Module I

Internet overview
The Internet is a giant network of networks.

 A network may include PCs, and other devices like servers or printers.

 A network is connected through a communication channel.

 Early research was performed by the US Department of Defense in 1962. This research group
established ARPAnet (Advanced Research Project Agency) in order to connect the US Defense
Department network.

What did the Internet come from?

 Original aim was to create a network that would allow users of a research computer at one
university to be able to ‘talk to’ research computers at other universities.

 A side benefit of ARPAnet’s design was that, because messages could be routed or rerouted in
more than one direction, the network could continue to function even if parts of it were destroyed
in the event of a military attack or other disaster.

 The users of the Internet took a direction of their own.

History of the Internet

 The first long distance communication took place in 1965 between a computer in MIT and
California.

 In 1969, four computers clients were connected together via ARPAnet.

How old is the Internet ?

 Leonard Kleinrock is accredited with the idea of packet switching, which describes how data
can be sent across a network. The Ethernet was developed by Xerox during this period. This
was inspired by Robert Metcalfe’s PhD on ‘packet networks’.

 An Ethernet is a protocol for describing how computers can be connected in a LAN (Local Area
network).
  Through the use of Ethernet and ARPAnet the US were able to develop a working network.

 In the late 1970s and early 1980s other networks were developed, e.g. CSNET, USNET and
BITNET. In 1973 Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn created the TCP/IP communication protocols.

 TCP/IP: Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol is a set of rules that describe how
computers can communicate over a network.

 To send information over the Internet, a computer packs data into Internet Protocol (IP) packets
and labels them with the correct address. They are then sent across a packet switched
interconnected network.

Introduction to Data Communication

The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word data refers to
information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data. Data
communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium
such as a wire cable.

Computer Network
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A
node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated
by other nodes on the network.

Software modules in one system are used to communicate with one or more software modules
in the distance System. Such interfaces across a distance are termed as “peer-to-peer” interfaces; and
the local interfaces are termed as “service” interfaces. The modules on each end are organized as a
sequence of functions called “layers”. The set of modules organized as layers is also commonly called
a “protocol stack”.

Over the years, some layered models have been standardized. The ISO Open Systems
Interconnection (ISO/OSI) layered model has seven layers and was developed by a set of committees under
the auspices of International Standards Organization (ISO).

Classification of Computer Networks

1. Based on Transmission Mode

Transmission mode defines the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. There are three types
of transmission modes.

 Simplex

In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. Among the stations only one can transmit and
the other can only receive.

 Half-Duplex

In half-Duplex mode, the communication is bidirectional. In this both station can sent and receive but not
at the same time.

 Full-Duplex

In Full-Duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

2. Based on Time in Transmission Type

 Synchronous Transmission

In synchronous Transmission both the sender and the receiver use the same time cycle forthe transmission.
We send bits one after another without start/stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility of the receiver to
group the bits. Bit stream is delivered with a fixed delay and given error rate. Each bit reaches the
destination with the same time delay after leaving the source.

 Asynchronous Transmission

In Asynchronous Transmission we send one start bit at the beginning and one stop bit at the end of
each byte. There may be a gap between each byte. Bit stream is divided into packets. Packets are received
with varying delays, so packets can arrive out of order. Some packets are not received correctly.

3. Based on Authentication
 Peer to Peer Connection
In peer-to-peer networks, there are no dedicated servers. All the computers are equal and, therefore,
are termed as peers. Normally, each computer functions as both a client and a server. No one can
control the other computers.
  Server Based Connection
Most networks have a dedicated server. A dedicated server is a computer on a network which
functions as a server, and cannot be used as a client or a workstation. A dedicated server is
optimized to service requests from network clients. A server can control the clients for its services.
4. Based on Geographical location
 Local Area Networks (LAN)
LAN is a small high speed network. In LAN few numbers of systems are interconnected with
networking device to create network. As the distance increases between the nodes or system it
speed decreases. So it is limed to few meters only. Networks which cover close geographical area.
LAN used to link the devices in a single office, building or campus. It provides high speeds
over short distance. Systems are connecting directly to Network. The LAN is owned by private
people.

 Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is collection of network (or LAN). This network speed is less than the LAN network
speed.WAN network connect systems indirectly. WAN spread over the world may be spread over
more than one city country or continent. Systems in this network are connected indirectly.
Generally WAN network are slower speed than LAN’s. The WAN network are owned or operated
by network providers. If it is owned by a single owner then it is called Enterprise network. Often
these types have combination of more than one topology.

 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

Metropolitan area network is an extension of local area network to spread over the city. Itmay
be a single network or a network in which more than one local area network canshare their
resources.

5. Based on Reliability
Reliability is maintained by authentication.
 Connection-oriented
 This type of communication establishes a session connection before data can be sent. This
method is often called a "reliable" network service. It can guarantee that data will arrive in the
same order.
 Connection less
This type of communication does not require a session connection between sender and receiver
for data transfer. The sender simply starts sending packets to the destination. A connectionless
network provides minimal services.

Topology
Topology refers to physical layout including computers, cables, and other resources; it
determines how components communicate with each other.

Today’s network designs are based on three topologies:

 Bus consists of series of computers connected along a single cable segment
 Star connects computers via central connection point or hub
 Ring connects computers to form a loop
All computers, regardless of topology, communicate by addressing data to one or more computers
and transmitting it across cable as electronic signals. Data is broken into packets and sent as electronic
signals that travel on the cable. Only the computer to which the data is addressed accepts it.

Protocol
Protocols mean set of rules. It is a formal description of message formats and the rules two or more
machines has follow to exchange messages. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and
timing.
 Syntax
Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented.
 Semantics
Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
 Timing
Timing refers to when data should be sent and how fast it can be sent.
 Internetworking Technologies
Internetworking Technologies tell how the Internet accommodating multiple underlying hardware
technologies and how they are interconnected and formed the network, and set of communication standard
which the network used to inter-operate.

The lowercase internet means multiple networks connected together, using a common protocol
suite. The uppercase Internet refers to the collection of hosts around the world that can communicate with
each other using TCP/IP. While the Internet is an internet, the reverse is not true.

Network Infrastructure or Transmission Infrastructure:

Network infrastructure is divided into two parts.

1. Access Networks
An access network is the part of a telecommunications network which connects end system to the first
router or subscribers to their immediate service provider as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 Network Infrastructure

It is different from core network which connects all the routers to each other and ISP(Internet service
provider). An access network may be a so-called local area network within a company or university, a
dial telephone line with a modem, or a high-speed cable-based or phone-based access network.
Access networks can be loosely divided into three categories:
 Residential access networks, connecting a home end system into the network.

 Institutional access networks, connecting an end system in a business or educational institution into
the network.

 Mobile access networks, connecting a mobile end system into the network

Core Networks:
Core network connects all the routers to each other and ISP (Internet service provider). It is a main
back bone for internet. Core network uses circuit switching and packet switching for data transmission.

ISPs :(Internet Service Provider)

In internet bottom-to-top the hierarchy consists of end systems (PCs, workstations, etc.) connected
to local Internet Service Providers (ISPs). The local ISPs are in turn connected to regional ISPs, which
are in turn connected to national and international ISPs. The national and international ISPs are connected
together at the highest tier in the hierarchy.

Let's begin at the top of the hierarchy and work our way down. Residing at the very top of the
hierarchy are the national ISPs, which are called National Backbone Provider (NBPs). The NBPs
form independent backbone networks that span North America (and typically abroad as well). Just as there
are multiple long-distance telephone companies in the USA, there are multiple NBPs that compete
with each other for traffic and customers. The existing NBPs include internetMCI, SprintLink, PSINet,
UUNet Technologies, and AGIS. The NBPs typically have high-bandwidth transmission links, with
bandwidths ranging from 1.5 Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher. Each NBP also has numerous hubs which
interconnect its links and at which regional ISPs can tap into the NBP.

The NBPs themselves must be interconnected to each other. To see this, suppose one regional ISP,
say MidWestnet, is connected to the MCI NBP and another regional ISP, say EastCoastnet, is connected
to Sprint's NBP. How can traffic be sent from MidWestnet to EastCoastnet? The solution is to introduce
switching centers, called Network Access Points (NAPs), which interconnect the NBPs,
thereby allowing each regional ISP to pass traffic to any other regional ISP. To keep us all confused,
some of the NAPs are not referred to as NAPs but instead as MAEs (Metropolitan Area Exchanges).

Component of Internet:
A network (or internet) is formed using Hardware (or network device) and network software or
Application and protocols.
Hardware or Network device:
1. Hub:
 It is uses to connect systems or nodes or networks.
 It has direct connection to a node (point to point connection).
 It suffers from high collision of data, results to data loss.
 A hub takes data from input port and retransmits the input data on output port.

2. Repeater:
 A repeater is a device which regenerates or amplifies the data or signal so that it can be
travel to the other segment of cable.
 It is use to connect two networks that uses same technology and protocol.
 It does not filter or translate any data.
 Work in physical layer.

3. Bridge:
 It is used to connect two networks.
 It divides the collision domain based on number of ports or interface present in a bridge.
 It uses the packet switches that forward and filter the frames using LAN destination address.
 Bridge examines the destination address of frame and forwards it to the interface or port
which leads to the destination.
 It uses the routing table for routing frame from one node to other using MAC address.
 It works in Data Link Layer.

4. Switch :
 It is similar to bridge. It has more number of interfaces as compared to bridge.
 It allows direct communication between the nodes.
  It works in Data Link Layer.
 It uses MAC address for data transmission and communication.
5. Router:
 It is used to connect different types of network (types- architecture/ Protocol).
 It work similar to bridge but it uses IP address for routing data.
 Router can't be used for connecting Systems.
 It works in Network Layer.
6. Gateways:
Gateways make communication possible between systems that use different communication
protocols, data formatting structures, languages and architectures. Gateways repackage data going
from one system to another. Gateways are usually dedicated servers on a network and are task-
specific.

System, Software and Protocols:

Basically two types of system are used in Internet
 Client system: User which access data from internet.
 Server System: Host data for users using HTML files.

Software or Applications and protocols:

 Chat- IRC (Internet Relay Chat) is used for live discussions on the Internet.

 Ecommerce - Taking orders for products and services on the Internet.

 E-mail - Exchanging electronic letters, messages, and small files.

 FTP - File Transfer Protocol is the most common method of transferring files between computers
via the Internet.

 Hosting - Making information available to others on the Internet.

 Search Engines - These tools are really a part of the World Wide Web and are often used when
looking for information because the Web has grown so large and is without any inherent
organizational structure.

 Telnet - Creation of a dumb terminal session to a host computer in order to run software
applications on the host system.
  World Wide Web - This is largest, fastest growing, part of the Internet, the part for which Internet
browsers like Netscape’s Navigator and Microsoft’s Explorer were designed. Business is the
leading factor fueling the rapid growth of the Web making information, advertising, and product
ordering readily available to everyone with Web access.

 TCP/IP
 Browser

WAN Protocols
 Frame Relay
Frame relay is used to connect large number of sites in the network because it is relatively
inexpensive to do so. The service provider gives you a frame relay circuit and is charged for the
amount of data and the bandwidth you use as oppose to T1 circuit that charges with a flat monthly
rate whether you use partial bandwidth or the full bandwidth regardless. Frame relay is a high
performance WAN protocol that operates at the Data Link layer and the Physical layer of the OSI
model.

 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is designed to run over existing telephone
networks. It can deliver end to end digital service carrying voice and data. ISDN operates at
OSI model, physical layer, data link layer and network layer. It can carry multimedia and graphics
with all other voice, data services. ISDN supports all upper layer protocols and you can choose
PPP, HDLC or LAPD as your encapsulation protocol. It has two offerings, Primary rate which is
23B+D channels. 23, 64 kbps and one 64kbps mainly used for signaling. The other is the Basic
Rate which has 2B+D channels two 64kbps and one 16kbps. At data link layer ISDN supports
two protocols; LAPB and LAPD. LAPB is used to mainly transfer data from upper layers and has
three types of frames. I-Frames carry upper layer information and carries out sequencing, flow
control, error detection and recovery. S- Frames carry control information for the I-frame. LAPD
provides an additional multiplexing function to the upper layers enabling number of network
entities to operate over a single physical access. Each individual link procedure acts independently
of others. The multiplex procedure combines and distributes the data link channels according to
the address information of the frame. Each link is associated with a specific Service Access
Point (SAP), which is identified in the part of the address field.
  High Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
High Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit oriented data link layer frame protocol that
has many versions similar to LAP, LAPB, and LAPD. CISCO routers default encapsulation is
HDLC, but it is proprietary to CISCO.

OSI model
OSI (Open System Interconnection), developed by the International Organizationfor
Standardization (ISO), was the solution designed to promote interoperabilitybetween vendors. It
defines architecture for communications that support distributed processing.
The OSI model describes the functions that allow systemsto communicate successfully over
a network. Using what is called a layeredapproach, communications functions are broken down
into seven distinct layers.

Figure 2 Interaction between layers in OSI model.

 The seven layers, beginning with the bottom layer of the OSI model, are shown in
figure 2.Routers are used as intermediate node to create a link between A and B end system.
OSI model layers are dependent on each other. Each layer serves the upper layer and
also depends upon the services from the lower layer.
OSI model also provide the layer abstraction. Layers are dependent on each other for
services but in terms of protocol they are independent.
In each layer information is added into original data as header but in data link layer
trailer is added into the data as shown in figure xxxxxxx

Figure 3 Exchange of data using OSI model

OSI Model Layer

Layer 1: Physical Layer
▪ It defines the transmission of data across the communications medium and
translation of binary data into signals.
▪ Mode of transmission over the link i.e Simplex or Half Duplex or Full Duplex
▪ It defines the transmission rate of bits per second.
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
▪ It divides the data into number of frames.
▪ It uses the MAC address for sending frames from one node to other.
▪ It provides flow control, error control and access control.
Layer 3: Network Layer
▪ It divides data into number of packets.
▪ It uses IP address for routing packets to their destination.
▪ It provides end to end connection.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
▪ It divides message into segments and also reassemble the segments to create
original message.
▪ It can be either connection-oriented or connectionless.
▪ It uses service-point address or port address for process to process
communication.
▪ Flow control and error control also provided by transport layer.
Layer 5: Session Layer
▪ Session Layer establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction among
communicatingsystems.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
▪ It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
informationexchangedbetweentwo systems.
▪ It translates information from text/numeric into bit stream.
▪ It also encrypts the information for security purpose and compress the
information to reduce the number of bits in the information.
Layer 7: Application Layer
▪ It provides the interface to the end user and supports for services such as Email,
file transfer and distributed information service.

OSI Model and Protocol stack

Layer Protocol
 Application HTTP, FTP, SMTP,TELNET
Presentation JPG, GIF, MPEG,
Session TCP 3-way Handshaking
Transport TCP, UDP
Network IP, IPX
Data Link Ethernet, Token Ring, HDLC
Physical X.21, RS-232, DS, DS3

TCP/IP model
• TCP/IP protocol suite was developed before the OSI model.
• TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating computers to share resources
across a network.
• In 1969 the Defense Advanced research projects Agency (DARPA) funded a research and
development project to create an experimental packet switching network. This network is
called ARPANET.
• In 1975 the ARPANET was converted from an experimental network to an operational network,
and the responsibility for administering the network was given to the Defense Communication
Agency (DCA).
• The TCP/IP protocols were adopted as Military Standards (MIL STD) in 1983, and all hosts
connected to the network were required to convert to the new protocols.
• DARPA funded to implement TCP/IP in BerkelyUnix.
• In 1983, the old ARPANET was divided into MILNET and smaller ARPANET. The Internet was
used to refer to the entire network; MILNET and ARPANET.

Advantages of TCP/IP
Open protocol standards, freely available and developed independently from any specific computer
hardware or operating system. A common addressing scheme which is enable to connect the most widely
used networks. It may use any protocols. It connects dissimilar systems. It provides client/server
framework. It provides access to the Internet

Differences of the OSI and TCP/IP models

 TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer into its application layer.
TCP/IPcombines the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer. TCP/IP
appears simpler because it has fewer layers. TCP/IP transport layer using UDP does
not always guarantee reliable deliveryof packets as the transport layer in the OSI model
does.