CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 OBJECTIVE: The continuous growth of electricity demand and ever increasing society awareness of climate change issues directly affect the development of electric grid infrastructure. The utility industry faces continuous pressure to transform the way the electricity grid is managed and operated. On one hand, the diversity of supply aims to increase the energy mix and accommodate more and various sustainable energy sources. On the other hand, there is a prior need to improve the efficiency, reliability, energy security and quality of supply. With the breadth of benefits that the smart grid can deliver, the improvements in technology capabilities, and the reduction in technology cost, investing in smart grid technologies has become a serious focus for utilities. Advanced technologies, such as flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS) and voltage source converter (VSC) based high voltage DC (HVDC) power transmission systems are essential for the restructuring of the power systems into more automated, electronically controlled smart grids. HVDC and FACTS systems are important technologies, supporting in their own way the modern power systems, which, in many cases, are fully or partially deregulated in several countries. In the near future, even higher integration of electrical grids and market-driven developments are expected, as for instance, countries in the Middle East, China, India, and South America require infrastructure to power their growth and interconnection of island grids. The ever increasing penetration of the power electronics technologies into the power systems is mainly due to the continuous progress of the high-voltage high power fully controlled semiconductors. The fully controlled semiconductor devices available today for high-voltage high-power converters can be based on either thyristor or transistor technology. These devices can be used for a VSC with pulse-width modulation (PWM) operating at frequencies higher than the line frequency. These devices are all selfcommuted via a gate pulse. Typically, it is desirable that a VSC application generates PWM waveforms of higher frequency when compared to the thyristor-based systems. However, the operating frequency of these devices is also determined by the switching losses and the design of the heat sink, both of which are related to the power through the
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component. Switching losses, which are directly linked to high-frequency PWM operation, are one of the most serious and challenging issues that need to be dealt with in VSC-based high-power applications. Other significant disadvantages that occur by operating a VSC at high frequency are the electromagnetic compatibility/electromagnetic interference (EMC/EMI), transformer insulation stresses, and high frequency oscillations, which require additional filters. This objective of this project is optimized modulation patterns which offer controlled harmonic immunity between the AC and DC side during the transmission. This project explains about the advantages relating the usage of voltage source converters in HVDC and also describes the method to reduce the harmonic content on both AC and DC side. 1.2 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS: Chapter 1 deals with the emerging changes in smart grid facilities and need of those changes as regards to the development of needs of society. Chapter 2 deals with the HVDC transmission technology, its principle, types, components, advantages and its limitations. Chapter 3 deals with the conversion unit used in HVDC transmission systems and the emerging changes that occurred in them. Chapter 4 deals with the MATLAB based block diagram for HVDC transmission and its behavior under balanced conditions. Chapter 5 deals with selective harmonic elimination PWM and ripple repositioning technique for unbalanced load conditions obtained in the MATLAB based block diagram.

CHAPTER-2 HIGH VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

2.1 INTRODUCTION: The history of electric power transmission reveals that transmission was originally developed with DC. However, DC power at low voltage could not be transmitted over long distances, thus it led to the development of alternating current (AC) electrical systems. Also the availability of transformers and improvement in ac machines led to the greater usage of ac transmission. The advent of the mercury arc valve for high power and voltage proved to be a vital breakthrough for High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission. These mercury valves were the key elements in the converter stations and the filtering was done using oil immersed components. The control was analog and most of the operations were left to the operator. After enough experiments conducted on mercury valves, the first HVDC line was built in 1954 with a 100 km submarine cable with ground return between the island of Gotland and the Swedish mainland. The development of thyristors is another milestone in the development of HVDC technology. The first solid-state semiconductor valves were commissioned in 1970. The mercury arc valves in the primitive projects were replaced by thyristor valves. The semiconductor devices like thyristors, IGBTs and GTOs, in conjunction with microcomputers and digital signal processors have proved to be very effective compared to older mercury valves. The wider usage of semiconductor technology in present day HVDC systems has initiated great leaps in the research of power electronics. With increased demand for high quality power, application of power electronics in the field of power distribution and transmission systems is attracting wide attention throughout the world. The choice of transmission systems and operating voltages for a transmission line is made from HVAC (upto 220KV), EHVAC (between 400KV and 765KV), UHVAC (exceeding 765KV) and HVDC (upto 1600KV) on the basis of technical and economical studies for each particular line and associated AC systems. The first DC link was set up in 1954 between Swedish mainland and the island of Gotland. This was a monopolar, 100KV, 20MW cable system making use of sea return.
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The England-France cross-channel DC link was commissioned in 1961. This was a bipolar, 100KV, 160MW, cable system over a distance of about 65km. since then more

and more HVDC systems have been set up in the world. HVDC has also been introduced in India. 500KV, 1500MW, 810km bipolar

HVDC line has already been set up between Rihand and Delhi. It is designed to operate in the bipolar, mono-polar ground return and mono-polar metallic return modes. Another HVDC system set up in India is Vindhyachal HVDC back to back system. This back to back line is for exchange of power between Northern and Western regions. Each block of 250MW is capable of operating independently in either direction and can transfer power in the range of 25-250MW depending on the conditions of the system. In addition, Chandarpur back to back project (2*250MW) Chandarpur-Padhge bipolar system ( 500KV, 1500MW, 736km) Jeypore back to back project (2*250MW) and Mau back to back project (2*250MW) are also proposed. At present the world has over 50 HVDC schemes in operation for a total capacity of more than 50,000MW and the capacity is increasing about 2000MW every year.

2.2 PRINCIPLE OF HVDC SYSTEM OPERATION: When using direct current to provide an asynchronous link between two AC systems, it is necessary to have two converter stations one at each end, connected by DC transmission line. The main equipment in converter station are transformers and thyristor valves. Chokes and filters are provided at each end to ensure smooth direct current and suppress harmonics. At the sending end the thyristors valves act as rectifiers to convert AC to DC which is transmitted over the line. At the receiving end the thyristor valves acts as inverters to converter DC into AC which is utilized at the receiving end.

Fig 2.1 Line diagram of typical HVDC transmission system

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Single line diagram of HVDC transmission system is shown in fig 1.1 where we have two converter stations on both sides. On the rectifying side we have transformer which does step-up the AC voltage as per the necessity. This AC voltage is fed to the converter which converts AC to DC and the obtained DC voltage is transmitted. The receiving end the inverting unit is present which converts the obtained DC to AC which is then step down by step down transformer to low voltage for further distribution.

2.3 COMPONENTS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM: 2.3.1 The converter station: The converter stations at each end are identical and can be operated either as an inverter or rectifier based on the control. Hence, each converter is equipped to convert ac to DC and vice versa. One of the main components of a converter substation is the thyristor converter is usually housed in a valve hall. As shown in Fig. 1.2, the substation also essentially consists of converter transformers. These transformers transform the ac system voltage based on the DC voltage required by the converter. The secondary or DC side of the converter transformers is connected to the converter bridges. The transformer is placed outside the thyristor valve hall and the connection has to be made through the hall wall. This is accomplished in two ways: 1) With phase isolated bus bars where the bus conductors are housed within insulated bus ducts with oil or SF6 as the insulating medium, 2) With wall bushings and these require care to avoid external or internal breakdown. Filters are required on both ac and DC sides since the converters generate harmonics. The filters are tuned based on the converter operation (6 or 12 pulse). DC reactors are included in each pole of the converter station. These reactors assist the DC filters in filtering harmonics and mainly smooth the DC side current ensuring continuous mode of operation. Surge arrestors are provided across each valve in the converter bridge, across each converter bridge and in the DC and ac switches to protect the equipment from over-voltages. Fig 1.2 represents the HVDC transmission system configuration.

Fig 2.2 HVDC sub-station configuration 2.3.2 Converter transformer: The arrangement of the transformer windings depends on the converter configuration. For example the 12-pulse converter configuration can be obtained with any of the following transformer arrangements. Six single-phase, two winding Three single-phase, three winding Two three-phase, two winding Star or delta connections are chosen for different configurations. The entire winding of the converter transformer is fully insulated, since the potentials across its connections are determined by the combination of valves conducting at any particular instant. As a result, the radial leakage fluxes at the end of the windings increase. Because the converter transformer impedance determines the fault current across each valve, the converter transformers leakage reactance is larger than that of the conventional one. A tap changer is most critical in HVDC as it reduces the reactive power requirement and the tapchange range varies from scheme to scheme. 2.3.3 Converter: Converters form the core of the substation and the entire operation depends on the performance of the converters. Hence, the choice of the semiconductor power device used in the converter is vital and care should be taken in designing the circuitry. For HVDC
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applications, the thyristor has been the choice of device ever since it was invented in the 1960s. However, devices like IGBTs and GTOs have been developed and are being studied for use in HVDC. 2.3.4 Smoothing reactors: The main purpose of a smoothing reactor is to reduce the rate of rise of the direct current following disturbances on either side of the converter. Thus the peak current during the DC line short circuits and ac commutation failure is limited. The reactor blocks the non- harmonic frequencies from being transferred between two ac systems and also reduces the harmonics in the DC line. 2.3.5 AC filters: Filters are used to control the harmonics in the network. The reactive power consumed by the converters at both the ends is compensated by the filter banks. For example, in CCC (capacitor commutated converter) reactive power is compensated by the series capacitors installed between the converter transformer and the thyristor valves. 2.3.6 DC filters: The harmonics created by the converter can cause disturbances in

telecommunication systems and specially designed DC filters are used in order to reduce the disturbances. Generally, filters are not used for submarine or underground cable transmission but used when HVDC has an overhead line or if it is part of an interconnecting system. The modern filters are active DC filters and these filters use power electronics for measuring, inverting and re-injecting the harmonics, thus providing effective filtering. 2.3.7 Transmission medium: HVDC cables are generally used for submarine transmission and overheads lines are used for bulk power transmission over the land. The most common types of cables are solid and the oil-filled ones. The development of new power cable technologies has accelerated in recent years and the latest HVDC cable available is made of extruded polyethylene.

2.4 TYPES OF HVDC SYSTEMS: The DC links may be classified into three types mainly mono-polar DC link, bipolar DC link and homo-polar DC link basing on their connections. 2.4.1 Mono-polar DC link: As the name suggests, mono-polar link has only one conductor and return path is provided by permanent earth or sea. The line usually operates with negative polarity with respect to ground so to reduce corona loss and radio interference. The moo-polar DC link is shown in fig 1.3.

Fig 1.3 Mono-polar DC link The earth electrodes are designed for continuous rated current operation and for any overload capacity required in specific case. The sea or ground return is permanent and of continuous rating. The ground return path has a low resistance and therefore low power loss in comparison with a metallic line conductor of economical size and equal length provided the ground electrodes are of proper design. Mono-polar line is more economical than a bipolar line because the ground return saves the cost of one metallic conductor and losses in it. Mono-polar HVDC links were used only for power rating and mainly for cable transmission. In some cases the mono-polar lines installed earlier are converted into bipolar systems by adding additional substation pole and transmission pole. Mono-polar HVDC line has only the rating equal to half of corresponding bipolar line rating and is therefore not economically competitive with EHV AC schemes for submarine cables longer than 25km and of power rating of about 250MW. For such cable
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transmission high voltage AC scheme is not technically feasible due to large charging currents with AC cables beyond thermal limit. Bipolar cable is not justified for ratings upto about 500MW. 2.4.2 Bipolar DC link: This is the most widely used DC link for overhead long distance HVDC transmission systems and also for back-to-back HVDC system. This link has two conductors- one operating with positive polarity and the other with negative polarity with respect to earthed tower structure. There are two converters of equal voltage rating and connected in series with each end of DC line as shown in fig. 1.4.

Fig 1.4 Bipolar DC link The neutral points i.e., the junction between converters may be grounded at one end or at both the ends. If it is grounded at both ends each pole can operate independently. The rated voltage of bipolar link is expressed as 500V. Power rating of one pole is about

half of the bi-pole power rating. The earth carries only a small out-of-balance current during the normal operation. When the currents in the two conductors are equal, the ground current is zero. During fault or trouble on one of the lines, conductors are equal, the ground current is zero. During fault or trouble on one of the lines, the other line along with ground return can supply half of the rated load. Thus continuity of supply is maintained. After taking corrective measures, the system is switched over to normal bipolar operation. Thus the reliability of bipolar line is equal to that of a double circuit 3phase line although it has only two conductors instead of 6 for 3-phase line. Example of bipolar HVDC link is Ranchi-Delhi single bipolar overhead line of 810km, capacity 1500MW and operating at 500KV for transmission of bulk power. This line is designed

to operate in bipolar mode under normal conditions, both the poles sharing the load equally with negligible current (less than 10A) in the ground return path. In case of fault
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on one of the poles, the system automatically switches over to mono-polar ground return mode supplying 50% of the rated load. Thereafter the system may be changed over to bipolar metallic return mode when the other conductor is used as return conductor. 2.4.3 Homo-polar DC link: A homo-polar link has two or more conductors having the same polarity, usually negative, and always operates with ground as return conductor. In case of a fault on anyone of the conductors, the converter equipment can be connected so that the healthy conductor can supply power. Such a scheme is very complicated and is preferred to a bipolar link provided continuous ground return does not pose additional problems. Fig 1.5 represents homo-polar DC link.

Fig 1.5 Homo-polar DC link Such a scheme may be used for the following: -Two mono-polar overhead lines supplying to a common mono-polar cable termination. -One overhead transmission tower carrying insulator strings supporting two homo-polar transmission line conductors. Thus homo-polar DC link has limited applications. Basing on the applications, HVDC transmission systems can be classified as follows: Long distance high power transmission Under water transmission Underground transmission DC link in parallel with AC link HVDC back-to-back system Multi-terminal HVDC interconnection or links

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2.4.4 Long distance high power transmission: DC overhead lines are cheaper than three-phase transmission lines of the given transmission capacity. With large distances, the saving in cost becomes greater than the additional expenditure on the terminal equipment. HVDC becomes favorable above 800km, 1000MW when the cost of EHV-AC line/substation exceeds that of equivalent HVDC line/substation. A two-terminal DC link employing overhead lines is used for transmission of large blocks of relatively cheap power from remote sources (say hydro-electric) to load centres situated away from generating stations. 2.4.5 Under-water transmission: In case of 3-phase transmission, the maximum length of the underwater cable is 25-40km. this is due to the problem of charging current, and in case of oil-filled cables it is difficult to ensure oil flow over long distances. For longer distances HVDC is the only solution. In the absence of dielectric loss, the DC cables can be of the impregnated type for voltages of atleast upto 400KV and practically no limit is set to its length. 2.4.6 Underground transmission: Sometimes the power transmission in congested areas has to be done through underground cables. Wherever the distances involved exceed 40km, DC transmission in such cases offers definite advantages, since the equipment for compensating charging KVA is not required and also there is no reduction in the transmission capacity of cables. Moreover, there is no dielectric heating of the insulation or inductive heating or armouring. Hence the heat dissipation problem in DC cables is far less as compared to the 3-phase AC cables. The extra cost of the converters is compensated by saving in cable costs at distances from 50km to 100km depending on the conditions in each individual case. 2.4.7 DC link in parallel with AC link: For interconnection between two AC systems having their own load frequency control, HVDC links has several advantages over AC links. HVDC links form an asynchronous-tie i.e., the two AC systems interconnected by HVDC tie-line need not in synchronism with each other.
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HVDC interconnection is superior to EHVAC interconnection in many respects and is preferred due to its technical superiority. With HVDC interconnection, power flow can be controlled, the frequency disturbances are not transferred, short-circuit levels remain unaffected at both ends, transient stability of an existing AC link can be considerably improved. A DC link has an extremely rapid speed of response (of the order of 50ms) and therefore it can its transmitted power much more rapidly than, say a turbine generator can adjust its output. Thus the system stability can be significantly improved. HVDC interconnection can provide a weak tie (of lesser capacity) between strong and a weak AC network. This is difficult with AC interconnection. HVDC system control can be modified to dampen oscillations in load or power angle and thereby improve the stability of an existing AC link. Most important task of interconnector is transfer of required amount of power in required direction and to assist the interconnected AC network to maintain transient stability. AC interconnectors have severe limitations where as the DC interconnectors do not. 2.4.8 HVDC back-to-back system: Such a system provides an asynchronous interconnection between two adjacent AC systems through converter station and zero (or negligible) length DC line. Such schemes are employed for coupling AC systems of different frequencies (eg.50/60 Hz) or of different system controls. The back to back coupling stations can be located at any suitable location, where two networks meet geographically and exchange of required amount of electrical power is desired. Vindhyachal HVDC back to back link is for exchange of power between northern and western regions. Each block of 250MW is capable of operating independently in either direction and can transfer power in the range of 25MW to 250MW depending on the system conditions. 2.4.9 Multi-terminal HVDC interconnection or links: This is the new HVDC possibility. Three or more AC networks can be interconnected asynchronously by means of a multi-terminal HVDC link. Power flow from each connected AC network can be controlled suitably. Large power can be transferred. Almost all DC links set up so far are two-terminal links except Kingsnorth
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London scheme in which each half of sending power is independently controlled and delivered to two different receiving-end stations. One of the essential requirements in a multi-channel DC scheme is the use of large DC circuit breakers. 2.5 ADVANTAGES OF HVDC TRANSMISSION: DC transmission possesses many technical and economic advantages over AC transmission. Some of these are given below: Cheaper in cost: Bipolar HVDC transmission lines require two-pole conductors while AC system requires 3 conductors to carry power. HVDC transmission can utilize earth return and therefore does not require double circuit while EHVAC transmission always requires a double circuit. The potential stress on the insulation in case of DC system is times of that in AC system for the same operating voltage. Hence for the same operating voltage less insulation is required. The phase to phase clearances, phase to ground clearances and tower size are smaller in case of DC transmission as compared to those for AC transmission. Because of lesser load on the supporting structures tower designs are simpler and cheaper. Requirement of right of way for a DC line is about 20-40 percent lesser than that for an AC line of same power transmission capability. EHVAC transmission needs intermediate substations at an interval of 300km for compensation but HVDC transmission system does not require any such intermediate substation for compensation. However, the DC line terminal equipment because of high cost of converters is considerably more expensive than AC terminal equipment. HVDC transmission becomes economical over AC transmission above the break even distance when the saving in overall costs of conductors, towers etc. compensates the additional cost of the terminal equipment (rectifiers and inverters). The break even distance is generally different for other projects. For overhead lines it may be about 600-800km while for submarine cables and underground cables it may lie in the range of 20-50km and 50-100km respectively. Sometimes it becomes necessary to adopt DC transmission, even for distances smaller than the break even distances because of technical advantages. An HVDC line can be built in stages: The DC line can be built as a mono-polar line with ground return in the initial stage and may be converted into a bipolar line on a later date when load requirement increases. No skin effect: There is no skin effect in DC, so there is a uniform distribution of
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current over the section of conductor. Thus there is full utilization of line conductor in case of DC transmission while it is not in case of AC transmission. Lower transmission losses: HVDC transmission system needs only two conductors and therefore the power losses in a DC line are lesser than the losses in AC line of the same power transfer capability. Voltage regulation: There is no inductance, hence the voltage drop due to inductive reactance does not exist in DC transmission line. Thus voltage regulation is better in case of DC transmission. Line loading: The permissible loading on a EHVAC line is limited by the transient stability limit and line reactance to almost one-third of thermal rating of conductors. No such limit exists in case of HVDC lines. Surge impedance loading: Long EHVAC lines are loaded to less than 80 percent of natural load. No such condition is applicable of HVDC lines. Greater reliability: A two conductor bipolar DC line is more reliable than 3-wire 3phase AC line because the DC line may be operated in a mono-polar mode with ground return when the other line develops a fault. Rapid change of energy flow: The control of converter (thyristor) valves permit rapid changes in magnitude and direction of power flow when the two AC systems are interconnected by a DC line. Thus a more flexible coordination of system control at the two ends a more economical use of cheap power generation in either of the two AC systems and reduction of system reserve and stand by capacity are available, transient stability is also increased. Independent control: The AC systems interconnected by a DC line can be controlled independently. They can be completely independent as regards frequency, system control, short-circuit rating, future extension etc. Independence of frequencies of sending end and receiving end networks makes it possible to generate the power at one frequency (say 50Hz) and to utilize it at some other frequency (say 60 Hz). Lesser dielectric power loss and higher current carrying capacity: The cables have lesser dielectric power loss with DC in comparison with AC and therefore have higher current carrying capacity. Negligible sheath losses: In case of DC, only leakage current flows in the cable sheath whereas in case of AC charging, circulating and eddy currents flow through the sheath
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of the cable. Thus in case of DC transmission with cables, the sheath loss in the cables is negligible. Higher natural dielectric strength and longer life of cable insulation: The natural dielectric strength of cable insulation with DC is substantially greater than that with AC. Phenomenon of dielectric fatigue is also absent, therefore the cable insulation has longer life. Absence of charging current and limitations of cable length: Because of the large charging currents, the use of EHVAC for underground transmission over long distances is prohibited but because of the absence of charging current in DC systems there is no limit for the length of DC cable. In AC systems there is limit on length of cable depending on rated voltage- about 60km in case of 145KV, 40km in case of 245KV and 25km in case of 400KV. Low short circuit currents: In AC transmission, addition of parallel lines results in larger short circuit currents in the system. This is due reduced equivalent reactance. When an AC system is interconnected with another AC system by AC transmission line, the fault level of both the systems increases. Sometimes this necessitates the replacement of existing circuit breakers by the ones of higher rating. However when the two AC systems are interconnected by a DC line, the contribution of a DC line to the short circuit current is only upto the rated current of the DC line. During the fault in DC line, grid control of converter can drastically reduce the fault current. Less corona loss and radio interference: The corona loss is directly proportional to (f+25), where f is the supply frequency. So corona losses in DC system are lesser than those in AC systems for the same conductor diameter and operating voltage. This is because in DC system f is equal to zero. Corona loss and radio interference are directly related and therefore radio interference in case of DC is less as to AC. Also corona and interference slightly decreases by foul weather conditions (snow, rain or fog) in case of DC whereas they increase appreciably in case of AC system. Higher operating voltages: Modern high voltage transmission lines are designed on the basis of expected switching surges rather than lightening surges because the former are more severe in comparison to the latter. The level of switching surges due to DC is lower than that due to AC and therefore the same size of conductors and string insulators can be employed higher voltages in DC as compared to AC.
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 Reactive power compensation: Longer distance AC power is feasible only with the use of series and shunt compensation, provided at intervals along the line. For such lines shunt compensation is required to absorb the line charging VARs during light load conditions and series compensation is provided for stability reasons. HVDC lines do not require any reactive power compensation like EHVAC lines. It is because of absence of charging currents and unity power factor operation. No stability limit: There is no stability limit in DC systems and therefore transmission line may be of any length whereas in AC systems the theoretical length of a transmission line which can be operated without loss of stability is only 1.43 times it natural impedance (mostly it is about 500km). However with series compensation the length of AC line can be somewhat longer than this value. Use as an asynchronous link between two AC systems: Parallel operation of AC with DC which increases the stability limit of the system or the interconnection of two large AC systems by a DC transmission line. Here the DC line is a asynchronous link between two rigid (frequency constant) system where otherwise slight difference in frequency of the two large systems would produce serious problems of power transfer control in the small capacity link. 2.6 LIMITATIONS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION: Although DC transmission has so many advantages over AC transmission, yet it will never completely over take AC transmission, at the most it will work in conjunction with it. The problems associated with and limitations of DC transmission are given below: Costly terminal equipment: The converters required at both ends of the line have proved to be reliable but they are much more expensive than the conventional AC equipments. The converters have very little overload capacity and absorb considerable reactive power. The reactive power can be as high as 25% of true power. It is obvious that no reactive power can be transmitted by HVDC transmission system and, therefore, equipment such as static or synchronous capacitors are installed at the receiving end to generate reactive power (MVAR) according to the demand of the load and converting apparatus. The converters produce lot of harmonics both on DC and AC sides which may cause interference with the audio frequency communication lines. Filtering and smoothing equipments are provided at the converter stations in order to
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remove ripples from the DC output. It is also possible to provide filters on the AC side to absorb the harmonic currents. Thus there is considerable increase in cost of the converter substation. HVDC converters need complex cooling systems. HVDC circuit capacitors, reactors etc. and the total cost is likely to be several times that of an AC circuit breaker of equivalent rating. More maintenance of line insulators: Maintenance of insulators in HVDC transmission lines is more. Circuit breaking in multi terminal DC systems is difficult and costlier. Voltage transformation: Voltage transformation is not easier in case of DC and hence it is to be accomplished on the AC side of the system. DC system cannot be employed for distribution, sub transmission and backbone transmission.

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CHAPTER 3 VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTERS

As mentioned in the principle of HVDC transmission the generated AC voltage is step up or step down and fed to the converting unit and the obtained DC is transmitted and again fed to the converting unit and the obtained AC is again utilized for further purposes. A brief description of the converting unit is discussed in this chapter. 3.1 THE CONVERSION UNIT: The conversion unit consists of either controlled or uncontrolled unit. Whether controlled or uncontrolled, these units utilize different non-linear devices like diodes, thyristors, IGBTs, GTOs, MOSFETs etc. Earlier in 1960s, the line commutated current source converters were used along with mercury valves. The brief description line commutated current source converters and their limitations have been discussed below. 3.1.1 Line commutated current source converters: The first commercial HVDC transmission link was commissioned in 1954. It utilized line-commutated current-source converters (LCC) with mercury-arc valves. They were followed during the late 1960s by similar converters using semiconductor thyristor valves. Thyristor valves have now become standard equipment for DC converter stations. The turn-on of the thyristors in an LCC is controlled by a gate signal while the turnoff occurs at the zero crossing of the AC current which is determined by the AC network voltage. This is nothing but line commutation technique. During forward conduction of the thyristor devices, charges are internally stored, and at turnoff these charges must be removed before the valve can reestablish a forward voltage blocking capability. Therefore, the HVDC inverters require a certain minimum time, the recovery time, with negative voltage before forward blocking voltage is applied. In order to achieve this condition the inverter is operated with a certain commutation margin angle. When sufficient recovery time is not provided the converter may suffer a commutation failure. Most often commutation failures originate from voltage disturbances due to AC system faults. A commutation failure can, however, also be caused if the
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connected system has limited short circuit capability and cannot provide the required voltage for the commutation process. Fig3.1 represents the current source converter topology for HVDC transmission.

Fig 3.1 Current source converter topology As the current is always lagging the voltage, this type of converter, either in rectifier or inverter operation, continuously absorbs reactive power as a part of the conversion process. Therefore, shunt compensation is required to compensate for some or the entire converter VAR requirement. The amount of reactive power absorbed is determined by the DC control strategy, and typically is in the order of 50% of the active power flow through the converter. The CSCs have the natural ability to withstand short circuits as the dc inductors can assist the limiting of the currents during faulty operating conditions. Depending upon the function and location of the converter stations, various configurations of HVDC systems can be identified. The ones presented in this section involve CSC-HVDC configuration. Back-to-back CSC-HVDC system Mono-polar CSC-HVDC system Bipolar CSC-HVDC system Multi-terminal CSC-HVDC system These configurations exist the same for VSCs too but of course with a little changes. These have been illustrated using the diagrams given below.

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Fig 3.2 Back-to-back CSC-HVDC system with 12-pulse converters

Fig 3.3 Mono-polar CSC-HVDC system with 12-pulse converters

Fig 3.4 Bipolar CSC-HVDC system with one 12-pulse converter per pole
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Fig 3.5 Multi-terminal CSC-HVDC systemparallel connected The performance of various components in a power system depends on the strength of the system. The strength of the system reflects the sensitivity of the system voltage to various disturbances in the system. In a strong system, disturbances caused, for example, by a change in the power of a load, do not cause any significant change in the voltage and angle in the power system. However, in a weak system even a small disturbance can cause so large deviations in the voltages that the operation of the system is jeopardized. The short circuit level or equivalent impedance at a bus is a good measure of the strength of the system at that particular point. Now let us discuss about the problems associated with CSCs in case of weak AC source system. Voltage / power stability: Experience and theoretical calculations have shown that the voltage/power stability is a critical issue for an HVDC transmission link based on conventional LCCs, if the receiving end of the transmission link is connected to an AC system having low short circuit capacity. The lower the short circuit capacity of the connected AC system as compared with the power rating of the HVDC converter, the more problems related to voltage/power stability can be expected. The physical mechanism causing this voltage instability is the inability of the power system to provide the reactive power needed by the converters to maintain an acceptable system voltage level. Lower order harmonic resonance: Low-order harmonic resonance is another issue of concern when HVDC-LCC converters are connected to weak AC systems. This resonance appears due to the presence of filters and shunt capacitors (designed to prevent harmonics generated by the HVDC system entering the AC system and to
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provide reactive power needed by the operation of the converters) with the AC network impedance. When the weak AC system is connected to an HVDC converter terminal, the system impedances interact through the converter to create resonances on both the AC and DC sides of the converter. This can create a highly oscillatory power system, which could be close to the point of instability. In general, this resonance condition imposes limitations on the design of the HVDC controllers. The weaker the network, the more challenging the control problem becomes. The use of VSC as opposed to a line-commutated CSC offers the following advantages: Avoidance of commutation failures due to disturbances in the ac network. Independent control of the reactive and active power consumed or generated by the converter. Possibility to connect the VSC-HVDC system to a weak ac network or even to one where no generation source is available, and naturally, the short-circuit level is very low. Faster dynamic response due to higher PWM than the fundamental switching frequency (phase-controlled) operation, which further results in reduced need for filtering, and hence smaller filter size. No need of transformers to assist the commutation process of the converters fully controlled semiconductors. Simpler interface with ac system. No minimum power restriction. Variable frequency. 3.1.2 Voltage source converter : A new generation of HVDC converters based on forced-commutated voltage source converters (VSC) was developed during 1990s. The fundamental difference between the conventional LCC and the new VSC is that the VSC makes use of components that can turn-off the current, and not just turn it on. Typical turn-off devices as switching elements are IGBTs. Since the current in a VSC can be turned off there is no need for commutation voltage in the connected AC network. Therefore, in this type of converter the AC current

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can be leading or lagging the AC voltage, which means that the converter can consume or supply reactive power to the connected AC network. A special gate unit and voltage divider across each IGBT maintain an even voltage distribution across the series connected IGBTs. The gate unit not only maintains proper voltage sharing within the valve during normal switching conditions but also during system disturbances and fault conditions. A reliable short circuit failure mode exists for individual IGBTs within each valve position. Each VSC is effectively mid-point grounded and coupled to the AC bus via phase reactors and a power transformer with intermediary shunt AC filters. The AC filters are tuned to multiples of the switching frequency. This arrangement minimizes harmonic content and avoids dc voltage stresses in the transformer which allows use of a standard AC power transformer for matching the AC network voltage to the converter AC voltage necessary to produce the desired DC transmission voltage. DC capacitors are used across the dc side of the VSC. For transmission applications there may also be DC filters and a zero-sequence blocking reactor. The filters and zero-sequence reactor are used to mitigate interference on any metallic telephone circuits that run adjacent to the DC cables. The total capacitance of the pole to ground DC capacitors varies with the application. Fig 3.6 shows the voltage source converter.

Fig 3.6 Three phase two-level VSC topology Voltage-sourced Converters (VSCs) are six-pulse converters consisting of six power semiconductor switching devices and anti-parallel diodes. From a direct current (DC) voltage source, the VSC generates a set of controllable three-phase output voltages
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at the frequency of the system voltage. Pulse width modulation is used to control the firing of the semiconductor switching devices, generating an average sine wave. Pulse width modulation also helps mitigate the amount of harmonics. There are several Voltage Source Converter (VSC) topologies currently in use in actual power systems operation. Common aims of these topologies are: To minimize the switching losses of the semiconductors inside the VSC. To produce a high-quality sinusoidal voltage waveform with minimum or no filtering requirements. 3.1.3 Different topologies of VSCs : 3.1.3.1 three-leg VSC with single DC capacitor: It uses the least number of switches and only a single dc capacitor. It however cannot compensate for the zero sequence currents in the four-wire distribution system. It can compensate loads working from three-phase three wire systems. 3.1.3.2 three-leg VSC with neutral clamped dc capacitors: It can compensate for
unbalanced load currents in a three-phase four-wire system. The zero sequence of the load current injected by the compensator will return to the compensator at the mid-point of the dc capacitors. To prevent drift in their voltages, the dc component of the load current is not compensated and the capacitors will have to be large to reduce ripple. It requires the minimum number of switches but it needs two dc capacitors which increase the bulk.

3.1.3.3 Four leg VSC: It can compensate for unbalanced load currents containing dc
components in a three-phase four-wire system. It requires two extra switches for compensating the zero sequence components of the load currents. For controlling these two extra switches, a separate reference current must be generated along with an appropriate switching control strategy. It however needs only one dc capacitor. As the compensation of zero sequence components in the load currents is through the fourth leg and there is only one dc capacitor, the voltage of the dc capacitor is easier to control. An alternative topology using chopper and three-leg VSC with neutral clamped dc capacitors also uses eight switches but has more complex control.

The VSC can either be used for the purpose for rectification and inversion in case of the HVDC transmission system. The below figure illustrates the usage of VSC in case of HVDC transmission system. It shows a basic two level VSC circuit which can even be utilized further for three phase voltages. Fig 3.7 shows the basic two-level VSC with the flow of the HVDC transmission line.
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Fig 3.7 Basic two- level VSC The AC which is generated is step up or down using the transformer and passed through the filters which is followed by a zero blocking sequence reactor. The zero blocking sequence reactor (ZBSR) is also a special type of transformer whose three windings are bound to the same core. It gives zero reactance for positive and negative sequence components of harmonic voltage if present but gives three times of self reactance. (The positive and negative sequence currents of harmonics will be discussed in further chapters.) Thus this reactance is fed to the converter circuit and the AC is converted to DC. The VSC makes use of IGBTs along with the anti parallel diodes to ensure the four quadrant operation. The obtained DC is fed to the capacitor in order to obtain a constant DC voltage value.

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CHAPTER 4 MATLAB BASED BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR HVDC

4.1 VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER AND ITS OPERATION: The DC-AC converter circuit is as shown in fig 4.1. For convenience let us consider the thyristors be T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6. This power circuit is for three phase 120 degree mode VSI. The operation is explained briefly as follows: A series of conducting devices has been presented along with output waveforms in order to understand the sequence of firing of thyristors. In this the first row shows that T1 conducts for 120 degrees and for the next 60 degrees, neither T1 nor T4 conducts. Now T4 is turned on at t= 180 and it further conducts for 120 i.e. from t=180 to t=300. This means that for 60 interval from t=120 to t=180, series connected SCRs T1 and T4 do not conduct. At t=300 T4 is turned off then occurs a 60 degrees interval and then at t=360 again T1 conduction starts. In the second row T3 conducts from t=120 to that of T1. The remaining part is the same as that happening for T1 and T45. The third is also completed similarly but its start is made with t=240 to that of T1. During each step only two thyristors conduct-one from the upper group and another from the lower group. We have balanced three-phase star connected resistive load across the AC output across which the output is observed.

Fig 4.1 3-phase two level VSC

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The circuit models for all the steps are provided in the table 1 shown below. Interval Conducting Equivalent circuit thyristors Line voltage Vry I 6,1 VS Phase voltage Vrn
VS/2

II

1,2

VS/2

VS/2

III

2,3

-VS/2

IV

3,4

-VS

-VS/2

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4,5

-VS/2

-VS/2

VI

5,6

VS/2

Table 1

For step 1: 0-60 ; 6,1 closed and also Vao=vs/2 Vbo=-vs/2 Vco=0 For step 2: 60-120; 1,2 closed and also Vao= vs/2 Vco=- vs/2 Vbo=0 For step 3: 120-180; 2,3 closed and also Vbo= vs/2 Vco= -vs/2
Vao=0 For step 4: 180-240; 3,4 closed and also Vbo= vs/2

Vao= -vs/2 Vco=0 The same way it follows for step V and VI. The output waveforms are shown in the fig 4.2 shown below.

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Fig 4.2 Output waveforms for 120 degree mode VSI

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4.1.1 voltage control in voltage source inverters: AC loads may require constant or adjustable voltage across their terminals. When such loads are fed by inverters, it is essential that output voltage of the inverters is so controlled as to fulfill the requirement of AC loads. Hence the control of output voltage is achieved by the following methods: Addition of AC voltage controller between the inverter and AC load helps in regulation of the voltage but results in higher harmonic content. Hence it is preferred only for low power applications. Addition of series inverters is also considered as one of the methods. This method of voltage control involves the use of two or more inverters in series. The outputs of the inverters are summed up using transformers whose secondaries are connected in series. However this circuit is also not considered to be favorable under low output voltage conditions as it does not augment the harmonic content under these conditions. External control of DC input voltage is also one of the methods utilized for voltage control. Internal control of inverter is considered to be one of the best methods for voltage control. Output voltage from an inverter can also be adjusted by exercising a control within the inverter itself. The most efficient method of doing this is by using an pulse width modulation control used within an inverter. This is briefly discussed as follows: In this method, a fixed DC input voltage is given to the inverter and a controlled AC voltage is obtained by adjusting the ON-OFF periods of the inverter components. This is the most popular method of controlling the output voltage and this method is termed as pulse width modulation (PWM) control. Pulse width modulation control possesses the following advantages: The output voltage control by this method can be obtained without adding any additional components. With this method lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized along with its output voltage control. As higher order harmonics can be filtered easily, filtering requirements are minimized. The main disadvantage with this method is that the SCRs are expensive as they must possess low turn OFF and turn ON times.

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4.2 PWM INVERTERS : PWM inverters are gradually taking over the types of inverters in industrial applications. PWM techniques are characterized by constant amplitude pulses. The width of these pulses is however, modulated to obtain inverter output voltage control and to reduce its harmonic content. Different PWM techniques are as under: Single pulse modulation Multiple pulse modulation Sinusoidal pulse modulation However for this project we are considering sinusoidal PWM inverter hence it will be discussed in detail further. In PWM inverters, forced commutation is essential. The three PWM inverters listed above differ from each other in the harmonic content in their respective output voltages. Thus choice for a particular PWM technique depends upon permissible harmonic content in the inverter output voltage. In industrial applications, PWM inverter is supplied with a diode bridge rectifier and an LC filter. The inverter topology remains the same for a three phase inverter as we have seen earlier in fig. 4.1. But now the devices here are switched ON and OFF several times within each half cycle to control the output voltage which has low harmonic content. In the following lines, the basic principle of PWM techniques for single phase inverter is obtained. However this project focuses mainly on sinusoidal pulse width modulation. In this method of modulation, several pulses per half cycle are used in case of Multiple Pulse width Modulation (MPM). In MPM, the pulse width is equal for all pulses. But in SPWM the pulse width is a sinusoidal function of the angular position of pulse in a cycle as shown in fig. 4.3. For realizing SPWM, a high frequency triangular carrier wave is compared with a sinusoidal reference wave vr of desired frequency. The intersection of vc and vr waves determines the switching instants and commutation of a modulated pulse. In fig 4.3 vc is the peak value of triangular wave and vr that of the reference or modulating signal. The carrier and reference waves are mixed in a comparator. When the sinusoidal wave has a magnitude higher than the triangular wave, the comparator output is high else it is low. The comparator processed in a trigger pulse generator in such a manner that the output voltage of the inverter has pulse width in agreement with comparator output pulse width.
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Fig 4.3 Sinusoidal PWM for HVDC VSC The value Vr/Vc gives the value of modulation index. It controls the harmonic content of the output waveform. The magnitude of the fundamental component of output voltage is proportional to modulation index (MI), but (MI) can never be more than unity. Thus output voltage is controlled by varying MI. Harmonic analysis of the output modulated voltage wave reveals that SPWM has the following important features: For MI less than 1, higher order harmonics are eliminated but this result in more switching frequencies. For MI greater than 1, lower order harmonics are eliminated but the pulse width is no longer a sinusoidal function of the angular position of the pulse. In addition to these two, we have another technique called multiple pulse width with selective reduction is used in which M pulse positions in each quarter cycle are considered in order to eliminate M harmonics from output voltage waveform. Realization of PWM in single phase full bridge inverter is same as that for three phase inverter. For single phase full bridge inverter the analysis is given below:

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Fig 4.4 Single phase full bridge inverter In the inverter when +Vd/2 occurs then S11 and S22 should be ON and for Vd/2 the switches S12 and S21 should in turn ON state. For zero output voltage from the inverter i.e. if the load is to be short circuited then S11 and S22 should be in positive sequence and S12 and S21 should be in negative sequence. This means that for obtaining zero output voltage at the end of each pulse one of the thyristors should be turned OFF and again in order to turn ON only one thyristor is to be used. Switching on and commutation of thyristors should be so arranged so as to utilize the thyristors symmetrically thus ensuring a better output voltage control. The same thesis is suggested for 3-phase full bridge inverter circuit. 4.3 HARMONICS: The electricity is produced and distributed in its fundamental form as 50 Hz in India. A harmonics is defined as the content of signal whose frequency is integral

multiple of the system fundamental frequency. Due to harmonic effect the sinusoidal wave form is no longer have stand and it become non-sinusoidal or complex wave form. The complex sinusoidal waveform consists of a fundamental wave of 50 Hz and a number of other waves whose frequencies are integral multiple of fundamental wave like

2f(100hz), 3f (150 Hz), 4f (200 Hz) etc. Wave having frequency of 2f, 4f, 6f etc are called the even harmonics and those having frequency of 3f, 5f, 7f etc are called as odd

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harmonics. When fundamental frequency is super imposed with high-level harmonics it results into complex wave and which is non sinusoidal. Large amount of harmonics, poor power factor and high total harmonic distortion (THD) in the utility interface are common problems when non-linear loads such as adjustable speed drives, power supplies, induction heating systems, UPS systems and SMPS are connected to the electric utility. In several cases, the interface to the electric utility is processed with three-phase uncontrolled diode bridge rectifier. Due to the nonlinear nature of load, the input line currents have significant harmonics. The increasing use of power electronic based loads (adjustable Speed drives, Switch mode power supplies, etc) to improve system efficiency and Controllability is

increasing concern for harmonic distortion levels in end use facilities and on overall power system. The application of passive tuned filters creates new system resonances which are dependent on specific system conditions. In addition, passive filters often need to be significantly overrated to account for possible harmonic absorption from power system. Passive filter ratings must be coordinated with reactive power requirements of the loads and it is often difficult to design the filter to avoid leading power factor Operation for some load conditions. The power quality of power supply of an ideal power system means to supply electric energy with perfect sinusoidal wave form at a constant frequency of a specified voltage with least amount of disturbances. However the harmonic is one of the major factor due to which none of condition is fulfilled in practice. The presence of harmonics disturbs the waveform shape of voltage and current and increases the current level and changes the power factor of supply and which in turn creates so many problems. 4.4 CAUSES FOR HARMONICS: There are many cases which are responsible for production of harmonic effect in power supply system, few of them listed below: More use of solid-state power converters for industrial drivers. Use of arc and induction furnaces for steel and non-ferrous plants. Use of thyristor controlled locomotives. Use of electronic loads in domestic sectors.

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 Use of energy conservation devices in both domestic and industrial sectors, e.g. electronic chokes for florescent light, electronic controllers for motors. The operation of transformers closure to saturation region for magnetizing curve. Non-sinusoidal air gap flux in synchronous machines. Magnetizing current of saturated reactors. 4.5 EFFECT OF HARMONICS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS: Few cases in that how electrical equipments and circuits affect due to presence of harmonics in power supply system. When complex voltage is applied across circuit containing both inductance and capacitance, it may happen that circuit resonate at one of the harmonic frequencies of applied voltage. If it is a series circuit large current will be produced at resonance, even though the applied voltage due to harmonic may be small. If it is a parallel circuit then at resonant frequency the resultant current drawn from the supply would be minimum. 4.5.1 Effect on rotating machines: Pulsating torque may be produces in rotating machines. Extra audible noise may produce. The losses in machine increase which result into over heating of motor windings and reduction in motors life. 4.5.2 Effect on power systems: Sudden increase in demand reduced capacity of utilization and increased energy losses. Increase in neutral current over loading of diesel generator sets, fire hazards due to burning of over heated cables. Frequent change due to switchgears and controls. Amplification of harmonic current in capacitor banks and frequent failure of Capacitors. Inaccurate and excess recording by energy meters. Interface with communication equipments.

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4.6 MATLAB BASED CIRCUIT FOR AC-DC-AC CONVERSION:

Fig 4.5 Matlab based circuit for HVDC transmission under balanced conditions
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4.6.1 Description of the block diagram: An AC input of 22KV is fed to the transformer circuit where it can be step up or step down according to the purpose. Here it has been stepped-down to a value of 600V. The transformer is considered to be useful for two ways: One for the purpose of step up or step down of voltage Another for the purpose of transmitting and consuming reactive power through out the circuit. This voltage is fed to the rectifier circuit to convert into DC. This voltage is fed through a LC circuit. This combination of diode rectifier along with LC filter is generally used for industrial applications. The capacitor C is mainly used for obtaining constant DC voltage as input to the IGBT PWM inverter. As the name suggests IGBT PWM inverter makes use of IGBTs along with antiparallel diodes for switching purposes. The usage of anti-parallel diodes ensures 4 quadrant operations. IGBTs have been suggested for its excellent properties. Firstly it holds the combined characteristics of both BJTs and MOSFETs. We know that BJT has lower ON-state losses but the drive requirement for BJT is complicated. The drive of MOSFET is very simple but it has higher ON-state losses. Both advantages of the respective non-linear devices are combined and obtained in the IGBT. The IBGT has been mainly preferred for the following reasons: Since it is a voltage control device the drive control is very simple. On-state losses are reduced. Switching frequencies are higher than thyristors. No commutation circuits are required. Gate has full control over IGBT operation. It also has almost flat temperature constant. This inverter makes use of PWM technique for the control of it output voltage. The operation of the PWM inverter has been explained before in section 4.2. The gate pulse to the PWM inverter is generated from the error signal which usually occurs because of the harmonics generated on the AC side due to DC side ripples. The obtained output voltage from the inverter is AC. Also there is a LC circuit which is present between the load and the ends of the inverter which helps in providing forced commutation for the inverter thus ensuring no commutation failure.
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The output voltage from the inverter is considered as the per unit (p.u) values for the sake of convenience of calculation and fed to the voltage regulator where the error present in the output voltage is amplified and the voltage is again fed to the pulse generator to generate pulses which are fed to the inverter. Thus the error content in the signal is reduced considerably. The internal circuits of voltage regulator and pulse generator have been discussed briefly in chapter 5. It should be observed carefully that the active power obtained on the load side and reactive power on the source side of the inverter should be constant for obtaining balanced load condition. Fig 4.6 illustrates the simulation results of the AC-DC-AC PWM converter under balanced load conditions. The DC obtained is almost constant (the slight variations are due the presence of non-linear devices). Also we obtain the line-to-line voltage and the modulation index value in the scope 1 for the Matlab based circuit. 4.6.2 Mathematical analysis of balanced load conditions: For the suggested three phase two level topology SHE-PWM technique has been utilized. Under the balanced load conditions the DC side and AC side of the voltage are assumed to be constant. Therefore the line to neutral voltages can be expressed as follows:

Where o is the operating frequency of the AC and Vdc is the DC link voltage. Thus the line-to-line voltages are given by

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The SHE-PWM offers numerical solutions which are calculated through the fourier series expansion of the waveform

Where N+1 are the switching angles to be found. For N=4 the 5th ,7th ,11th and 13th switching angles are obtained which are further useful for eliminating the respective harmonics. All the harmonics of 3rd multiple are cancelled due to the presence of balanced load condition and all the even harmonics are cancelled due to half wave symmetry. The respective harmonics can be observed in the simulation results in the fig 4.6.

Fig 4.6 Simulated results for balanced load conditions

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40