Thermodynami a er en | y “Thermodynamics Pad: + = ~—abeduction = | In older Hazarieas bya _j Was Assumed to le a form, Ot emery Fluid. But in ~ L Modern Heovies hoot js of t consideved as form of Hea Movement energy. j (Change ) Ce The st Movement | *& Thermodynamic f and changes of beat It_is Hu branch ix_ 19 ad d. 0. F Sia “ With the concepts of heat In Hus chapter we will] an temgerahine and te. Study #u behavior of |inder— conversion of luet and. {__ theat . | Otter forms of energy. Whtc_ut drive a vehicle, | ag - a _it's engine geh warmer * Thermal Equilibrium + A Ofer sor Het. Similars | When hot waber is thin we exercise uy | mixed With cold Woy te. alec feel warms in our | heat is transfered fom hot body, Thi engine oa | wow yo cold weber. This " well 04 pur muscles | karufey of beat energy tus —— de some work and te place_till He level of heat Work dgru get converted | Indo best. Hence host Showdd alan be abl to ——_do_ work. Thine medy 04= Conktnt in boty He ub stance IS_Same. This js known as } | thermet equilibrium. | "When two obsess ore ris dogds with He eb same temperature, Hoey is £ con of | ore in thy wa barium?’ Vite - versa. + |- om | y veth law of therme-| 2:9. When we use a termo- [dynamics s Peete fee | If two systems | obsect. tl ot each in Ywerma) thyrmomeey and ta pbgect __ idibyidm with a trd | gy in thermal equ librium. also in| Hen thar momelty indicatts 7 —thermal_equidibrium sit, | the tmperahin of jhe obyed. th other.” : 4-4] Heat, Internal energy [A] and work = - | \ f Whin two obgects [ey fe] havi iFferent bempera- ture ave kept in contuch I then broad flows fom q the obsect of higher B temperahre po noe obyet AL of lower henperahire. Now, ue wil) olisceuss wht | [eJ<[c] exactly is Hor nahire of | hoot wntert of Het subs In the fig. above ro 40 Tk can = explained |.) A) resentt trom ui- | On basis of ¢ rohan © a OF inky nal ee tt Systems A_and Care i in thuemal_eguidibeium and 4.4.1'] Interna) Energy = —~Sitems A and B are in | We know that m s Ean —~—~20 cmt in themed | a_laSge number of molecules ‘librium with each vier Hew ee Syirems A, @ and C on = | Same temperahire. is defined associated Inkrnal energy Os the energy[with ae anda oa the ae utes oe a | % In case of guide and oli cons) | Hu potenbial energy of tae a —} System + |_molecudssa clue te inkermole- + cubay fore of athion » coe PE ae - [frend tren te |» tatorml energy is : MAcCyO Scop ic energy. | represented by U. Leg. Aglass of water kept on Har table hes no kineHc energy aa well 4.4.2] nar) Qs potential energy but! a ther amit = Ho Walter mole cule move at yandem speeds.| * Thermodynamic System 2- Tntexned energy is A Hhermocdynomica Ha kote energy of all | system is a collection ar its akms moleales group of obpeck Hyak can form a _unit Which roay have Poe 0" ra}. iit exch neve axon interned energy with its suvreunding. is sum of all _branplahonad a _KineHc energy: + Anything tar is not part |) l of He system js known aa —~__# fv poly alomic 9.44 a repunding - ne Suda_as Clo, t_iniecasl Suvremaing : | energy is_sum oP trans: (environment } —~_lahional, rotahional as | well ah vibvation al CLIT, 2 7 kinehic energies _| tf) Bowndeny te | (4 LLL)a | There ave thre. types of thermodynamic systems lhe ansfer beat and malter| matter byte s www jeevandeep in cen 4 ina boi ki ae Kethle is an fen Hore is exchan f ener. mad _skam with _ - Suyro ding giles ;—or_ energy ane’ _S* are divided inte three | Hae _suretoun ebigg bs - - pee D_Open ystems * 2) Closed Salem i ——“ : | A_syakemn Hot 12) Closed systems allows erethange of ene | but dees not allow exchange 13 Tsolated systems of _matkey is known as f } Closed System #3) 0 ana Heat | An_dpen ” 4. Syatern is 0 tem flvost freoly allows exchange of energy and matter A Lwith its envivonment. I eq. Walker boiling in a h | a boiler is a Sys lem HK zl a3 it allow beat exchange but dees not allow stearo fe _excape te He suwvoundm. «kD Tsolaked Syste, t- A Hers Hoot neither allo exchange of energy mer alls Hu exdange ot matter cit —svn jonvassonp | s pet ceding known! ml Hou iiabey shavts bei Livy © : 1 Syste. | and steam 3 pro ducya- L | enesks pressure (eel [ieee Ai ee container, _ jHenw, He stat changes. _——f {__ tee al 4-4-3} H eee eam Considur a glass eg» A thermos Flask | Filled with waker whieh, examplk._an isolated | forma the system. Lot (itn. and Te be tht bem perabure- of system and Surrounding Tepe. Hivelg « Peete faved Theemody Demlig! process | sai (eee ie i evr Sf T, and Te are not A process in which| Same then heat is excha— Hox modynamic feke of ged an_untill both system Osyatem is changed is | and envirenment reach knoum a4 Hour mo dynamic Yocey - The temperature T; wil) I clecreae, Such a charge _ The state of a System | in ttmperahire i$ ¢ousesl || ican be defined by using by the bansfer of inter —__ dempe rabire (1) | nal energy between syster ((P)_and volume (Vv) as | and enviranment. Let § wits variables. be the amount of energy trans fered » = 8 E.9- t= bao ~ Water heated in Coe I ot 1. < Te then a _conteiner with atid | the system gains energy i: System. After Some iE T |.wurw joavandeep in eno. & E “Enviton mend Ce) —<——Eatinment | GTN a3 TI Za este ~~ Te = Ts 1 No transfer of | Energy Flows inf ty _| ene Lae ‘ eel a Hence, Heat is Hoe energy 7 oes _IE_t > Te _| thon ths system loses | [thar is transfered bebween | nd vi) ron me: a x the environment.| dus yo temperahire cliffere-. . i no by Q. nr | Environment (Te) 444] Change in internal energy of a system a. 1 O LER rhalnehen I SHshpt PP) 8<° | of a system th can be + Y GEL ha dur in Orn loss “of energy Je environment Now, 19 order . understanel, Ts >Te = Energy Flows —__ from _Syalem_b_enviren-_ ment, I Care IT — If T= Te ten the system and the environmen} are in __| thermal jlibzium- Hena trure is no tranty of- energy and Q=0. environment - how this transfer takes place ~ bekwrean Syatero ond Hw Ma environment. Consider a cylinder Filled with some ib. Tha din in ris provided with a movable, massless - and frictionless piston at one end as shou below. is our Systems and rest is itsee eae [Internal energy of 9 _ system Anbe changed | in fue ways LF, co menk 1 [fern Pare, Flows from environment Haan lJ The 1 ee ae brught in_condact wit, _| asourc of heat. Ag | temperatire of envinn— | Sgrealer than | abure of system | fort__energy (heat) | o Tf Tr | 9a will lose energy ds its envivenment ond internal >Te hoy it] The _ty_increase the interned energy of He s, Is_be quickly push the cylinder, | Se that Hot gas is compremedy The piston dbeb some work isin i on tee gas by moving through Some distonu. This work dene and : te be _inene. ver ted inh _ener: in 4 inkeyned energy | j. gained by Hre gas_in | of Haw eae thr form of “internal energy Toitiad—state Heme, its temperabire increases. ir On the other hand JP ga» expands tun ) per forms bwovk on name ment dur fo which jt loses , My internal energy Hence, gan cools deum . Dheating and © drivg work.parnceovangoeoin hs] First law of thermody — namics & (Work and Pisin _moves in heat poe Hae piston {8 pushed jn so rat volume of Hw M lin os iE of ideal gas having momentim ftom “Hw pishn. uv ass| a an H a iction | i » Here °. Hw. piston. Beh ge! Hes _Syater and zs rest iS He envitboment. * Exprepion for work done. Duri i pte constank presure p a. h bo y ge on He a te _pishn loses their __pistm » System) —_Mom entym to He pishn | :SS _————— ol totel_frce_exertes eee ‘A by | It is work done In Daargiags anaes s nthe pisten | ty volume of 5: a ’ ee ee When 4 the ae y thrush. an infinitesi- | of heat @ is added 40 0 ma fan x, the work | s the system ate dui_can be written ay diner not do any work Hon entre beet ener iy used | dy_= Fdx do increase internal energy. =pAdx Q i AU=8 Teel Adz = dV = infinitesimal in_volume becomes | Hence, On Macatee hard Rie the, io does come work — apg Inerease its volume and no. |e | dw= pav _.,@ a is added ty ib than fe yatens eee its << ta) mort done jo changing ume of He gas fem SI This means when Wis positive To a) Y Roun, “given by | AU is negatie and vie-wersa. ale Vp : ic =. lw ‘Au = -W : | ae | y by ] Vv, 7 afl +——_ v rac a enera ye Corn mn le [pdv a veel as Work Here fore change ins Lnterned ener 94 can be) written ad Us Q-W erties J Lt is First la of terme dynamics. =[q= sure —O This is also First law of Hermo- dynamics.een gr Eee G=2003 7; ond Zam. Therefor, Au Km 129 le positive, negative _| oe pete OY _ZEy0. dus@-W=0 a ~ Case —T When heat added jv tu and work dons» G= 2007 Weleo Pee . mC Bor interned energy remains unchanged and AU=0. AU = §-W =+ loot Here, more beat js added —+~_f_the System tha Hee net done: Hence, interned The first lava of thermody. |. Mamits js extension of Hae low of conservaben of eneroy form System wich ,. Gre not isolated. d * First law of Hurmodynamia is_an indirectly melted measure internat energy, of a Systemwe | @ Extras = var ladle 2s r_ property oF a system ham Hoe remaing equilibrium. A hited internat emeroy Ore extensive Varviabrlu. peer variceblia thak, B ends on ize of + - Ha system are know a4. —T_is_any measured extensive yariable- i 1g. The totel maw and een ar called as stare 5 fame Ey viable. 4.61] Thuemo dynamic a Equilibrium = alles e “9: pressure Volume, A sytem is in temperal re, olonsi by Hhermedy namic equilibrium a Soe aay ma, if ousi = re_.Some of Hu stek| How are satishied simublaneaully, { Variables. Those are _| Mechanical equihibru Macrsuopic Variables - poses equilibnurn and. | There are tuo types | ® thevmad equilibsum. + [ot state vari ablis | O Mechanical bvium Ty Lnlewive variable ium there Vare no @ Extensive vari ables as Interns ve variables + sylarn and suyroundy The variables which nZo the s axel iy | do not dopenal on ize of He Hat Syston fo be in Heber saga eq. eguidibrium. T S aid jo be in m bial 4s idibive Jf presyre , density eke Ae systers And bebreon iSame ver Chan, m js said be in thermet gud br = um. NT ieee ents n_ System im y will neubStised [4-6-2] Ther mockynam ic wi Fre by attain fake variables anol tL _wnditen ef eguilivin Hermodynamic stake = hemi A equilibrium Fern js sai, ty lee jn themicad equi li-| brim biheag there are Do chemical reachons Stabe m 1. om Afacribed by Voluss of some yariabWs alfo called os stare Variables. Every equilibrium = of a thermodynamic _ oe goons on in the system, » tee is no harskr| e.g, An equi Ui by iu 3 of matter fem one part fate of a gas jy compurely _ af thes do _otner | olexctibed by the val ws duo djPFusion. of prepure (A>, volume (v). ! Als is alo | Hmperahire (T) and Mass Seid b be in chemical | (m), CguwUibrium if js mi ° jHem is | A termodinamic system is Some thre ut anol does! not in_equidibriym. ———at change with time. | €-g, Whim an inflated ball > -TS — 9. Therm of eguilibrium'| at mosphere. This isnot | HL tery e— A ———Tolure of a systers is me Sore through out ang does i | an egiuédibriuer stale. _ is punctured, the air inside — 1) Syme eae ,—_ sy ss KA system which is Titer. ta Ga (a mintee| “pf petal vapor) in te — | s goa an ell Allee igzited ay a sgerk | ~_ jig nat_an eguilibyivm stote,| ” ibxium camot | | predure , volume and — ~_tylinder_ef an _aubomosit te | _engine under | of | Syatern is called | Tt is abs coded ay ind | diagram - Where Pe Viard T are ” num bee fy He eraburey 18 }oF mols ond R | Universe gaa constant - The yraphicad regentetion cae, of gra oh a Hoe -V pram { p-V cay ve)a. Ff AU a Sil Le [ame p-V_cuxve_at conthant demperohre is called an > isotherm . — 4.6.3] The poV curve Work done in changing xa volves fm Ve be Vp is given by} sy The thtegral can be evatuated| The ne p-V hae! hore Know Ha relation Showy expansion of a_ bebsitr Mee pressure P gr ip which volume + and volume Vi. The Cgualin| —increares dua te oubnrard _ “1 cam be gesphivolly ryprese | displacement of Hoa _ Ned _p-V diagram. | piston and the pressure of 4 the gas de creases. ( ___ THe area under p-v | As_volvme of te - Curve iS the value of sis increasing C __inkegral._fts_the integraf | trovk dene iy positrre. ra _—Weproertt the wore dor) _ Baerefore tye aren undir| eee : tet _p=V_turre also | p-V curve fer a gas riusents He _torls_| Comprened ith varyitns fh OOM nto Sarai oP ae ee oa iliamaivecahmeicaininttiiingy Ahi aetna | Work = Area = [pay [te dane pe I a, Thy above p-V cuyve _shevs comp region of a dus to inward displan- ment of piste: Th work avy : dona by, He gaa fi_negatre® p-V Curve pf 7 a expan cy ab [combant pressure OAT Therondynanie praca A Mowwrnodyramic prouss Is 0 procedure by whith tn initial otale of 9 system changes tr its Final stale, Duwi o. Han enodynamic | pout, thre may be 4 tromafen of eek inte Hoe sypler frum enverrnnet | Cpositive heob) eg, If water is , healed then energy is tearsfered = +ve | fem eminoment go the | = greater than 0 water - peal | | | pares _| Tle arene modynamnit a Shows p-V curve when pee me he. = | the _ volume _ Hu 90 tranaker of from ms increases from Vib Vp ysterm be envivonmert lot Constant pressure: (negati ve_hoot) » [The curve is a dine |} parallel jo_ volume axis 4 i oh er in Mun work done is ay Wark lone during volume takers 25 negok ve. ob a as t ot co presinxe it given 3 {beast =F EE _pistan__moves_ ovtwserd Hur pork done is positive ‘ i FTu _above p-v Aagaae describes Ai Fferert ways in _whidh we can change When a thermodyna-| Hoe sepbbere Stake of Mae bom. pater zal [mic Systens chan Litd state, it payer The mis ini Hebb Hough a servied of | at state “Aon Has _p-V inter mediate stables. dingram. Its pressurt is This series of inter f, and volurn. is V+ Heng, modiate state, when state of Hu syatem can plotted ™ p-V dieysam be indicated by Hare n-ords f F um os path naies prom (Vj 5p.) + Ths : Qre__Kno 5 “stole Bis He Fined slate Thexe paths tell us. Whose _co-ordinales are (YG; | The curve t (pol 1) 14 one. fe ey Pat apn tt a \\ from steve Ab , “ghd? GB When the system eee itself frem Ab 4 4147.7] Work done durring |_clnangis {aq + 2 Vena ite polkas bot ib ure and volume change. op prt = re tureclt cree fae es a : : ile vwlume_ IN Cre Ares~wwrujeevandeep.in— rxcewo. J 7 | tk done in tape Sn ty sel lx Third Way to change Hoe tot Ln Ab Bis pal, 3 Fe q é A 3 | Fy Dy Th oh Setend way jo Charge i 15 V the fate of ute % System from, A» B is pout 2. Tn Hus care Sirst { P decreases Prim Pp; bo & ha 2 e ‘ a 4 m point Ato point Dat | f y Constant v)yme_ Vi Neat | ¢ : Ae wlume increases frame | v A Vite Vp fan pol wt D Ao | [eA Ls peli Bak const ! vy Mp preiure- H | Werk dont in doe prea . { From point Ab pent C,| 13) represented by He Volume ing reases from shaded rea, 4 Vz Vp at onstant at p+ From paint C | * Tt js very clear Hat hb _poist @, the presure He amountoh werk dere _ | from p pF isnot same in all He _ Lat consrant volume Vp. Hyer capes.by the shaded area under the curve 3 as in Fig. 4.12 (0. itis eastly noticed that in the three cases we discussed, the ampunt of work done is not the sare, ¥, means First thepressre dope at constant volume increases at constant Remeber that these are only three paths amongst many along which the system can change its state. It is interesting to note that in all these cases, though work done during the change of state is different, the initial and the final state of the systemis the same. Weconcludethat the workdonebyasystem depends not only on the initial and the final states, butalso ontheintermediatestates, ..,0n the paths along which the change takes place. 4.7.2 Heat Added During a Thermodynamic Process: Thermodynamic state of a system can be changed by adding heat also. Consider a thermodynamic system consisting of an ideal gas confined to a cylinder with a movable, frictionless, and rmssless piston Suppose we want to change the initial volume V; of the gas to the final volume Y at a constant Hg. 43 (a): Isothermal ‘expansion of gas, Burner supplies heat, system does work on. piston (W>0, Q>0). aa se aa soa mwoudHo Bowne1 ‘There are two different ways in which 2 this change in volume can be made. Figure k 4.13 (a) shows the first method. In this case, the gasis heatedslowly, ina controlled manner so that it expands at a constant temperature. It reaches the final volume J isothenmally. The system absorbs a finite amount of heat during this process. insulation | ‘Vacuum : | 1 x a 2 Fig. 4.13 (b): Sudden uncontrolled expansion 2 of gas. No heat enters, system does no work (W=0, Q=0). ” Inthe second case, shown in Fig. 4.13 (b) gas cylinder is now surrounded by an 7 insulating material and it is divided into two compartments by a thin, breakable partition, The compartment X has a volume VY and the compartment Y has a volume Vso that 1 VV. %. The compartment X of the cylinder L is filled with the same amount of gas at the | same temperature as that in the first case » shown in the Fig. 4.13 (a), The compartment 2 Y is empty, it contains no gas particles or any £ other form of matter. The initial state of the t systemis the same in both cases. ‘The partitionis now suddenly broken. This causes a sudden, uncontrolled expansion of the volume of the gas. The gas occupies the volume that was empty before the partition is broken. ‘There is no exchange of heat between the gas and its environment because the cylinder is nowsurrounded by an insulating material. The final volume of the system after the partition is broken is V;. In this case, the gas has not done any work during its expansion because it ‘has not pushed any piston or any other surface for its expansion. Such expansion is called sefree expansion. A common example of free expansion is abrupt puncturing of an inflated balloon or atyre. i Ttis experimentally observedthatwhenan ideal gas undergoes a free expansion, there is no change of temperature. Therefore, the final state of the gas in this case also, is the same as the first case. The intermediate states or the paths during the change of state inthe first and the second case are different. But the initial and the final states are the same in both cases. Figures 4.13 (a) and (b) represent two different ways of taking a system from the initial state to the final state. This means we have two different paths connecting the same initial and the final states of a system. In case of the method shown in Fig. 4.13 (a) there is an exchange of heat. In case of the method shown in Fig. 4.13 (b), there is no exchange of heat and also, the system does not do any work at all because there is no displacement of any piston or any other surface. To conclude, heat transferred to a system ' also depends on the path 47.3 Classification of Thermodynamic ' Processes: d As we haveseen earlier, a thermodynamic state can be described by its pressure p volume V, and temperature T. These are the state variables of a system. At present, we will restrict our description of a thennodynamic system only to its pressure, volume and temperature. A. process by which two or more of these variables can be changed is called a thermodynamic process or a thermodynamic change. As we have discussed earlier, there can be a number of different ways to change these parameters, that is, there are different thermodynamic processes. But in practice, for the sake of measurement, any one of the state variables is held constant and other two are varied. This leads us to a very useful way of classifying thermodynamic processes. ' eee eg,: 1. Reversible and Irreversible Processes: l We know that when two objects at different temperatures are brought in thermal \ contactthey reacha thermal equilibrium Inthis process, the object at higher temperature loses. its heat and the object at lower temperature gains heat. (But we never observe that after ' some time, the two objects are back to their | initial temperatures), ‘The object that was previously hot never becomes hot again and the previously cold object never becomes cold again once they reach thermal equilibrium. That means the two objects at different temperatures reaching thenmal equilibrium: is an imeversible process. Such processes do not restore the initial state of the system Puncturing an inflated balloon or a tyre, rubbing our palms together, buming a candle are some familiar examples of imeversible thermodynaric processes. Some processes such as melting of ice, freezing of water, boiling of water, condensation of steam can be reversed. That means the initial sates of the system can be restored. These are some familiar ‘thermodynamic processes that are reversible. A thermodynamic process (change) can bea reversible process (change) orit can bean irreversible process (change). 4 PB Py Poy Vy ¥, Fig. 4.14 (a): p-V diagramof Reversible process, Earlier, wehaveseenthatathermodynamic process can be represented by a p- Vdiagram. A reversible process is a change that can be retraced in reverse (opposite) direction. The path of a reversible thermodynamic process is the sare in the forward and the reverse direction. Figure 4.14 (a) shows the path of a aa reversiile themadymamic process. This path shows a reversible expansion of a gas followed by its reversible compression. Such changes are very slow and there is no loss of any energy in the process andl the system is ck to its initial state after it is taken along the reverse path Reversible processes are ideal processes. Areal thermndynamic process vill always encounter some loss due to friction or some other dissipative farces. Fig. 4.13 (b): p-V diagram of Irreversible process, An imeversible process is a change that cant be retraced in reverse (opprsite) drecion. The path of an imeversible thermodynamic process is not the same in the forward and the reverse direction. Figure 4,14 (b) shows the path of an ineversible thermodynamic process. There is a peranert loss of energy from the system due to friction of other dissipative forces in an irreversible pros. The change of state deperts on the path taken to change the state during an ineversible process. An irreversible process shows a hysteresis. Most real life thermodynamic processes that we ceal with are irreversible. Cause of Irreversibility: Thee are two main reasons of the imreversibility of a themmmdyranic process. 1. Many processes suchas a free expansion or an explosive chemical reaction take the system to non-equilibrium states. 2. Most processes involve friction, viscosity or some other dissipative forees. For example, an object sliding on a surface stops after moving through some distance due to friction and loses its mechanical energy in the form of heat to the surface ard it gets heated itself. The dissipative forces are always present everywhere and ccan be minimized at best, but carmot be Assumptions for discussion of thermodynamic processes: We will be discussing various types of thenmodynamic systems in the following sections. Here are the assumptions we make for this discussion i) Majority of the themmdynamic processes we will be disoxsing in the following sections are reversible. That is, they are quasistatic in nature They are extremaly slow and the system undergoes infiritesimal change at every stage except the adiabatic processes. The system is, therefore, in thenmdynamic equilibrium caring all the charge. ii) The“ systent involvedin all the processes isanideal gasenclosedina cylinder having a movable, frictionless, and massless piston Depending on the of the process, the walls of the cylinder anne GD ~~~can be good thermal conductors (for an isothermal process) or can be thermally insulating (for an adiabatic process). iii) Theideal gas equationis applicable to the system 2 Isothermal process: A process inwhich changeinpressureand volume takes place at a constant temperature: is called an isothermal process or isothermal charge. For sucha system A T= 0. Isothermal (provessis a constant temperature process. This. is possible when a system is in good therrral. contact with its environment, and the transfer of heat from, or to the system, is extremely slowso that thenral equilibriumis maintained throughout the change. For example, melting of ice, which takes: place at constant temperature, is anisothenmal process. ‘Thermodynamics of Isothermal Process: The temperature of a system remmins constant in an isothenmal change and Boyle's law can be applied to study these changes. Theses es epee saa me isothermal charge is given by, ‘ w= (4.6) a van pV, are the variables of a system in its initial’ and the final states respectively, then for an isothermal change, aven\. constant. the isothermal expansion of stele sre Let fs al whens be Vand the fimal volure be V;. The work done in an infinitesimally small isothenval exparsion is given by Eq, (4.1), dW= pV. The total work done in bringing out the expansion from the initial volume Vito the final volure V; is given " = fear i, But we know that for an ideal gas, pV= nkT. Using this in the previous equation we get, " dV wenar | “Wnt = (47) For an ideal gas,’ its intemal energy depends on its temperature. Therefore, during anisothenmal process, the intern energy of an ideal gas remains constant (AU = 0) because its temperature is constant (AT= 0). ‘The first aw of thermodynamics (Eq. 4.4) when applied to an isothermal process would now reads, w ¥, = (48) .Q=W =nRTin (49) 1 ‘Thus, the heat transferred to the gas is completely converted into the work done, i.e, for expansion of the gas. From Eq, (4.8) it is obvious that when the gas absorbs heat, it does positive work and its volume expands. When the gas is compressed, it ndeases heat and it does negative work. Any change of phase occurs at a constant temperature, and therefore, it is an isothermal process. Figure 4.15 shows the p- Vdiagram of an isothermal process. It is called as an isotherm P A Pi Pr y, Y, Fig. 4.15: pV diagramof an isothermal process. -- ~~~Example45: 05 male of gas at temp 300 K expan isothemally from an initial volume of 2.0L to final volumeof 6.0L. (a) Whats the work done by the gas ? (R= 8.31J ml), (6) How mch heat is supplied to the gas? Solution: (a) The work done in isothermal (© From the first law of thermodynamics, the heat supplied in an isothermal process is spert to do workan a system. Therefore, Q=W=1309 1. Can you explain the significame o ‘Positive sign of the work done and the heat? 3. Isobaric process: Itis a constant pressure process. Boiling water at constant nommally at atmpspheric pressure, is an isobaric Figure (4.16) shows the p-V diagram of an isobaric process. It is called as an isobar. The gy department They indicate the locations having same pressure ina region. For an isobaric process, none of the quantities AU, Q and Wis zero. P v ¥, v, Fig.4.16 : p- Vdiagramofanisobaric Thermodynamics of Isobaric process: ‘The pressure of a systemremnins constant in this process i.e. Ap= 0. Consider an ideal gas undergoing volume expansion at constant pressure. If Vj and 7; are its volume and temperature in the initial state of a system and V,and T.are its final volume and temperature respectively, the work done in the expansion is given by W = pdV = p(V,-V,)=nR(T, ~T.) (4.10) Also, the change in the internal energy of a systemis given by, AU =nC,AT=nC, (T,-F) = 41) Where, C, is the specific heat at constant volume and AT= (7,- 7) is the change in its temperature during the isobaric process. According to the first law of thermodynamics, the heat exchanged is given. ly, Q=AU+W Using the previous two equations we get, Q=aC, (7,7) +nk(T, 7) Q=(nC, +nR)(7, -7)) O=n€, "(Ty -T) --- (4.12) Where, G, is the specific heat at constant pressure .C, =C, +R. eee tneEquation (4.12) tells that the temperature of a system changes in an isobaric process derefore, its internal energy also changes (Eq. 4.11). The heat exchanged (Eq. 4.12) is partly used for increasing the temperature and partly to do some work. The change in the temperature of the system depends on the specific heat at constant pressure G,, Example 4.6: One mole of anideal gas is initially kept in volume is doubled. How much work is done if the expansions isobaric? Solution: Work done in isobaric process givenby We pA V=(V,- 19. Y= 20 «. W=2p% ¥; can be found by using the ideal gas equation for initial state. A V=aR7forn=1 ml, 0 =24.9x10" mi’ 1x10 10° x 24.9x10" y= Togas By 4, Isocharic process: bes mm work on its environment dining an isochoric charge. Figure 4.17 shows the Itis a constant volume process A system ee ee ‘p-V diagram of an isochoric process. For an isochoric process, AV=0, andl we have, from the first law of thermodynamics, AU = Q. This means that for an isachorie charge, all the energy added in the form of heat remains in the system itself and causes an increase in its intemal energy. Heating a gas in a constant volume container or diffusion of a gas ina closed chamber are some examples of isochnric process. P Pi A yy B v Ki Fig. 4.17: p-V diagramofisochoric process. ‘Thermodynamics of Isochoric process: For an iscchotic process, we have, AV =0. The system does not do any work and all the energy supplied to the system is converted into its intemal energy. The first law of thenmpdynamics for isochoric process is Q=au == (4.13) ‘The change in intermal energy is given by AU =nC, AT ‘The work doneis given by W= paV=0 (because A V=0). ‘The heat exchangerlis given by thefirstlawof ics, Q=AU+W=AU = nC, AT (4.14)