Unit 2: Digital Mapping

Concepts and Visualization

Map projection
Map projection is the method used to represent the curved surface of the Earth
(which is roughly spherical) on a flat surface like a map or computer screen.
Map projection is a technique to flatten the Earth’s surface for making maps, and
every projection involves some trade-off between accuracy of shape, size,
distance, and direction.

Why is map projection needed?

The Earth is three-dimensional, but maps are two-dimensional. To create a flat
map, we need to "project" the Earth's surface onto a plane — this certainly causes
some bending in one or more of the following:

Shape

Area

Distance

Direction

Types of Map Projections:

Here are a few common types, each designed for specific purposes:

1. Cylindrical Projection

How it works:
The Earth's surface is projected onto a cylinder.

Imagine wrapping a cylinder around the globe, touching it at the equator.

The latitude and longitude lines are stretched into straight lines that intersect
at right angles.

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 Advantages:
Preserves angles and directions very well.

Ideal for marine navigation, where direction is crucial.

Disadvantages:
Severe size distortion near the poles.

For example, Greenland appears as large as Africa, though it's much

smaller in reality.

Not suitable for representing global area distributions accurately.

Use Cases:
Navigation charts

Sea travel

Google Maps

2. Conic Projection

How it works:
Projects the Earth's surface onto a cone placed over the globe.

The cone typically intersects the globe at one or two standard parallels (lines
of latitude).

Good representation between these standard lines; distortion increases

further away from them.

Advantages:
Good for mid-latitude regions .

Balances shape and area distortion well.

Can be made to preserve area or shape.

Disadvantages

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 Not suitable for mapping entire Earth.

Distortion increases away from standard parallels.

Use Cases:
Mapping countries or regions like:

United States

Europe

Russia

3. Azimuthal (Planar) Projection

How it works:
Projects the Earth's surface onto a flat plane that touches the globe at one
point (often a pole).

Distances and directions from the central point are accurate.

Advantages:
Preserves direction and distance from the central point.

Useful for showing great circle routes

Good for air travel maps and polar regions.

Disadvantages:
Only accurate near the center.

Distortion increases rapidly away from the center.

Not suitable for global maps.

Use Cases:
Polar region maps (Arctic, Antarctic)

Radio and aviation route planning

UN emblem (uses azimuthal projection centered on the North Pole)

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 Equal-Area Projection (e.g., Mollweide, Gall-Peters)

Preserves area, but distorts shapes.

Useful for showing global distributions (e.g., population).

Robinson Projection

Compromise projection that minimizes distortion of all elements.

Often used in world maps.

Coordinate System
A coordinate system is a framework used to determine the exact location of a
point or object in space by using numbers (coordinates).

In mapping and geography, a coordinate system allows us to define positions on

the Earth's surface using a set of reference lines.

A coordinate system is the foundation for accurately locating and representing

spatial data on the Earth’s surface. It defines how the two-dimensional map data
corresponds to real-world locations.

There are two types of coordinate systems

1. Geographic coordinate system (GCS) and

2. Projected coordinate system (PCS)

A Geographic coordinate system (GCS) defines where the data
is located on the earth’s surface.
A Projected coordinate system (PCS) tells the data how to draw
curve surface of earth on a flat surface, like on a paper map or a
computer screen.

Some standard coordinate system used are

1. UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator)

2. SPCS (State Plane Coordinate System)

3. MGRS (Military Grid Reference System)

Why It's Important

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 Allows GIS software to understand where features are located.

Ensures different data layers align correctly.

Supports spatial analysis, mapping, and measurement.

Mapping

A
map is a symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually
drawn on a flat surface

Core Elements of a Map / Map Elements

Title: Describes what the map shows

Legend (Key): Explains symbols and colors used on the map

Scale Bar: Shows the map scale for distance measurement

North Arrow: Indicates map orientation

Map Body: The main geographic display area showing features

Labels: Names or descriptions of features on the map

Source/Credits: Information about data sources and map creator

Date: When the map was created or data collected

Inset Map (optional): A smaller map showing location context or details

Types of Maps

Type Description Example

Topographic
Shows elevation, terrain, rivers, and roads Hiking maps
Map

Focuses on a specific theme (population,

Thematic Map Population density map
rainfall)

Shows boundaries of countries, states, and

Political Map Country border map
cities

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 Shows natural features like mountains and
Physical Map World physical map
rivers

Uses colors/shades to represent data COVID-19 infection rate

Choropleth Map
values map

Geographic Features and Attributes in GIS

In GIS (Geographic Information Systems), geographic features represent real-
world elements like rivers, buildings, roads, and mountains. These features are
described both spatially (where they are) and non-spatially (what they are), using
attributes.

Types of Geographic Features:

Feature Type Representation Examples

Point A single coordinate (X, Y) Trees, lamp posts, bus stops

Line Connected series of points Roads, rivers, power lines

Polygon Enclosed area Lakes, buildings, land parcels

Raster Grid of cells (pixels) Satellite images, elevation models

Attributes (Non-Spatial Data)

Attributes are descriptive information about geographic features. They answer
questions like:

What is it?

Who owns it?

What is the population?

When was it built?

✨ Examples of Attributes:
Geographic Feature Attribute Examples

River Name, Length, Flow Rate

Building Owner, Height, Type, Construction Year

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 Road Name, Type (Highway/Street), Speed Limit

City Name, Population, Area, Mayor

Attributes are stored in a table format called an attribute table, where:

Each row represents a geographic feature.

Each column represents an attribute field.

Map Layers
Map layers are different sets of spatial data displayed on a map, each
representing a particular geographic feature type.

Examples include layers for roads, rivers, political boundaries, land use, and
points of interest.

Layers can be independently shown or hidden to focus on specific information

or combined for detailed analysis.

They help organize complex geographic information and enable better

visualization and decision-making in GIS.

Map Scales
Map scale defines the relationship between a distance on the map and the
corresponding distance on the ground.

It can be expressed as:

Verbal scale (e.g., “1 inch equals 1 mile”)

Representative Fraction (RF) (e.g., 1:100,000 means 1 unit on map =

100,000 units on Earth)

Graphic scale (a visual scale bar showing distance)

Large scale maps (like 1:1,000) show small areas with fine details, while small
scale maps (like 1:1,000,000) cover large areas but with less detail.

Choosing the right scale is essential for map accuracy, usability, and detail
representation.

Resolution

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 Resolution refers to the level of detail a map or spatial data can show.

In raster data (like satellite images), resolution is the size of each pixel (e.g., 10
meters means each pixel covers 10m x 10m on the ground).

Higher resolution = more detail (smaller pixels), lower resolution = less detail
(larger pixels).

In vector data, resolution can refer to the precision of points, lines, and
polygons (e.g., how accurately a road’s shape is captured).

Representation
Representation is how geographic features are depicted on a map or in GIS.

It includes symbology like colors, shapes, and symbols used to show different
features (e.g., blue lines for rivers, green areas for forests).

It also involves the scale and abstraction level — not all details are shown to
keep maps clear and understandable.

Good representation balances accuracy with readability, emphasizing

important information while simplifying others.

Map Design
Map design is the art of arranging map elements to create an effective, clear,
and visually appealing map.

It involves choosing appropriate colors, symbols, fonts, and styles to

represent data accurately and understandably.

Good map design ensures the map communicates its message quickly and
reduces confusion.

Key principles include balance, contrast, hierarchy, and simplicity.

Map Layout
Map layout is the arrangement of all map components on the page or screen.

Typical elements include:

Map area (main geographic display)

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 Title (what the map shows)

Legend (explains symbols/colors)

Scale bar (distance reference)

North arrow (orientation)

Labels and source information

A well-organized layout guides the viewer’s eye and enhances usability.

Key Considerations for Map Design and Layout

Define the purpose and target audience

Keep the design simple and clear

Establish a strong visual hierarchy to highlight important features

Use consistent and meaningful colors with good contrast

Select readable fonts and avoid label clutter

Maintain balance and alignment of all map elements

Include an appropriate scale bar for accuracy

Provide a north arrow for orientation

Add a clear legend explaining symbols and colors

Include source information and credits for data credibility

Map Output
The final product of the mapping process, which can be in various forms:

Printed maps (paper maps, posters)

Digital maps (GIS files, PDFs, interactive web maps)

Screenshots or images for presentations

Map output should be clear, accurate, and suitable for its intended use.

Quality of output depends on resolution, scale, and design.

How to Convert Among Coordinate Systems

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 Identify the source and target coordinate systems (e.g., Geographic to UTM)

Check the datum used in both systems (e.g., WGS84, NAD83)

Use mathematical projection formulas to convert between geographic (lat/lon)

and projected coordinates

Apply datum transformation if source and target datums differ

Use GIS software/tools (e.g., QGIS, ArcGIS) to perform automatic conversions

Optionally, perform manual calculations using coordinate conversion formulas

(complex and less common)

Verify converted coordinates for accuracy

Geoid, Ellipsoid, and Datum

1. Geoid:

The geoid is the true shape of the Earth’s mean sea level extended under the
continents.

It represents an irregular, bumpy surface caused by variations in Earth’s

gravity.

Used as a reference for measuring elevations (height above sea level).

2. Ellipsoid:

A smooth, mathematically defined surface that approximates the Earth’s shape

as a flattened sphere (an oblate spheroid).

Defined by parameters such as semi-major axis (equatorial radius) and

flattening.

Easier to work with mathematically than the geoid.

3. Datum:

A datum is a reference system combining an ellipsoid model with an origin

point and orientation.

It provides the framework for measuring locations (latitude, longitude,

elevation) on Earth.

Examples: WGS84, NAD83, ED50.

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 Datums can be local (fitting a specific region) or global (fitting the entire
Earth).

Relationship:

The geoid is the Earth’s actual irregular shape.

The ellipsoid is a simplified, smooth mathematical surface approximating the

geoid.

The datum ties the ellipsoid to the Earth by specifying its position relative to
the geoid, enabling consistent coordinate measurements.

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