NIGER STATE POLYTECHNIC

P.M.B 01, Zungeru, Niger State

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
Lecture Note

COURSE TUTOR: Jibrin Usman Lapai

PHONE NO. 08076270020, 080389867291
E-MAIL ADDRESS: [email protected]
PROGRAMME: HND Software and Web Development
COURSE TITLE: Back end Development II
COURSE CODE: SWD 414 UNIT: 3
CLASS: HND SWD II SEMESTER: First Semester
SESSION: 2024/2025 THEORETICAL: 2 hours /week
 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
COURSE INTRODUCTION
Back End Development II as a prerequisite to Back End Development I may be structured to
introduce foundational tools, technologies, and practical skills essential for understanding and
implementing back-end systems. It could cover basics like server setup, database management,
and working with APIs, ensuring students develop a solid technical foundation. This prepares
them to tackle the more advanced and theoretical concepts addressed in Back End Development
I, such as system design, scalability, and security, creating a cohesive learning path that builds
from practical to advanced knowledge.
1.0 WHAT AN ENDPOINT IS AND HOW TO DEVELOP ENDPOINTS
An endpoint is a specific URL or URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) within an API
(Application Programming Interface) that serves as a communication channel between a client
and a server. Endpoints enable users or applications to send requests and receive responses for
specific operations, such as fetching data, updating records, or performing actions on a server.
For example, a "GET /users" endpoint retrieves a list of users, while "POST /users" might
create a new user. Developing endpoints involves designing, implementing, and documenting
these interactions, often using frameworks like Express.js, Django, or Flask. This requires
understanding HTTP methods (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE), request/response formats (JSON
or XML), and how to handle errors and security measures to ensure robust and efficient
communication.
1.1 Endpoints
An endpoint is a specific location within a web service or API where interactions occur between
the client and the server. It acts as a gateway through which a client sends requests and receives
responses. Each endpoint is identified by a URL or URI and typically represents a resource or
an action.
For example:
GET /users: Retrieves a list of all users.
POST /users: Creates a new user.
GET /users/123: Retrieves details of a specific user with ID 123.
Endpoints are integral to RESTful APIs, and their behavior is defined by HTTP methods:
GET: Fetches data.
POST: Submits new data.
PUT: Updates existing data.
DELETE: Removes data.
Good endpoint design ensures clarity, simplicity, and functionality, making APIs intuitive and
easy to use. Security practices like authentication and input validation are crucial for protecting
endpoints from unauthorized access and vulnerabilities.
1.2 Endpoint Documentation and Its Benefits
Endpoint documentation is an essential part of API development, providing detailed and
structured information about how to use and interact with the API's endpoints. It ensures that

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 1

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
developers whether internal teams or external users can effectively use the API without
ambiguity or confusion. Here’s a detailed explanation of what endpoint documentation entails
and its benefits:
What Endpoint Documentation Includes
1. Endpoint URLs/URIs: Each endpoint has a unique address (e.g., /api/users) that
specifies where the server resource resides. The documentation specifies these URLs
so developers know exactly where to send requests.
2. HTTP Methods: The documentation specifies which methods (GET, POST, PUT,
DELETE, etc.) are supported by each endpoint. For instance, GET /users retrieves data,
while POST /users creates new data.
3. Request Parameters: Explains the data needed for a request, including:
a. Query Parameters: Appended to the URL (e.g.,? id=123).
b. Headers: Metadata sent with the request (e.g., Authorization: Bearer token).
c. Body: JSON or XML payload for methods like POST or PUT.
4. Response Formats: Details the structure of the data returned by the API (e.g., JSON
object with keys and values). Example:
{
"id": 123,
"name": "John Doe"
}
5. Status Codes: Lists HTTP status codes the API might return, such as:
a. 200: Success.
b. 400: Bad Request.
c. 404: Resource Not Found.
d. 500: Server Error.
1.2.1 Benefits of Endpoint Documentation
1. Ease of Use: Clear documentation helps developers quickly understand how to interact
with the API, reducing the learning curve. Developers don’t have to guess or
experiment, making the process efficient and straightforward.
2. Efficiency: Developers save time by having all necessary information in one place. It
eliminates the need for repeated communication with API providers or internal teams,
speeding up development cycles.
3. Error Reduction: Miscommunication and misinterpretation are minimized when
endpoints are clearly explained. With details like required parameters and response
examples, developers can avoid mistakes during integration.
4. Improved Collaboration: Endpoint documentation serves as a single source of truth for
teams working on different parts of a project. Front-end, back-end, and external
developers can collaborate seamlessly using the same reference.
5. Scalability: Well-documented APIs make it easy to onboard new developers or teams.
It ensures that even as the project grows, the API remains maintainable and
understandable to all stakeholders.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 2

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
6. Standardization: Good documentation ensures consistency across all endpoints. It
establishes a professional, standardized approach to API usage, enhancing user
confidence and adoption rates.
1.2.2 Tools for Creating Documentation
To streamline the process, various tools are available:
 Swagger/OpenAPI: For generating interactive, real-time API documentation.
 Postman: To design, test, and document APIs collaboratively.
 Redoc: Provides a user-friendly interface for OpenAPI documentation.
 API Blueprint: A Markdown-based framework for creating and sharing documentation.
 Comprehensive documentation ensures APIs are easy to use, maintain, and scale, which
is crucial for their long-term success.
2.0 SESSION AND COOKIES FOR STATE MANAGEMENT IN WEB APPLICATIONS
Session and Cookie management for state management in Web applications. Web applications,
built on the stateless HTTP protocol, require mechanisms to maintain state across multiple
requests to provide a seamless and personalized user experience. State management ensures
that information such as user authentication, preferences, or shopping cart data is preserved
during interactions. Two primary tools for achieving this are sessions and cookies.
Session and cookie management are essential tools for handling state in stateless web
applications built on the HTTP protocol. While cookies store small pieces of data on the client’s
browser, such as user preferences or session identifiers, sessions store user-specific data
securely on the server, enabling features like login management and shopping carts. Together,
these mechanisms bridge the gap between stateless HTTP and the need for continuity, allowing
web applications to maintain user data, provide personalized experiences, and ensure seamless
interactions across multiple requests.
2.1 Defining Session and Cookies in Detail
In web development, sessions and cookies are mechanisms used to store and manage user-
related information to provide a seamless user experience across multiple interactions with a
website or application. Here’s a detailed explanation of both:
1. Session: A session is a server-side mechanism used to store temporary information
about a user's interactions with a website or application during a specific period.
Sessions are created when a user initiates an interaction with the server and typically
last until the user logs out, closes the browser, or the session times out.
How Sessions Work:
 When a user interacts with a website (e.g., logging in), the server creates a unique
session ID.
 The session ID is sent to the client (browser) and stored as a cookie or appended to
URLs.
 The session ID is used to retrieve user-related data stored on the server during
subsequent requests.
Features of Sessions:
 Server-Side Storage: Data is stored securely on the server, not the client.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 3

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
 Temporary: Sessions have a lifespan determined by the server's configuration (e.g., 15
minutes of inactivity).
 Secure: Since data is not stored on the client side, it's less vulnerable to tampering.
 Use Cases: Shopping carts, user authentication, and storing user preferences.
Example: When a user logs into an e-commerce website, their session stores items in the cart,
user ID, and other data, allowing the cart to persist while they browse.
2. Cookies: A cookie is a small piece of data stored on the client’s browser by a website.
Cookies allow the website to recognize users and their preferences during subsequent
visits or across different pages of the same site.
How Cookies Work:
 When a user visits a website, the server sends a cookie to the browser.
 The browser stores the cookie and sends it back to the server with each subsequent
request.
 The server uses the cookie to retrieve user-related data.
Features of Cookies:
 Client-Side Storage: Cookies are stored on the user's device.
 Persistent or Session-Based:
 Session Cookies: Exist only while the browser is open.
 Persistent Cookies: Have an expiration date and remain until that date.
 Small Size: Typically limited to 4 KB of data per cookie.
 Use Cases: Remembering login states, user preferences (e.g., dark mode), and analytics
tracking.
Example: When you select "Remember Me" on a login form, the website saves a persistent
cookie containing your login token so you don’t need to re-enter credentials during your next
visit.
Differences between Sessions and Cookies
Combined Use: In many applications, sessions and cookies are used together. For instance, a
session ID might be stored in a cookie to identify the user’s session on the server securely. This
approach combines the flexibility of cookies with the security of server-side sessions.
2.2 Statelessness of a Web Application
What is Statelessness in Web Applications?
Web applications are typically built on the HTTP protocol, which is stateless by nature. This
means that each request made by a client to the server is independent and does not retain
information about previous interactions. The server treats every request as a new one, without
any memory of past actions, ensuring simplicity and scalability.
Example of Statelessness: If a user logs into a website and sends multiple requests (e.g., to
view a profile or access settings), the server does not inherently remember that the user is
logged in. Without additional mechanisms, the user would need to re-authenticate with each
request.
Why is Statelessness Important?

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 4

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
1. Scalability: Statelessness allows servers to process requests independently, enabling
easier distribution of load across multiple servers.
2. Simplicity: Stateless protocols are easier to implement and debug since each request is
self-contained.
3. Flexibility: Stateless systems can handle a large number of clients without maintaining
individual client sessions on the server.
Maintaining State in Stateless Applications
While statelessness has advantages, many web applications require a way to maintain user-
specific information across requests (e.g., login sessions, shopping carts). To address this,
mechanisms like sessions and cookies are used to create a stately experience on top of a
stateless protocol.
Sessions and Cookies as Mechanisms for Maintaining State
1. Sessions
How They Work:
Sessions store user-specific data on the server and associate it with a unique session ID.
This session ID is sent to the client (often in a cookie) and used to identify the user in
subsequent requests.

Example:
When a user logs into an e-commerce site, their session stores login details and items
in their cart. The session persists until it times out or the user logs out.

Role in Maintaining State:

Sessions help web applications simulate state by storing critical information (e.g.,
authentication tokens) securely on the server while keeping the protocol stateless.

2. Cookies
How They Work:
Cookies are small pieces of data stored on the client’s browser. They can persist across
sessions and store non-sensitive information, such as user preferences or session
identifiers.

Example: A "Remember Me" feature saves a persistent cookie with a token, allowing
the user to stay logged in between visits.

Role in Maintaining State:

Cookies act as a lightweight, client-side method to carry information between requests.
They often complement sessions by storing session IDs or other identifiers.
Sessions and Cookies in Combination
In practice, sessions and cookies often work together: A session is created on the server to store
user data. The session ID is sent to the client as a cookie. For each subsequent request, the
client sends the session ID back to the server via the cookie. The server uses this ID to retrieve
the user’s session data and maintain continuity.
Balancing Statelessness with State While web applications are fundamentally stateless,
mechanisms like sessions and cookies allow developers to maintain continuity without

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 5

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
compromising scalability or performance. By strategically combining these tools, applications
can deliver personalized, stately user experiences while leveraging the efficiency of a stateless
protocol like HTTP.
2.3 Differences, Benefits, and Use Cases of Cookies and Sessions
Cookies Sessions
Persistent Storage: Cookies can Enhanced Security: Data is stored on
remember user preferences (e.g., the server, making it harder for
language settings) across sessions. attackers to access or modify.
Low Server Load: Since cookies are Scalability: Can handle complex data
stored on the client, they reduce the structures without being constrained
burden on the server. by size limits.
Benefits Wide Compatibility: Supported by all Temporary Storage: Ensures sensitive
modern browsers and can be sent with data (e.g., login credentials) is not
every HTTP request. stored on the client.
Stateless Support: Useful in Ease of Use: Automatically ties user
maintaining state in stateless web actions to their server-side session
protocols like HTTP. without requiring client-side
Benefits of Sessions management.
Remember Me Functionality: Storing User Authentication: Storing user
login tokens for persistent login states and sensitive information
authentication. securely on the server
User Preferences: Saving settings like E-commerce: Managing shopping cart
theme (light/dark mode) or language. data during the user's visit.
Use Cases Analytics: Tracking user behavior and Secure Transactions: Handling
preferences for analytics and sensitive operations like online
personalized experiences. banking or payments.
Session ID Storage: Storing session Multi-Step Processes: Managing data
identifiers for session management. across steps in a form submission or
checkout process.

Summary
Cookies are ideal for lightweight, client-side storage of non-sensitive data or identifiers.
Sessions are better suited for storing sensitive information and managing complex data securely
on the server.
By leveraging both appropriately, developers can create secure, scalable, and user-friendly web
applications.
3.0 SECURITY PRACTICES
Security practices such as authentication, authorization, middleware, and web tokens are vital
for protecting web applications and user data. Authentication ensures users are who they claim
to be, while authorization determines what actions or resources authenticated users can access.
Middleware acts as an intermediary, handling tasks like request validation and enforcing
security policies before requests reach the application. Web tokens, such as JSON Web Tokens
(JWT), enable secure, stateless authentication by transmitting user identity and permissions

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 6

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
between client and server. Together, these mechanisms ensure robust security, protecting
applications from unauthorized access and misuse.
3.1 Endpoint Security and Its Importance
Endpoint security refers to the measures and practices implemented to protect the endpoints of
an API or web application, such as the URLs that facilitate communication between a client
and a server. Securing these endpoints ensures that only authorized and authenticated users or
systems can interact with the application, preventing unauthorized access, data breaches, and
malicious attacks.
Why Do We Need Endpoint Security?
1. Protection against Unauthorized Access: Without security measures, endpoints can
be exploited by attackers to access sensitive data or perform unauthorized actions.
2. Safeguarding User Data: APIs often handle sensitive user information such as login
credentials, payment details, or personal data. Securing endpoints prevents this data
from being intercepted or stolen.
3. Preventing Common Attacks: Endpoints are vulnerable to attacks like SQL
injection, Cross-Site Scripting (XSS), and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS).
Security measures protect against these threats.
4. Maintaining Application Integrity: Endpoint security ensures that only valid and
trusted requests are processed, preventing tampering or corruption of the
application’s functionality.
5. Compliance with Regulations: Many industries require stringent data protection
measures (e.g., GDPR, HIPAA). Securing endpoints is essential for compliance.
6. Building User Trust: A secure application fosters user confidence by demonstrating
a commitment to protecting their data and privacy.
Endpoint security employs practices like authentication, authorization, input validation,
HTTPS, rate limiting, and token-based mechanisms to ensure robust protection and reliable
communication between clients and servers.
3.2 Vulnerabilities
1. SQL Injection: SQL injection is a vulnerability where an attacker manipulates SQL
queries by injecting malicious input into application fields that interact with a
database.

Impact: Attackers can gain unauthorized access to sensitive data, modify or delete
records, and compromise the database.

Example: A login form that executes:

SELECT * FROM users WHERE username = 'user' AND password = 'pass';
If the input user' OR '1'='1 is used, the query becomes:

SELECT * FROM users WHERE username = 'user' OR '1'='1'; this always returns
true, allowing unauthorized access.

Prevention: Use prepared statements, parameterized queries, and input validation.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 7

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
2. Cross-Site Scripting (XSS): XSS occurs when an attacker injects malicious scripts
into a web page, which are then executed in the user’s browser.

Impact: Can lead to data theft, session hijacking, or malware distribution.

Example: A comment field that accepts and displays

<script>alert('Hacked!')</script> can execute this script in a user's browser.

Prevention: Escape or sanitize user input, implement Content Security Policies

(CSP), and validate input data.

3. Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF): CSRF is a vulnerability where an attacker

tricks a user into performing unwanted actions on a trusted website.

Impact: Attackers can perform unauthorized actions like changing passwords or

transferring funds using the user's authenticated session.

Example: A malicious link like:

<img src="https://bank.com/transfer?amount=1000&to=attacker">
When clicked, it sends the request using the user's credentials.

Prevention: Use anti-CSRF tokens, validate the origin of requests, and implement
SameSite cookies.
3.3 Authentication Tokens
Authentication tokens are secure digital representations used to verify a user's identity and grant
access to protected resources in web applications. They are commonly used in stateless
authentication, allowing servers to validate users without storing session data.
How Authentication Tokens Work:
1. User Login: The user provides credentials (e.g., username and password).
2. Token Generation: If valid, the server generates a token (e.g., a JSON Web Token
or JWT) containing user details and permissions.
3. Token Storage: The client stores the token (in local storage, cookies, or memory)
and includes it in subsequent requests (usually in an Authorization header).
4. Token Validation: The server validates the token before processing the request.
Features of Authentication Tokens:
 Compact and Portable: Can be easily transmitted between client and server.
 Secure: Often encrypted or signed to prevent tampering.
 Stateless: Allows servers to avoid storing session data, improving scalability.
3.4 Various Authentication Token Types and Their Uses
Authentication tokens come in different forms, each designed for specific use cases in web and
API security. Below are the main types of authentication tokens and their applications:
1. JSON Web Token (JWT)

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 8

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
Description: A compact, self-contained token format that encodes claims about the
user and is signed for integrity.

Structure: Consists of three parts: Header, Payload (user data), and Signature.

How It's Used:

 The client includes the token in the Authorization header of requests:
Authorization: Bearer <JWT>
 The server validates the token to authenticate and authorize requests.

Use Cases:
 Stateless authentication in APIs and SPAs.
 User login and session management.
 Secure data exchange between services.

2. OAuth Tokens (Access Tokens and Refresh Tokens)

Description: Used in the OAuth 2.0 framework for delegated access. Access tokens
grant temporary access to resources, while refresh tokens are used to obtain new
access tokens.

How they’re used:

 Access Tokens: Sent with each request to protected resources.
 Refresh Tokens: Sent to the authorization server to get new access tokens
without re-authenticating.
Use Cases:
 Third-party app integrations (e.g., logging in with Google).
 Token-based access to APIs.

3. Bearer Tokens

Description: Simple tokens that indicate the bearer has access rights. Commonly
used as part of OAuth.

How It's Used:

 Sent in the Authorization header:
 Authorization: Bearer <token>
Use Cases:
 API authentication and authorization.
 Temporary access to protected resources.

4. Session Tokens

Description: Tokens generated during user login that map to a session stored on the
server.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 9

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
How It's Used:
 Sent as a cookie or in request headers to maintain session continuity.
Use Cases:
 Traditional web applications with server-side session management.

5. CSRF Tokens (Anti-CSRF Tokens)

Description: Tokens used to protect against Cross-Site Request Forgery attacks by

verifying the authenticity of requests.

How It's Used:

 Embedded in forms or headers and validated by the server for each sensitive
operation.
Use Cases:
 Securing forms and state-changing actions.

6. API Keys

Description: Unique identifiers assigned to clients for accessing APIs.

How It's Used:

 Sent in request headers, query parameters, or as part of the payload.
Use Cases:
 Authenticating and rate-limiting API clients.

7. HMAC (Hash-Based Message Authentication Code) Tokens

Description: Tokens that include a cryptographic hash to verify the authenticity and
integrity of the request.

How It's Used:

 A client signs a message with a shared secret key and includes it in the
request.
 The server verifies the signature before processing the request.
Use Cases:
 Secure API communication.

8. SAML Tokens (Security Assertion Markup Language)

Description: XML-based tokens used for Single Sign-On (SSO) to exchange

authentication and authorization data.

How It's Used:

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 10

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
 Exchanged between an identity provider (IdP) and a service provider (SP)
during login.

Use Cases:
 Enterprise-level SSO and federated authentication.

9. OpenID Connect (OIDC) ID Tokens

Description: Tokens issued in the OIDC framework to verify a user's identity.

How It's Used:

 Sent along with access tokens to authenticate the user.
Use Cases:
 User authentication in distributed and federated systems.
Summary of Uses
 JWT: Stateless authentication for APIs and SPAs.
 OAuth Tokens: Delegated access for third-party applications.
 Bearer Tokens: Simple and widely used for API authentication.
 Session Tokens: Stateful session management in traditional apps.
 CSRF Tokens: Preventing CSRF attacks.
 API Keys: Identifying and authenticating API clients.
 HMAC Tokens: Verifying message authenticity in secure APIs.
 SAML Tokens: Federated authentication and enterprise SSO.
 OIDC ID Tokens: User authentication in modern distributed systems.
Each token type serves specific security and authentication needs, making them critical
components of secure web and API development.
3.5 Authorization and Its Benefits in Securing a Web Application
Authorization is the process of determining what actions or resources a user is permitted to
access after their identity has been authenticated. It controls access levels and permissions,
ensuring users can only perform actions or view data they are explicitly allowed to access. For
example, while a user may be authenticated to a system, authorization ensures that only
administrators can access sensitive settings or modify user roles.
How Authorization Works
 Role-Based Access Control (RBAC): Permissions are assigned based on roles, such as
"Admin," "Editor," or "Viewer."
 Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC): Access is granted based on user attributes,
such as location, department, or clearance level.
 Policy-Based Access Control: Complex rules define who can access what, based on
multiple conditions.
Benefits of Authorization in Securing a Web Application

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 11

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
 Restricts Unauthorized Access: Ensures users can only access resources and perform
actions they are explicitly permitted to, reducing the risk of data breaches or misuse.
 Enhances Data Privacy: Protects sensitive data by limiting access to authorized users,
ensuring compliance with privacy regulations like GDPR or HIPAA.
 Prevents Insider Threats: Even authenticated users within an organization cannot access
data or resources beyond their designated roles.
 Granular Control: Allows fine-grained control over access permissions, tailoring them
to specific needs and scenarios.
 Improves System Integrity: Prevents unauthorized actions that could compromise the
system’s functionality or data integrity.
 Supports Compliance Requirements: Authorization mechanisms help meet regulatory
and security standards by enforcing access controls and maintaining audit trails.
By implementing robust authorization mechanisms, web applications ensure that sensitive
resources are safeguarded, and user actions are restricted based on predefined roles, policies,
or conditions. This not only enhances security but also builds trust among users.
3.6 Roles and Permissions in Authorization
Roles and permissions are foundational concepts in authorization systems, defining how access
to resources and actions is managed within a web application. They ensure that users can only
perform actions or access data relevant to their role within the system.
3.6.1 Roles
A role is a predefined category or grouping assigned to a user that determines their level of
access and responsibilities within the system. Roles often reflect organizational or functional
responsibilities.
Examples of Roles:
 Admin: Has full access to all features and resources, including user management and
configuration settings.
 Editor: Can create, update, and delete content but cannot manage users or settings.
 Viewer: Can only view content without making changes.
Role Hierarchies: Roles can sometimes follow a hierarchy where higher roles inherit the
permissions of lower roles. For instance, an "Admin" role might encompass "Editor" and
"Viewer" permissions.
3.6.2 Permissions
Permissions define the specific actions a user or role can perform within the application. They
are finer-grained than roles and are directly tied to system functionalities.
Examples of Permissions:
 Create: Permission to add new resources or data.
 Read: Permission to view resources or data.
 Update: Permission to modify existing resources or data.
 Delete: Permission to remove resources or data.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 12

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
Permission Assignment: Permissions can be assigned directly to users or, more commonly, to
roles. This allows for easier management and scalability as roles encompass a set of
permissions.
How Roles and Permissions Work Together
 Role-Based Access Control (RBAC): Permissions are grouped into roles. Users are
assigned roles, inheriting the permissions associated with those roles.

Example: An "Editor" role may include permissions to "Create," "Read," and "Update"
content.

 Granular Authorization: Permissions enable fine-grained control, while roles provide

an abstract grouping mechanism for easier management.

Example: A "Support Agent" role may have "Read" access to user tickets but not
"Delete" access.
Benefits of Using Roles and Permissions
 Simplified Access Management: Assigning roles to users instead of individual
permissions reduces administrative overhead.
 Scalability: Roles and permissions allow for flexible scaling in large systems with
multiple users and access levels.
 Enhanced Security: Limits access to sensitive data and actions, ensuring users can only
perform tasks relevant to their role.
 Compliance and Auditability: Clear definitions of roles and permissions make it easier
to enforce policies and maintain audit trails.
By leveraging roles and permissions effectively, authorization systems provide secure,
manageable, and scalable access control tailored to organizational needs.
3.7 Middleware and Its Uses in Request Handling
Middleware is software or code that sits between the client and the server's core application
logic, processing incoming requests and outgoing responses. It acts as a series of filters or steps
that each request passes through before reaching its destination. Middleware is widely used in
web application frameworks, such as Express.js in Node.js, Django, or Flask, to handle
repetitive tasks, enforce security policies, or modify request/response data.
3.7.1 Nature of Middleware: Onion-Like Layers of Protection
Middleware is often conceptualized as an onion-like layered structure, where:
 Each layer (middleware function) handles a specific concern (e.g., authentication,
logging, or data parsing).
 Requests must pass through multiple layers sequentially before reaching the application
logic.
 Responses traverse back through the layers, allowing additional processing or
modification.
This structure ensures modularity and separation of concerns, making the application easier to
manage and secure.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 13

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
3.7.2 Uses of Middleware in Request Handling
 Authentication and Authorization: Middleware verifies user credentials (e.g., tokens or
cookies) and ensures only authorized users can access specific resources.
Example: Checking for a valid JSON Web Token (JWT) in the Authorization header.

 Logging and Monitoring: Middleware logs request details (e.g., IP address, endpoint
accessed, and response time) for debugging and monitoring purposes.
Example: Middleware that tracks API usage patterns.

 Data Parsing and Validation: Middleware parses incoming request bodies (e.g., JSON,
form data) and validates them to ensure they meet the expected format.
Example: A middleware that rejects requests with missing or invalid fields in the
payload.

 Security Enhancements: Middleware protects against attacks like Cross-Site Scripting

(XSS), SQL Injection, and Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF).
Example: Middleware enforcing HTTPS or validating CSRF tokens.

 Rate Limiting and Throttling: Middleware prevents abuse by limiting the number of
requests a user or client can make in a given time frame.
Example: Throttling requests to 100 per minute per user.

 Compression and Optimization: Middleware can compress responses (e.g., GZIP) or

optimize data for faster transmission.
Example: Middleware compressing JSON responses for better performance.

 Error Handling: Middleware catches errors during request processing and provides
consistent error responses to clients.
Example: Returning a 500 Internal Server Error with a standardized error message.
3.7.3 Advantages of Middleware
1) Modularity: Each middleware function focuses on a specific task, making it easy to
modify or replace individual layers.
2) Reusability: Middleware can be reused across multiple routes or applications, reducing
redundancy.
3) Centralized Control: Common functionalities like logging and security checks are
handled in a single place, improving maintainability.
4) Scalability: Middleware layers can be added or adjusted as the application grows.
Middleware, with its layered nature, ensures that each request undergoes multiple stages of
processing and validation before reaching the application logic. This modular approach
enhances security, performance, and maintainability, making middleware a critical component
in modern web application development.
4.0 CONNECTION TO DATABASE AND HANDLE RESULT SETS IN PARAGRAPH.
Connecting to a database and handling result sets are essential steps in building dynamic web
applications that rely on data storage and retrieval. A database connection establishes
communication between an application and a database management system (DBMS), enabling

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 14

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
the application to perform operations like querying, inserting, updating, or deleting data. Result
sets are the structured data returned from database queries, often presented as rows and
columns. Efficiently managing these result sets—through parsing, filtering, or transforming
data—ensures the application delivers relevant and accurate information to users. This process
involves using database drivers, libraries, or Object-Relational Mapping (ORM) tools to
simplify and streamline interactions with the database, ensuring seamless integration and
optimized performance.
4.1 Database Connection
A database connection is the process of establishing a communication link between an
application and a database to perform operations such as querying, inserting, updating, or
deleting data. This connection acts as a bridge that allows the application to interact with the
database management system (DBMS) securely and efficiently.
How Database Connections Work
1. Connection Parameters: To connect to a database, specific parameters are required:
a. Hostname: The address of the database server (e.g., localhost or an IP address).
b. Port: The port number the database server listens on (e.g., 5432 for PostgreSQL,
3306 for MySQL).
c. Database Name: The specific database to connect to within the DBMS.
d. Credentials: A username and password to authenticate the application to the
database.
2. Connection String: These parameters are often combined into a connection string, a
formatted URL-like string that the application uses to connect.
Example (PostgreSQL): postgresql://username:password@hostname:port/database_name
3. Database Drivers: Drivers are software components that enable communication
between the application and the database. Examples include:
a. JDBC (Java Database Connectivity) for Java applications.
b. ODBC (Open Database Connectivity) for various platforms.
c. Native drivers for specific languages (e.g., psycopg2 for Python, Sequelize for
Node.js).
4. Connection Lifecycle:
a. Opening a Connection: The application initiates a connection using the
specified parameters.
b. Performing Queries: SQL queries are executed via the connection.
c. Closing the Connection: After operations are completed, the connection is
closed to free resources.
4.1.1 Types of Database Connections
 Persistent Connection: A single connection is maintained throughout the application's
lifecycle. Commonly used in long-running server applications.
 Pooled Connection: Multiple connections are managed in a pool, and applications
borrow connections as needed. Enhances performance by reducing connection
overhead.
 On-Demand Connection: A new connection is opened for each operation and closed
immediately after. Simple but less efficient for frequent queries.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 15

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
4.1.2 Best Practices for Database Connections
 Use Connection Pooling: Reduces the overhead of opening and closing connections by
reusing existing ones.
 Secure Credentials: Store credentials securely, such as in environment variables or
secure vaults, to prevent unauthorized access.
 Set Timeouts: Configure timeouts to close idle connections and prevent resource
exhaustion.
 Handle Errors Gracefully: Implement error handling to manage connection failures and
ensure application stability.
 Close Connections Properly: Always close connections after use to free resources and
avoid memory leaks.
4.1.3 Importance of Database Connections
a. Data Access: Enables the application to interact with and manipulate stored data.
b. Performance: Optimized connections ensure fast and reliable data access.
c. Scalability: Efficient connection management supports high-traffic applications.
d. Security: Secure connections protect sensitive data during transmission.
A well-implemented database connection is a cornerstone of any data-driven application,
ensuring efficient, secure, and reliable interactions with the database.
4.2 Connection Strings and Connection Parameters
A connection string is a specially formatted string used by applications to establish a connection
to a database. It contains essential connection parameters required for the database server to
authenticate the client and provide access to the specified database. Connection strings simplify
database connections by encapsulating all necessary details into a single line of code or
configuration.
4.2.1 Connection Parameters
These are key elements included in a connection string to define how the application connects
to the database. Common parameters include:
1. Database Host (Hostname): Specifies the location of the database server.
Example: localhost (for local servers) or 192.168.1.100 (for remote servers).

2. Port: The port number on which the database server is listening for connections.
Example: 5432 for PostgreSQL, 3306 for MySQL.

3. Database Name: The name of the database to which the application should connect.
Example: my_database.

4. Username and Password: Credentials to authenticate the application to the database.

Example: user=admin, password=securepass.

5. Driver or Provider: Specifies the database driver or provider the application should use.
Example: Driver= {SQL Server} for ODBC, or Provider= SQLOLEDB for OLE DB.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 16

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
6. Additional Options: Other configurations like connection pooling, SSL, or timeout
settings.
Example: sslmode= require for enabling encrypted connections in PostgreSQL.
4.2.2 Structure of a Connection String
Connection strings vary depending on the database type, driver, or framework being used.
Below are examples:
a. PostgreSQL: postgresql://username:password@hostname:port/database_name
Example: postgresql://admin:securepass@localhost:5432/my_database

b. MySQL: mysql://username:password@hostname:port/database_name
Example: mysql://root:[email protected]:3306/sample_db

c. SQL Server (ODBC): Driver={SQLServer};Server=

hostname,port;Database=database_name;Uid=username;Pwd=password;
Example: Driver={SQL Server};Server=
localhost,1433;Database=test_db;Uid=sa;Pwd=admin123;

d. MongoDB: mongodb://username:password@hostname:port/database_name
Example: mongodb://user1:[email protected]:27017/testdb
4.2.3 Use of Connection Strings in Applications
a) Configuration Files: To improve security and maintainability, connection strings are
often stored in configuration files or environment variables.

Example (Environment Variable):

DATABASE_URL=postgresql://admin:securepass@localhost:5432/my_database

Usage in Code:

import os
db_url = os.getenv("DATABASE_URL")

b) Dynamic Connections: Applications can use dynamic connection strings to connect to

different databases based on the environment (e.g., development, testing, production).
4.2.4 Benefits of Connection Strings
 Centralized Configuration: All connection details are encapsulated in one place.
 Simplified Management: Easier to modify database connection settings without
changing code.
 Flexibility: Supports dynamic and secure connections via environment variables or
configuration files.
Connection strings, along with their parameters, form the backbone of database connectivity
in applications, enabling seamless and secure communication between the client and the
database.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 17

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
4.3 Various Database Connection Methods
Database connection methods refer to the different approaches or tools used to establish a
connection between an application and a database. Each method provides unique features,
syntax, and benefits tailored to specific use cases. Below are explanations of popular
connection methods:
1. PHP Data Objects (PDO): PDO is a database access layer in PHP that provides a
consistent interface for working with various databases.
Features of PDO:
 Database-Independent: Works with multiple database systems (MySQL,
PostgreSQL, SQLite, etc.) using the same syntax.
 Prepared Statements: Helps prevent SQL injection attacks by using parameterized
queries.
 Error Handling: Provides robust error handling with exceptions.
 Flexibility: Supports transactions and advanced database features.
Example Code (MySQL with PDO):
try {
$pdo = new PDO("mysql:host=localhost;dbname=test_db", "root", "password");
$pdo->setAttribute(PDO::ATTR_ERRMODE, PDO::ERRMODE_EXCEPTION);
echo "Connected successfully!";
} catch (PDOException $e) {
echo "Connection failed: " . $e->getMessage();
}

2. MySQLi (MySQL Improved Extension): MySQLi is a PHP extension designed

specifically for interacting with MySQL databases. It offers both procedural and object-
oriented interfaces.
Features of MySQLi:
 Specific to MySQL: Works only with MySQL databases.
 Supports Prepared Statements: Reduces risks of SQL injection.
 Flexibility: Provides procedural and object-oriented styles.
 Ease of Use: Straightforward syntax for MySQL connections.
Example Code (Object-Oriented):
$mysqli = new mysqli("localhost", "root", "password", "test_db");
if ($mysqli->connect_error) {
die("Connection failed: " . $mysqli->connect_error);
}
echo "Connected successfully!";
Example Code (Procedural):
$conn = mysqli_connect("localhost", "root", "password", "test_db");
if (!$conn) {
die("Connection failed: " . mysqli_connect_error());
}

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 18

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
echo "Connected successfully!";

3. Python with psycopg2 (PostgreSQL): psycopg2 is a PostgreSQL adapter for Python,

providing powerful tools for database connectivity.

Features of psycopg2:
 Specific to PostgreSQL: Tailored for PostgreSQL databases.
 Advanced Features: Supports transactions and server-side cursors.
 Parameterization: Reduces SQL injection risks.
Example Code:
import psycopg2
try:
conn = psycopg2.connect(
dbname="test_db",
user="postgres",
password="password",
host="localhost",
port="5432"
)
print("Connected successfully!")
except Exception as e:
print("Connection failed:", e)
finally:
if conn:
conn.close()

4. Java with JDBC (Java Database Connectivity): JDBC is a Java-based API for
connecting to and interacting with databases.

Features of JDBC:
 Database Independence: Supports various databases with specific drivers.
 Extensive Functionality: Provides full access to database operations.
 Error Handling: Robust mechanisms for handling exceptions.
Example Code (MySQL):
import java.sql.Connection;
import java.sql.DriverManager;
import java.sql.SQLException;

public class DatabaseConnection {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String url = "jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/test_db";
String user = "root";
String password = "password";

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 19

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
try (Connection conn = DriverManager.getConnection(url, user,
password)) {
System.out.println("Connected successfully!");
} catch (SQLException e) {
System.out.println("Connection failed: " + e.getMessage());
}
}
}

Each method has its strengths and is suited to specific programming languages, database types,
and application architectures. Selecting the right method ensures efficient, secure, and
maintainable database connectivity.
4.4 Execute Basic Queries on a Database and Retrieve Data into a Result Set
Executing basic queries on a database and retrieving data involves the following steps:
1. Establishing a connection to the database.
2. Executing SQL queries to interact with the database.
3. Storing and processing the results in a result set variable.
Below are examples in various programming languages to demonstrate this process.
 PHP (Using PDO)
Example: Retrieve all rows from a table named users.
try {
// Connect to the database
$pdo = new PDO("mysql:host=localhost;dbname=test_db", "root", "password");
$pdo->setAttribute(PDO::ATTR_ERRMODE, PDO::ERRMODE_EXCEPTION);

// Prepare and execute the query

$stmt = $pdo->query("SELECT * FROM users");

// Fetch the result set into an array

$resultSet = $stmt->fetchAll(PDO::FETCH_ASSOC);

// Display the data

foreach ($resultSet as $row) {
echo "ID: " . $row['id'] . " | Name: " . $row['name'] . "\n";
}
} catch (PDOException $e) {
echo "Error: " . $e->getMessage();
}

 Python (Using psycopg2)

Example: Fetching rows from a PostgreSQL database table called products.
import psycopg2

try:

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 20

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
# Connect to the database
conn = psycopg2.connect(
dbname="test_db",
user="postgres",
password="password",
host="localhost",
port="5432"
)
cursor = conn.cursor()

# Execute the query

cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM products")

# Fetch the result set

result_set = cursor.fetchall()

# Display the results

for row in result_set:
print(f"ID: {row[0]}, Name: {row[1]}, Price: {row[2]}")

except Exception as e:
print(f"Error: {e}")
finally:
if conn:
cursor.close()
conn.close()

 Java (Using JDBC)

Example: Fetching data from a student’s table.
import java.sql.*;

public class DatabaseQuery {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String url = "jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/test_db";
String user = "root";
String password = "password";

try (Connection conn = DriverManager.getConnection(url, user, password);

Statement stmt = conn.createStatement();
ResultSet resultSet = stmt.executeQuery("SELECT * FROM students")) {

while (resultSet.next()) {
int id = resultSet.getInt("id");
String name = resultSet.getString("name");
System.out.println("ID: " + id + ", Name: " + name);
}
} catch (SQLException e) {

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 21

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
System.out.println("Error: " + e.getMessage());
}
}
}

4.4.1 Common Steps Across Methods

 Connection: Establish a connection to the database using the appropriate driver or
library.
 SQL Query Execution: Write and execute SQL commands such as SELECT, INSERT,
UPDATE, or DELETE.
 Result Set: Store the data returned by the query in a result set variable for further
processing.
 Iterate and Display: Loop through the result set to display or use the data in the
application.
 Close Connection: Always close the connection to release resources.
By following these steps and using the appropriate connection method, applications can
efficiently interact with databases and manage result sets.
4.5 Traversal through the Result Set Using Loops in PHP
In PHP, traversal through a result set involves fetching data returned by a query execution and
processing each row using loops. Traversal is essential when you need to access or display
multiple records stored in a database table.
4.5.1 Steps for Traversal through the Result Set
 Connect to the Database: Establish a connection using PDO or MySQLi.
 Execute a Query: Use SQL commands like SELECT to fetch data.
 Fetch Results: Retrieve the rows from the result set using methods like fetch() or
fetchAll().
 Traverse Using Loops: Use loops like foreach or while to iterate through the result set.
Traversal Using PDO
Example Code:
try {
// Step 1: Connect to the database
$pdo = new PDO("mysql:host=localhost;dbname=test_db", "root", "password");
$pdo->setAttribute(PDO::ATTR_ERRMODE, PDO::ERRMODE_EXCEPTION);

// Step 2: Execute the query

$query = "SELECT id, name, email FROM users";
$stmt = $pdo->query($query);

// Step 3: Traverse the result set using a loop

while ($row = $stmt->fetch(PDO::FETCH_ASSOC)) {
echo "ID: " . $row['id'] . ", Name: " . $row['name'] . ", Email: " . $row['email'] .
"<br>";

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 22

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
}

} catch (PDOException $e) {

echo "Error: " . $e->getMessage();
}

Explanation:
 fetch(PDO::FETCH_ASSOC): Fetches one row at a time as an associative array.
 while Loop: Iterates through each row until no more rows are left.
 Output: Data from each row is displayed.
Traversal Using MySQLi
Example Code (Object-Oriented):
// Step 1: Connect to the database
$mysqli = new mysqli("localhost", "root", "password", "test_db");

if ($mysqli->connect_error) {
die("Connection failed: " . $mysqli->connect_error);
}

// Step 2: Execute the query

$query = "SELECT id, name, email FROM users";
$result = $mysqli->query($query);

// Step 3: Traverse the result set using a loop

if ($result->num_rows > 0) {
while ($row = $result->fetch_assoc()) {
echo "ID: " . $row['id'] . ", Name: " . $row['name'] . ", Email: " . $row['email'] .
"<br>";
}
} else {
echo "No records found.";
}

// Step 4: Close the connection

$mysqli->close();

Explanation:
 fetch_assoc(): Fetches one row as an associative array.
 while Loop: Iterates through rows while data is available.
 Condition num_rows > 0: Ensures the query returns records before looping.
Example Code (Procedural):
// Step 1: Connect to the database
$conn = mysqli_connect("localhost", "root", "password", "test_db");

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 23

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
if (!$conn) {
die("Connection failed: " . mysqli_connect_error());
}

// Step 2: Execute the query

$query = "SELECT id, name, email FROM users";
$result = mysqli_query($conn, $query);

// Step 3: Traverse the result set using a loop

if (mysqli_num_rows($result) > 0) {
while ($row = mysqli_fetch_assoc($result)) {
echo "ID: " . $row['id'] . ", Name: " . $row['name'] . ", Email: " . $row['email'] .
"<br>";
}
} else {
echo "No records found.";
}

// Step 4: Close the connection

mysqli_close($conn);

Key Points About Traversal

1. Fetching Methods:
o fetch() (PDO): Fetches one row at a time.
o fetchAll() (PDO): Fetches all rows at once.
o fetch_assoc() (MySQLi): Fetches rows as associative arrays.
2. Loop Types:
o while Loop: Ideal for fetching rows one by one.
o foreach Loop: Used when all rows are fetched into an array (e.g., using
fetchAll()).
3. Error Handling: Always handle errors gracefully to ensure robustness.
By iterating through the result set, developers can dynamically process and display database
records, making it a fundamental concept in database programming.
5.0 Introduction to Consuming APIs with cURL Requests
Consuming APIs involves sending requests to external or third-party APIs to retrieve or interact
with data and services they offer. cURL, a command-line tool and library, is widely used for
making HTTP requests to APIs from an application. It supports various protocols such as
HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, and more. By using cURL in programming languages like PHP,
developers can send GET, POST, PUT, DELETE, or other types of requests to access API
resources. This process is crucial in building applications that integrate with services like
payment gateways, weather updates, or social media platforms.
5.1 Explaining cURL in PHP
cURL (Client URL) is a PHP library used to make HTTP requests to interact with external APIs
or services. It allows your application to send and receive data over various protocols like

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 24

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, and others. With cURL, you can fetch resources, post data, or update
records on external servers, making it a versatile tool for backend operations.
How cURL Works in PHP
 Initialize cURL: Create a cURL handle using curl_init().
 Set Options: Configure the request using curl_setopt(). This includes specifying the
URL, request method (GET, POST, etc.), headers, and data payload.
 Execute the Request: Send the request using curl_exec().
 Handle the Response: Capture and process the response returned by the external API.
 Close cURL: Use curl_close() to release system resources.
5.1.1 Making External API Calls with cURL
Example: Fetching Weather Data from an API
// Step 1: Initialize cURL
$curl = curl_init();

// Step 2: Set cURL options

$url =
"https://api.openweathermap.org/data/2.5/weather?q=London&appid=your_api_key
";
curl_setopt($curl, CURLOPT_URL, $url);
curl_setopt($curl, CURLOPT_RETURNTRANSFER, true);

// Step 3: Execute the request and get the response

$response = curl_exec($curl);

// Step 4: Handle errors, if any

if (curl_errno($curl)) {
echo "cURL error: " . curl_error($curl);
} else {
// Step 5: Process the response (JSON to PHP array)
$data = json_decode($response, true);
echo "Weather in " . $data['name'] . ": " . $data['weather'][0]['description'];
}

// Step 6: Close cURL

curl_close($curl);

Explanation of the Example

 Initialize cURL: A session is created for the HTTP request.
 Set URL: Specifies the external API endpoint (https://api.openweathermap.org/...).
 Set CURLOPT_RETURNTRANSFER: Ensures the response is returned as a string
instead of being directly outputted.
 Execute Request: The HTTP request is sent, and the response is stored in $response.
 Process Response: The JSON response is decoded into a PHP array and processed
before being sent to the frontend.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 25

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
 Close Connection: Frees up resources used by the cURL session.
5.1.2 Common Use Cases for cURL in PHP
 Fetching Data: Pulling information like weather, stock prices, or news from APIs.
 Submitting Data: Sending form data or files to an API via POST requests.
 Updating Data: Making PUT or PATCH requests to modify existing records.
 Deleting Data: Removing records via DELETE requests.
5.1.3 Why Use cURL for API Calls?
 Asynchronous Communication: Fetch data in real time from APIs without reloading
pages.
 Centralized Data Processing: The backend retrieves, processes, and filters external API
data before passing it to the frontend, reducing client-side workload.
 Versatility: Support for a wide range of request methods, headers, and protocols.
 Error Handling: Provides detailed error messages for debugging.
Using cURL in PHP to consume APIs ensures seamless integration with external services,
making it a powerful tool for modern web development.
5.2 Making cURL Calls to Other Endpoints in a Web App
In a web application, cURL is commonly used to send HTTP requests to external or internal
endpoints to access or manipulate resources. This allows your application to interact with third-
party APIs, microservices, or other systems. Below is a step-by-step explanation of how to
make cURL calls to other endpoints in a web app.
Steps to Make cURL Calls
1. Initialize the cURL Session: Use curl_init() to start a new cURL session. This creates a
handle for configuring and executing the request.
2. Set the URL: Specify the endpoint URL to which the request will be sent using
CURLOPT_URL.
3. Configure cURL Options: Set additional options with curl_setopt(). These include:
a. Request Method: Specify GET, POST, PUT, or DELETE.
b. Headers: Pass authentication tokens, content types, or custom headers.
c. Data Payload: Include data for POST or PUT requests using
CURLOPT_POSTFIELDS.
4. Execute the cURL Request: Use curl_exec() to send the request and capture the
response.
5. Handle Errors: Check for errors using curl_errno() and curl_error().
6. Close the cURL Session: Release resources using curl_close().
Example: Making GET and POST cURL Calls
GET Request Example
Fetching a list of users from an external API.
// Initialize cURL
$curl = curl_init();

// Set cURL options

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 26

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
$url = "https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/users";
curl_setopt($curl, CURLOPT_URL, $url);
curl_setopt($curl, CURLOPT_RETURNTRANSFER, true);

// Execute the request

$response = curl_exec($curl);

// Handle errors
if (curl_errno($curl)) {
echo "Error: " . curl_error($curl);
} else {
// Decode and display the response
$data = json_decode($response, true);
foreach ($data as $user) {
echo "Name: " . $user['name'] . ", Email: " . $user['email'] . "<br>";
}
}

// Close the session

curl_close($curl);

POST Request Example

Submitting user data to an external API.
// Initialize cURL
$curl = curl_init();

// Set cURL options

$url = "https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/posts";
$data = json_encode([
"title" => "Sample Post",
"body" => "This is a test post.",
"userId" => 1,
]);

curl_setopt($curl, CURLOPT_URL, $url);

curl_setopt($curl, CURLOPT_POST, true);
curl_setopt($curl, CURLOPT_POSTFIELDS, $data);
curl_setopt($curl, CURLOPT_RETURNTRANSFER, true);
curl_setopt($curl, CURLOPT_HTTPHEADER, [
"Content-Type: application/json",
"Content-Length: " . strlen($data)
]);

// Execute the request

$response = curl_exec($curl);

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 27

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II

// Handle errors
if (curl_errno($curl)) {
echo "Error: " . curl_error($curl);
} else {
echo "Response: " . $response;
}

// Close the session

curl_close($curl);

cURL Options for Different Scenarios

Use Cases for cURL Calls
1. Fetching Data: Retrieve weather updates, stock prices, or user information from APIs.
2. Submitting Forms: Send form data securely to APIs for processing.
3. File Uploads: Send files like images or documents to remote servers.
4. Authentication: Interact with APIs using OAuth or other token-based mechanisms.
5. CRUD Operations: Perform create, read, update, and delete actions on external
resources.
Best Practices
1. Error Handling: Always check for and handle errors using curl_errno() and curl_error().
2. Secure Connections: Use HTTPS and validate SSL certificates to ensure secure
communication.
3. Timeouts: Set request timeouts using CURLOPT_TIMEOUT to prevent the app from
hanging indefinitely.
4. Debugging: Use CURLOPT_VERBOSE to enable detailed debugging information
during development.
Using cURL effectively allows your web application to consume external APIs seamlessly,
enabling integration with various services and enhancing functionality.
6.0 Comprehend Version Control and Its Benefits
Version control is a system that tracks and manages changes to code or files over time, enabling
developers to collaborate effectively, maintain a history of their work, and revert to previous
states when necessary. It is essential in software development to ensure teamwork, avoid
conflicts, and safeguard against data loss. Tools like Git allow teams to work on the same
project simultaneously, create branches for feature development, and merge changes
seamlessly. By comprehending version control, developers gain the ability to streamline
workflows, enhance collaboration, and maintain an organized and reliable codebase.
6.1 Understanding Version Control
Version control is a system that records and manages changes to files, code, or documents over
time, enabling multiple people to collaborate on the same project without conflicts. It maintains
a history of every modification, allowing developers to track changes, revert to previous
versions, and resolve discrepancies effectively. Popular version control tools include Git,
Mercurial, and SVN.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 28

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
6.1.1 Why Version Control Is Needed
1. Collaboration: Allows multiple team members to work simultaneously on different
parts of the project without overwriting each other's changes.
2. History Tracking: Keeps a complete record of every change made, along with details
like who made the changes and why.
3. Error Recovery: Enables reverting to earlier versions if bugs, errors, or issues arise in
the current state.
4. Branching and Merging: Facilitates the creation of isolated environments (branches)
for new features, experiments, or bug fixes and merging them back into the main
project.
5. Conflict Resolution: Helps identify and resolve code conflicts when multiple changes
are made to the same file.
6.1.2 Benefits of Version Control
1. Improved Collaboration:
a. Teams can work together efficiently, sharing updates and merging their work
seamlessly.
b. Reduces duplication and ensures everyone is working on the latest version.
2. Error Recovery and Debugging:
a. Tracks every change, making it easier to identify when and where an issue was
introduced.
b. Allows rolling back to previous versions to resolve problems.
3. Flexibility in Development:
a. Branching supports parallel development, enabling teams to experiment with
new features without affecting the main codebase.
b. Simplifies merging changes when features are complete.
4. Accountability:
a. Logs who made changes and why through commit messages, fostering
transparency and accountability.
5. Time Efficiency:
a. Resolves conflicts quickly and avoids repetitive work caused by accidental
overwrites.
b. Automates integration and deployment pipelines using version control tools like
GitHub Actions or GitLab CI/CD.
6. Safe Experimentation:
a. Encourages innovation by creating experimental branches without risking the
stability of the main project.
Version control is indispensable for modern software development. It ensures structured
collaboration, protects project integrity, and fosters efficient workflows. By adopting tools like
Git, teams can build, scale, and maintain projects with confidence and agility.
6.2 Understanding Git and Its Snapshot Method
Git is a distributed version control system (VCS) that allows developers to track and manage
changes to code, documents, and other files in a project. Unlike traditional version control
systems that store changes in a linear fashion, Git stores information in a snapshot method.
Each time a change is made and committed, Git takes a snapshot of the project's state at that
particular point in time. This snapshot includes all the files in the repository, and Git tracks the

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 29

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
changes made, making it easy to retrieve, compare, and revert to previous versions of the
project.
The snapshot approach ensures that Git operates efficiently, even for large projects, because it
only stores the difference (delta) between versions rather than duplicating entire files each time.
6.2.1 Basic Git Commands
1. git init
a. Initializes a new Git repository in a project folder.
b. Creates a .git directory to track changes. git init
2. git add
a. Adds files to the staging area, preparing them for the next commit.
b. You can add individual files or all files using . (dot).
c. git add file1.txt # Adds a specific file.
d. git add . # Adds all changes in the directory.
3. git commit
a. Records changes made to the repository.
b. Each commit captures a snapshot of the staged files.
c. A commit message is required to describe the changes.
d. git commit -m "Description of changes"
4. git push
a. Sends your local commits to a remote repository (e.g., GitHub, GitLab).
b. Updates the remote repository with your local changes.
c. git push origin main # Pushes the changes to the 'main' branch on the remote
repository.
5. git pull
a. Retrieves changes from a remote repository and merges them into your local
repository.
b. Ensures that you are working with the most up-to-date version.
c. git pull origin main # Pulls updates from the 'main' branch on the remote
repository.
6. git merge
a. Combines changes from different branches into a single branch.
b. After a git pull or git checkout, you can use git merge to incorporate changes
from another branch into your current working branch.
c. git merge feature-branch # Merges the 'feature-branch' into the current branch.
7. git status
a. Shows the status of changes in your working directory, indicating which files
are staged, modified, or untracked.
b. git status # Displays the status of the repository.
8. git log
a. Displays the commit history for the repository, listing all commits along with
their unique hash identifiers and commit messages.
b. git log # Shows the commit history.
9. git clone
a. Clones a remote repository to your local machine, creating a copy of the
repository to work with.
b. git clone https://github.com/username/repository.git # Clones the repository to
your local machine.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 30

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
6.2.2 How Git Tracks Changes and Stores Information
Git uses a combination of snapshots and references (such as branches) to track changes:
1. Snapshots:
a. Every time you commit changes, Git stores a snapshot of your files at that
particular point in time.
b. Git doesn’t store the entire file each time. Instead, it saves the differences or
deltas between the current and previous versions, making the process efficient.
2. Commits:
a. Each commit contains information about the changes (e.g., added, modified, or
deleted files) and is associated with a unique commit ID (hash).
b. Git stores commits in a linked list called a commit history that allows you to
trace the evolution of your project over time.
3. Branches:
a. Git uses branches to allow concurrent development. Each branch has its own
history of snapshots, allowing isolated development for new features or bug
fixes.
b. Branches help keep the project organized and ensure that one developer’s
changes do not affect the work of others until they're merged.
4. Merging Changes:
a. When a developer completes a feature or fix in a branch, they can use the git
merge command to integrate changes into the main branch.
b. Git automatically merges changes if they do not conflict, and when conflicts
arise, Git prompts the user to resolve them manually.
6.2.3 Benefits of Git’s Snapshot Method
 Efficient Storage: Git stores only the differences between file versions, rather than
duplicating entire files, saving disk space.
 History Tracking: Every commit records a snapshot of the project, enabling you to track
and revert changes easily.
 Branching and Parallel Development: Multiple developers can work in parallel on
different features or fixes without interfering with each other.
 Collaboration: Git allows teams to collaborate efficiently by merging changes,
resolving conflicts, and ensuring all team members are working with the latest version.
 Reverting Changes: If a mistake is made, you can revert to a previous snapshot or
commit, ensuring that critical bugs or issues can be undone.
Git is a powerful tool that simplifies version control by using snapshots to track and store
changes at various points in time. It enhances collaboration, simplifies error tracking, and
enables parallel development, making it an essential tool for modern software development.
Basic Git commands like add, commit, push, pull, and merge are the foundation for managing
your project's history and collaborating with others efficiently.
6.3 Description of GitHub, Bitbucket, and Other Remote Repositories
Remote repositories are versions of a project that are hosted on the internet or a network,
allowing developers to access and collaborate on the project from different locations. These
repositories work in conjunction with Git, which is a distributed version control system,
enabling developers to sync their local repositories with a shared remote one. Two popular

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 31

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
remote repository platforms are GitHub and Bitbucket, but other alternatives also provide
similar features for hosting Git repositories.
6.3.1 GitHub
GitHub is the most popular and widely-used platform for hosting Git repositories. It was
originally created for open-source projects but has evolved into a hub for both open and private
repositories.
Key Features:
 Public and Private Repositories: GitHub allows developers to host both public
repositories (free to the public) and private repositories (restricted access).
 Collaboration: GitHub simplifies collaboration with features like pull requests, code
reviews, and issue tracking.
 CI/CD Integration: GitHub Actions enables Continuous Integration/Continuous
Deployment (CI/CD) workflows directly within GitHub.
 GitHub Pages: Developers can host static websites directly from their GitHub
repositories.
 Community and Documentation: GitHub has a large, active community and provides a
platform for sharing knowledge and documentation.
Use Cases:
 Open-source projects: GitHub is widely used for open-source software development,
offering visibility and collaboration opportunities.
 Personal or Team Projects: Suitable for both small personal projects and large-scale
team-based software development.
Pricing:
 Free for public repositories.
 Offers paid plans for private repositories, team collaboration, and advanced features.
6.3.2 Bitbucket
Bitbucket is a Git repository management solution that integrates well with other Atlassian
products like Jira, Confluence, and Trello. While Bitbucket also supports Git, it is generally
preferred by teams who are already using Atlassian's suite of tools.
Key Features:
 Private Repositories: Unlike GitHub (which only allowed private repositories with a
paid plan), Bitbucket provides unlimited private repositories in its free plan.
 Integration with Atlassian Tools: Bitbucket seamlessly integrates with Jira (issue
tracking) and Trello (project management), making it ideal for teams that use these
tools.
 Pipelines for CI/CD: Bitbucket Pipelines allows teams to automate their deployment
process and integrate CI/CD directly into the repository.
 Branch Permissions: Bitbucket offers advanced branching permissions and workflows
to help manage access control in teams.
Use Cases:

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 32

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
 Private and Team Projects: Bitbucket is a popular choice for private repositories and for
teams using Atlassian tools for project management.
 Enterprise-level projects: With its focus on privacy, control, and integration, Bitbucket
is often used for enterprise-scale development.
Pricing:
 Free for small teams (up to 5 users).
 Offers paid plans for larger teams and advanced features like increased storage,
pipelines, and more.
6.3.3 GitLab
GitLab is an open-source Git repository management platform that offers integrated tools for
CI/CD, issue tracking, and project management. GitLab is known for its comprehensive
DevOps lifecycle support, from code management to deployment.
Key Features:
 Built-in CI/CD: GitLab offers powerful CI/CD pipelines to automate testing,
integration, and deployment.
 Self-hosting: GitLab can be self-hosted, providing complete control over your
infrastructure and data.
 Issue Tracking and Code Reviews: Built-in issue tracking, merge requests, and code
review functionality.
 Advanced Security Features: Includes vulnerability scanning, compliance features, and
permissions control.
Pricing:
 Free for public repositories and small teams.
 Paid plans available for advanced features, enterprise options, and premium support.
6.3.4 SourceForge
SourceForge is one of the older platforms for hosting open-source projects and is still widely
used for managing large projects.
Key Features:
 Open Source Project Hosting: Focuses on providing services for open-source projects,
including bug tracking, forums, and file management.
 Integration with Git: SourceForge has recently added Git support, allowing projects to
use Git for version control.
 Project Management Tools: Includes bug tracking, feature requests, and forums for
project collaboration.
Pricing:
 Free for open-source projects, with limited features for private repositories.
6.3.5 AWS CodeCommit

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 33

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
AWS CodeCommit is a fully managed source control service that hosts Git repositories on
AWS. It integrates well with other AWS services, making it a good choice for developers
already using Amazon Web Services.
Key Features:
 Scalability: Fully managed by AWS, so it scales as your team grows.
 Integration with AWS Services: Works seamlessly with AWS Lambda, CodePipeline,
and other AWS development tools.
 Private Repositories: Offers private repositories for enterprise-level security and access
control.
Pricing:
 Free tier available (with limits on data storage and access).
 Paid plans for larger repositories and teams.
6.3.6 Azure Repos
Azure Repos is part of the Azure DevOps suite by Microsoft and offers Git repositories for
source control. It integrates tightly with Azure DevOps' suite of tools like Azure Pipelines,
Boards, and Artifacts.
Key Features:
 Integration with Azure DevOps: Ideal for teams using other Azure DevOps tools like
Azure Pipelines for CI/CD.
 Branch Policies: Helps teams enforce best practices for code reviews, commit signing,
and code quality checks.
 Security: Tight integration with Azure Active Directory for user authentication and
access control.
Pricing:
 Free for public repositories and small teams.
 Paid plans available for larger organizations with more advanced needs.
Remote repositories like GitHub, Bitbucket, GitLab, and others provide a centralized platform
for version control, collaboration, and CI/CD automation. GitHub is the most popular choice
for open-source projects, while Bitbucket excels in enterprise settings with its integration into
Atlassian's suite of tools. GitLab is favored for its comprehensive DevOps lifecycle support,
and AWS CodeCommit and Azure Repos are ideal for teams using Amazon Web Services or
Microsoft Azure. These platforms enable efficient team collaboration, project management,
and secure handling of code across the development process.
7.0 Frameworks for Backend Development
Backend frameworks are pre-built collections of libraries and tools that streamline the
development of server-side applications by providing essential features like routing, database
management, authentication, and middleware integration. These frameworks help developers
avoid repetitive tasks, improve code organization, and ensure scalability, security, and
maintainability. The choice of a backend framework often depends on factors such as the
project's requirements, programming language, performance, and developer familiarity.
Popular backend frameworks include Express.js (for Node.js), Django (for Python), Ruby on

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 34

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
Rails (for Ruby), Laravel (for PHP), and Spring Boot (for Java), each offering unique features
suited to different development needs. Understanding and choosing the right framework can
significantly accelerate development, reduce errors, and enhance overall application
performance.
7.1 Exploring Popular Web Frameworks in Various Programming Languages
Web frameworks play a crucial role in simplifying backend development by offering pre-built
components for building dynamic web applications. Different programming languages have
their own preferred frameworks, each catering to specific needs and strengths. Let’s explore
some of the most popular frameworks across various programming languages:
1. Laravel (PHP): Laravel is one of the most popular PHP frameworks, known for its
elegant syntax and extensive set of features. It is designed to simplify common tasks in
web development such as routing, authentication, and session management.
Key Features:
 Eloquent ORM: A powerful object-relational mapper that makes working with
databases simple and intuitive.
 Blade Templating: A clean and easy-to-use templating engine that simplifies HTML
rendering.
 Artisan CLI: A command-line interface that helps automate common tasks like
migrations, testing, and more.
 Routing and Middleware: Laravel makes routing simple and supports middleware for
handling requests and responses.
 Security: Built-in protection against common security threats like SQL injection, cross-
site scripting (XSS), and cross-site request forgery (CSRF).
Use Cases:
 Small to large-scale applications: Ideal for building everything from simple websites to
complex enterprise applications.
 Rapid application development (RAD): With built-in features like authentication,
Laravel is great for quick prototyping.

2. Symfony (PHP): Symfony is another robust PHP framework that provides a reusable
set of components for building scalable, high-performance web applications. It is often
used as a base for other frameworks, such as Laravel.
Key Features:
 Modular and Reusable Components: Symfony is known for its reusable components
that can be integrated into any project, making it highly flexible.
 Twig Templating Engine: A secure and flexible templating system.
 Routing and Dependency Injection: Symfony’s powerful routing system and
dependency injection make application development highly maintainable and flexible.
 Built-in Debugging and Profiler: Helps track errors and optimize performance during
development.
Use Cases:

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 35

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
 Large and complex projects: Symfony is ideal for building large-scale, enterprise-level
applications, offering deep customization.
 Long-term projects: Its modularity and strong community support make it suitable for
projects that require ongoing development.

3. ASP.NET Core (C#): ASP.NET Core is a cross-platform, open-source framework for

building modern, scalable web applications using C#. It is part of the .NET ecosystem
and is known for its high performance, security, and flexibility.
Key Features:
 Cross-platform: Runs on Windows, macOS, and Linux, making it highly versatile for
different environments.
 High Performance: ASP.NET Core is known for its fast performance and is optimized
for modern, cloud-based applications.
 Built-in Dependency Injection: ASP.NET Core comes with built-in support for
dependency injection, improving the maintainability and testability of code.
 Middleware: Allows developers to build pipelines for handling HTTP requests, adding
features like logging, authentication, and authorization.
 MVC Architecture: Implements the Model-View-Controller (MVC) design pattern to
separate concerns and improve application structure.
Use Cases:
 Enterprise applications: ASP.NET Core is ideal for building high-performance
enterprise applications and services.
 Cloud-based applications: It’s well-suited for developing scalable cloud applications,
especially with integration into Azure.
Each web framework has its own strengths, and the choice of framework often depends on the
project requirements, the developer's familiarity with the language, and the specific use cases.
Laravel and Symfony are excellent choices for PHP developers, ASP.NET Core provides a
robust platform for C# developers, and Django is an excellent Python framework for rapid
application development. Frameworks like Express.js and Ruby on Rails cater to those who
prefer JavaScript and Ruby, respectively. Understanding the features and benefits of these
frameworks helps developers choose the best option based on their project needs.
8.0 Testing in Backend Development
Testing is a crucial aspect of backend development, ensuring that the application functions as
intended, remains secure, and performs optimally under various conditions. Backend testing
involves validating the server-side logic, database interactions, APIs, security measures, and
other critical components that support the application’s functionality. By implementing testing
methodologies like unit testing, integration testing, and end-to-end testing, developers can
catch bugs early, improve code quality, and enhance the maintainability of the application.
Proper backend testing not only helps in preventing regressions but also ensures that the system
is scalable, secure, and ready for production deployment. Testing frameworks like JUnit (Java),
PyTest (Python), Mocha (JavaScript), and RSpec (Ruby) provide tools for automated testing,
making it easier to run tests continuously and maintain code quality over time.
8.1 Explanation of Testing in Backend Development

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 36

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
Testing in backend development is the practice of verifying the functionality, performance, and
security of the server-side components of an application. Since the backend typically handles
tasks such as business logic, database interactions, authentication, and API services, ensuring
that these functions operate correctly is critical to the overall stability and success of an
application. Testing helps identify bugs, performance bottlenecks, and potential security
vulnerabilities early in the development process.
1mKey Types of Backend Testing:
1. Unit Testing:
a. Definition: Unit testing focuses on testing individual components or functions
in isolation to ensure they perform as expected. It helps identify issues with
specific methods or functions within a backend service.
b. Tools: Common tools for unit testing include JUnit (Java), PyTest (Python),
Mocha (Node.js), and RSpec (Ruby).
c. Example: Testing a function that calculates the total price of an order, given
various items and their prices.
2. Integration Testing:
a. Definition: Integration testing checks how different parts of the application
(such as APIs, database layers, and external services) work together. It ensures
that the various components of the system interact properly.
b. Tools: Postman, Supertest, and JUnit with integration test support are popular
for integration testing.
c. Example: Testing whether a user authentication API correctly integrates with
the database to validate user credentials.
3. API Testing:
a. Definition: This type of testing focuses on ensuring that backend APIs function
correctly by simulating requests and verifying responses. It checks the
correctness of routes, endpoints, and the handling of parameters, headers, and
authentication.
b. Tools: Postman, SoapUI, RestAssured, and Supertest are commonly used for
API testing.
c. Example: Testing a POST request to the /login endpoint to ensure it correctly
validates user credentials and returns an authentication token.
4. Functional Testing:
a. Definition: Functional testing ensures that the backend performs the required
operations as expected, including handling edge cases, returning the correct
responses, and managing data effectively.
b. Tools: Mocha, Chai, JUnit, and PyTest can be used for functional testing.
c. Example: Ensuring that a payment processing system correctly calculates totals,
applies discounts, and processes transactions.
5. Performance Testing:
a. Definition: Performance testing measures the responsiveness, scalability, and
stability of the backend under varying loads, such as handling multiple
simultaneous requests.
b. Tools: JMeter, LoadRunner, Gatling.
c. Example: Testing how well the backend handles thousands of concurrent user
requests, ensuring that it doesn't slow down or crash.
6. Security Testing:

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 37

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
a. Definition: Security testing identifies vulnerabilities that could be exploited by
attackers, such as SQL injection, Cross-Site Scripting (XSS), and Cross-Site
Request Forgery (CSRF).
b. Tools: OWASP ZAP, Burp Suite, and custom scripts.
c. Example: Testing for SQL injection vulnerabilities by sending malicious inputs
to the database query interface.
7. End-to-End (E2E) Testing:
a. Definition: End-to-end testing simulates real user interactions with the system,
including both the backend and frontend, to ensure that the entire application
works as a cohesive unit.
b. Tools: Selenium, Cypress, and TestCafe.
c. Example: Testing the process of creating an account, logging in, making a
purchase, and receiving a confirmation email.
8. Regression Testing:
a. Definition: Regression testing ensures that new changes or features do not break
existing functionality. It is performed after updates to verify that the backend
remains stable and that previously fixed issues do not reoccur.
b. Tools: Various testing frameworks (e.g., JUnit, PyTest) combined with
continuous integration tools.
c. Example: After a code update to the login system, regression testing checks that
the user authentication process still works as before.
8.1.1 Benefits of Backend Testing
 Error Detection: Helps find issues early in the development lifecycle, reducing
debugging time and cost.
 Code Quality: Improves code quality and ensures that the backend is robust, secure,
and scalable.
 System Stability: Validates the backend's ability to handle different scenarios, ensuring
reliable performance in production.
 Continuous Improvement: With automated testing, developers can quickly validate new
features and fixes, contributing to faster release cycles.
In conclusion, testing in backend development is essential for ensuring that server-side
components operate as expected, are secure, and can handle expected loads and edge cases.
With proper testing in place, developers can improve the reliability and performance of
backend systems while minimizing the risk of failures in production.
8.2 Types of Testing in Backend Development
Backend development involves various types of testing to ensure that the system is functional,
secure, and reliable. Below are the most common types of testing:
1. Unit Testing
a. Definition: Unit testing focuses on testing individual components or functions
in isolation, without dependencies on other parts of the application. It ensures
that each unit of code (typically a single function or method) behaves as
expected.
b. Purpose: To verify that each function or method in the backend logic produces
the correct output given a specific input.
c. Tools: JUnit, Mocha, PyTest, RSpec.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 38

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
d. Example: Testing a function that calculates the total price of items in a shopping
cart to ensure it sums correctly.
2. Integration Testing
a. Definition: Integration testing examines how different components or systems
work together. It tests the interaction between different modules, such as the
backend, APIs, and the database.
b. Purpose: To ensure that different parts of the system, such as databases, external
services, and internal components, integrate and work together smoothly.
c. Tools: JUnit, Postman, Supertest, PyTest.
d. Example: Testing an API endpoint that interacts with the database to ensure data
is correctly retrieved and displayed to the user.
3. API Testing
a. Definition: API testing ensures that the backend APIs return the correct
responses and behave as expected when receiving requests from the frontend or
other services.
b. Purpose: To verify that API endpoints handle HTTP methods, parameters,
headers, and return correct responses under different scenarios.
c. Tools: Postman, SoapUI, RestAssured, Supertest.
d. Example: Testing a POST request to a login endpoint to confirm that the correct
authentication token is returned upon successful login.
4. Functional Testing
a. Definition: Functional testing ensures that the backend application performs the
required functions correctly, including processing business logic and interacting
with other services.
b. Purpose: To verify that the backend executes specific tasks and business rules
as intended.
c. Tools: Mocha, PyTest, RSpec, JUnit.
d. Example: Verifying that the backend correctly handles user registration by
validating inputs, creating records in the database, and sending a confirmation
email.
5. Performance Testing
a. Definition: Performance testing assesses how the backend performs under
various loads and conditions, such as high traffic or heavy data processing.
b. Purpose: To determine how well the system can handle heavy usage, including
high numbers of concurrent users, large data volumes, and long-running
processes.
c. Tools: JMeter, LoadRunner, Gatling, Locust.
d. Example: Testing how well the backend handles a large number of users logging
in simultaneously or processing a large set of data in real-time.
6. Security Testing
a. Definition: Security testing identifies potential vulnerabilities in the backend
system that could be exploited by attackers. This type of testing ensures the
system is secure from threats such as unauthorized access, data breaches, and
injection attacks.
b. Purpose: To detect weaknesses and ensure the backend is protected against
common attacks like SQL injection, cross-site scripting (XSS), and cross-site
request forgery (CSRF).
c. Tools: OWASP ZAP, Burp Suite, Nessus.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 39

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
d. Example: Testing a login form for SQL injection vulnerabilities by trying to
inject malicious SQL queries.
7. End-to-End (E2E) Testing
a. Definition: End-to-end testing simulates real user interactions with the entire
application, including both the backend and frontend, to verify that the system
works as a whole.
b. Purpose: To ensure that the full application stack works as expected, from the
frontend interface down to the backend services and database.
c. Tools: Selenium, Cypress, TestCafe, Protractor.
d. Example: Testing the entire flow of a user registration process, from submitting
the registration form to receiving a confirmation email and logging into the
system.
8. Regression Testing
a. Definition: Regression testing ensures that new changes or features introduced
into the application have not unintentionally broken existing functionality.
b. Purpose: To ensure that previously developed features continue to work as
expected after updates, patches, or new features are added.
c. Tools: JUnit, PyTest, Mocha, Selenium (for automated browser testing).
d. Example: After fixing a bug in the user login functionality, regression testing
ensures that the password reset feature still works correctly.
9. Smoke Testing
a. Definition: Smoke testing is a basic form of testing that checks whether the core
functionalities of an application work after a new build or update. It is often
referred to as "sanity testing."
b. Purpose: To verify that the most critical features of the backend are working
before proceeding to more detailed testing.
c. Tools: Selenium, JUnit, PyTest.
d. Example: After deploying a new version of the API, smoke testing ensures that
essential endpoints like login, user creation, and data retrieval are functional.
10. User Acceptance Testing (UAT)
a. Definition: User Acceptance Testing is performed by the end users or clients to
ensure that the system meets their needs and expectations.
b. Purpose: To confirm that the backend fulfills business requirements and
provides the expected user experience.
c. Tools: Typically manual testing, though some automated tools like Selenium or
TestComplete can be used.
d. Example: Having users test a payment system to ensure it meets their workflow
and expectations.
11. Usability Testing
a. Definition: Usability testing focuses on evaluating the user interface and overall
user experience of the application. While traditionally associated with frontend
testing, usability testing can also be valuable for backend systems that involve
user interaction.
b. Purpose: To ensure that the system is user-friendly and that the backend services
are designed to meet user needs efficiently.
c. Tools: Hotjar, Crazy Egg, UsabilityHub.
d. Example: Observing users interacting with a system to identify any difficulties
in navigating the backend API for services like account management.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 40

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
These different types of testing, when used effectively, help ensure that the backend of an
application is reliable, secure, and performant. By incorporating multiple levels of testing—
from unit tests to user acceptance tests—developers can identify and resolve issues early,
ensure that features work as expected, and deliver a high-quality application.
8.3 Benefits of Unit Testing and System Testing in Backend Development
Unit testing and system testing are two essential aspects of backend development that ensure
the robustness, reliability, and correctness of an application. Each type of testing serves a
distinct purpose but contributes significantly to the overall quality and performance of the
backend system.
8.3.1 Unit Testing in Backend Development
Unit testing focuses on testing individual components, functions, or methods of the backend in
isolation to ensure that they work as expected. It typically involves testing small code units,
such as specific methods or classes, to verify their behavior in different scenarios.
Benefits of Unit Testing:
 Early Bug Detection: Unit tests help identify bugs and errors early in the development
process. By testing individual functions or components, developers can isolate and
address problems at an early stage, reducing debugging time later in the development
cycle.
 Faster Debugging: Since unit tests isolate specific pieces of code, it’s easier to pinpoint
the exact cause of issues. This makes the debugging process faster and more efficient.
 Improved Code Quality: Writing unit tests forces developers to write modular, reusable,
and maintainable code. As a result, unit testing encourages best practices like adhering
to single responsibility principles and avoiding tightly coupled code.
 Reduced Risk of Regression: Unit tests ensure that new code changes do not break
existing functionality. Developers can run unit tests after adding or modifying code to
ensure that previously working parts of the application remain intact, preventing
regressions.
 Documentation of Code: Unit tests serve as a form of documentation. They describe
how individual components are expected to behave under different conditions. New
developers can refer to unit tests to understand the behavior of specific functions.
 Encourages Refactoring: With unit tests in place, developers can confidently refactor
code without fear of breaking the application. The tests provide a safety net that ensures
that refactored code still meets the desired functionality.
Example Use Case:
For example, a unit test could verify that a method that calculates user age based on a birthdate
correctly handles leap years, valid ranges, and edge cases (e.g., the user's birthday today).
8.3.2 System Testing in Backend Development
System testing is a comprehensive testing approach that validates the entire backend system’s
functionality, ensuring that it behaves as expected in an integrated environment. This type of
testing includes checking the overall architecture, database interactions, API integration, and
business logic as a whole.
Benefits of System Testing:

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 41

 SWD 414: Back-End Development II
 End-to-End Functionality Verification: System testing ensures that all parts of the
backend, including databases, APIs, and external services, work together as intended.
It provides a holistic view of how the system operates and interacts, helping detect
issues that may arise from component interactions.
 Realistic Scenario Testing: System testing often simulates real-world use cases and
scenarios, testing the backend under conditions that resemble actual production usage.
It ensures that the backend can handle the expected load and responds correctly to user
requests.
 Validation of Business Logic: System testing checks that the overall business logic of
the backend is functioning as expected. This includes ensuring that the backend
correctly processes user inputs, validates data, performs calculations, and manages state
transitions.
 Cross-Component Integration: In system testing, backend components are tested
together. This helps ensure that APIs, databases, authentication systems, and external
services integrate properly and that the data flows smoothly between these components.
 Comprehensive Security Testing: System testing can include security validation, such
as checking for vulnerabilities like SQL injection, XSS, and CSRF. It ensures that the
entire system is secure and that sensitive data is handled properly across different layers
of the application.
 Improved User Experience: By testing the backend in its entirety, system testing helps
ensure that all components work together to provide a seamless user experience. It
ensures that the backend provides the expected results and responses for end-users.
 Stress Testing: System testing can also include performance testing, ensuring that the
backend can handle stress, heavy traffic, or large datasets without crashing or slowing
down significantly. This is critical for ensuring scalability and stability in production
environments.
Example Use Case:
System testing would involve testing an entire API endpoint that retrieves user information
from the database, processes it, and returns a response. The test would verify that all
components—such as the database query, API routing, data transformation, and response
formatting—work together seamlessly.
Both unit testing and system testing offer significant benefits in backend development. Unit
testing provides early detection of errors, improves code quality, and ensures that individual
components are functioning correctly in isolation. System testing, on the other hand, ensures
that the entire system operates as expected, verifies the interaction between components, and
checks the backend’s behavior in real-world scenarios. Together, these testing practices
enhance the reliability, security, and performance of backend systems, leading to better user
experiences and fewer production issues.

Prepared By: Jibrin Usman Lapai 42