Sp

Or “Some houses are white.” to “Some white things are houses.”

Or “Some houses are white.” to “Therefore, some white things are houses.”

NB. When transposing the predicate, a noun-word like “thing” should be added to the adjective
word “white” in the subject position. If you do not add, then the subject of the proposition is
meaningless.

Singular: “The man near the door is John” to “John is the man near the door”

John
The man near the door

Convertend (A) The man near the door is John. Ss is Ps

Converse (A) John is the man near the door. Ps is Ss

Or “The man near the door is John.” to “John is the man near the door.”

Or “The man near the door is John.” to “Therefore, John is the man near the door.”

The A propositions cannot be converted by simple conversion. The reason is the

quantity of the subject and predicate are not the same. This violation is called fallacies of the
undistributed middle and the illicit process of a term.

Convertend (A) All dogs are animals. Su is Pp

Converse (A) All animals are dogs. Pp is Su

The O propositions cannot be converted at all. The reason is still the same as A
proposition.

Convertend (O) Some dogs are not animals. Sp is not Pu

Converse (O) Some animals are not dogs. Pu is not Sp

Partial Conversion

In partial conversion, the quantity of the convertend is reduced in the converse, or from
universal to particular. See illustration below.

From universal to particular or From universal to particular or

A is converted by partial conversion to I E is converted by partial conversion to O

The A proposition can be converted by partial conversion to I.

Convertend (A) All men are mortal beings. Su is Pp
Converse (I) Some mortal beings are men. Pp is Sp

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Or “All men are mortal beings.” to “Some mortal beings are men.”

Or “All men are mortal beings.” to “Therefore, some mortal beings are men.”

The E proposition can be converted by partial conversion to O.

Convertend (E) No cat is a dog. Su is not Pu

Converse (O) Some dog is not a cat. Pp is not Su

Or “No cat is a dog.” to “Some dog is not a cat.”

Or “No cat is a dog.” to “Therefore, some dog is not a cat.”

C. Obversion
In obversion, we formulate a new proposition with the following procedures: first,
retain the subject and quantity of what is from the original proposition; second, change the
quality of the proposition from affirmative to negative or from negative to affirmative; and
third, make the predicate into a contradictory-form by adding the word “non-.”
Before we proceed to the procedures and illustrations, some terms to be remembered.
The original proposition is called the obvertend, the new proposition is called the obverse, and
the process of formulation from the original to new proposition is called the obversion.

The following formulations with the use of obversion are:

A to E E to A I to O O to I

A to E

Obvertend (A) Every man is a mortal being. Su is Pp

Obverse (E) No man is a NON-mortal being (immortal being). Su is not Pu

Or “Every man is a mortal being.” to “No man is a NON-mortal being (immortal being).”
Or “Every man is a mortal being.” to “Therefore, no man is a NON-mortal being (immortal
being).”

The subject stays universal in the obverse.

The quality is changed from affirmative to negative from “every man” to “no man.”
The contradictory-form “non-” is added to the predicate.

E to A

Obvertend (E) No dog is a cat. Su is not Pu

Obverse (A) Every dog is a NON-cat. Su is Pp

Or “No dog is a cat.” to “Every dog is a NON-cat.”

Or “No dog is a cat.” to “Therefore, every dog is a NON-cat.”

The subject stays universal in the obverse.

The quality is changed from negative to affirmative from “no dog” to “every dog.”

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The contradictory-form “non-” is added to the predicate.

I to O

Obvertend (I) Some houses are white. Sp is Pp

Obverse (O) Some houses are not NON-white. Sp is not Pu

Or “Some houses are white.” to “Some houses are not NON-white.”

Or “Some houses are white.” to “Therefore, Some houses are NOT NON-white.”

The subject stays particular in the obverse.

The quality is changed from affirmative to negative from “are” to “are not.”
The contradictory-form “non-” is added to the predicate.

O to I

Obvertend (O) Some houses are not white. Sp is not Pu

Obverse (I) Some houses are NON-white. Sp is Pp

Or “Some houses are not white.” to “Some houses are NON-white.”

Or “Some houses are not white.” to “Therefore, some houses are NON-white.”

The subject stays particular in the obverse.

The quality is changed from negative to affirmative from “are not” to “are.”
The contradictory-form “non-” is added to the predicate.

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