12/06/2025, 10:40 Course Transcript

CompTIA Network+: IPv4 Network Addressing

IP addressing is a fundamental aspect of computer networking. It allows devices to communicate
with each other within a network and across the Internet. In this course, learn about the
fundamentals of public and private IP addresses, including the differences between IPv4 and IPv6
addresses and the purpose and characteristics of link-local and loopback addresses and default
gateway. Next, examine the basics behind base-2 conversions and binary values and IPv4 classes A,
B, C, D, and E. Finally, explore supernetting and IPv6 concepts, subinterfaces, and virtual IP
addresses. This course is one of a collection that helps prepare learners for the CompTIA Network+
(N10-009) certification exam.

Table of Contents
1. Video: Course Overview (it_csnetp24_06_enus_01)
2. Video: Public vs. Private IP Addresses (it_csnetp24_06_enus_02)
3. Video: Default Gateway, Loopback, and Link-Local (it_csnetp24_06_enus_03)
4. Video: Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA) (it_csnetp24_06_enus_04)
5. Video: RFC 1918 (it_csnetp24_06_enus_05)
6. Video: Base-2 Conversions and Binary Values (it_csnetp24_06_enus_06)
7. Video: Exploring the Fundamentals of Subnetting (it_csnetp24_06_enus_07)
8. Video: Subnetting a Class C Network (it_csnetp24_06_enus_08)
9. Video: Subnetting a Class B Network (it_csnetp24_06_enus_09)
10. Video: Subnetting a Class A Network (it_csnetp24_06_enus_10)
11. Video: Supernetting Strategies (it_csnetp24_06_enus_11)
12. Video: Calculating Subnet Boundaries (it_csnetp24_06_enus_12)
13. Video: Course Summary (it_csnetp24_06_enus_13)

1. Video: Course Overview (it_csnetp24_06_enus_01)

In this video, we will discover the key concepts covered in this course.

discover the key concepts covered in this course

[Video description begins] Topic title: Course Overview. Presented by: Aaron Sampson. [Video
description ends]

Hi, my name is Aaron Sampson. Throughout this course, I'll guide participants in distinguishing
between public and private IP addresses beginning with a detailed overview of RFC 1918.
We'll explore the functions and purposes of link-local addresses, the loopback address, and the
default gateway, as well as the fundamentals of Automatic Private IP Addressing, or APIPA and
the Extended Unique Identifier or EUI-64.

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We'll also cover RFC 1918 with respect to how organizations can utilize these addresses for
internal host addressing. Participants will gain hands-on knowledge in performing base-2
conversions and working with binary values, laying the foundation for understanding
subnetting. Then we'll delve into subnetting fundamentals, covering binary to decimal
conversions, subnet sizing, and classless Inter-Domain Routing or CIDR notations.

We'll learn how to subnet Class A, B, and C networks, enabling more efficient and effective
network addressing. Lastly, I'll introduce supernetting strategies which can allow you to
aggregate IP addresses to simplify routing, and we'll conclude by calculating subnet
boundaries, helping participants to identify the usable address ranges within subnets. This
course is part of a comprehensive learning path designed to help participants prepare for the
CompTIA Network+ certification exam, equipping them with the necessary skills to manage IP
addressing and subnetting tasks in real-world networking environments.

2. Video: Public vs. Private IP Addresses (it_csnetp24_06_enus_02)

After completing this video, you will be able to outline RFC 1918 and the key differences
between public and private IP addresses.

outline RFC 1918 and the key differences between public and private IP addresses

[Video description begins] Topic title: Public vs. Private IP Addresses. Presented by: Aaron
Sampson. [Video description ends]

In this presentation, we'll examine the difference between public and private IP addresses,
which is something that was defined using a process known as RFC, which stands for Request
for Comment, and it essentially is the process by which TCP/IP itself was and continues to be
developed. The RFC process came about because no one owns TCP/IP, so in short, anyone can
propose that a new feature or component be implemented.

So RFCs are, in essence, the collection of these proposals. Then they're reviewed by various
other entities and ultimately implemented if accepted, and each one is indicated by a number.
So public and private IP addresses were proposed in RFC 1918, which was implemented quite
some time ago in 1996, but it categorized the types of networks that would be in use, including
category 1, which is a LAN only with no kind of external communication required.

So for example, you could just plug 10 or 12 computers into a switch and you could address
each one so that they could communicate with each other, and that's it, you have a LAN. But of
course, there is no external connectivity in this example. Category 2 is still a LAN, but with
limited access to outside resources.

Now this might not be particularly common anymore, but that limited access might have been
something like a dedicated service such as email. But accessing that service would still require
an address that is able to work on an external network. Hence it would need what's now known
as a public IP address. Much more common these days are Category 3 networks, which is full
Internet access, which of course, almost every LAN environment needs.

So with both category 2 and 3, in order to communicate with other systems on your LAN, you
can use private or internal IP addresses. But when it comes to getting to the public Internet,

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you need a public IP address. Now, the primary reason why both types of addresses are used
with IPv4 is simply due to the unanticipated growth of the Internet.

We'll talk about this in greater detail later on, but in version 4 the address is made-up from 32
bits, which means that there are two to the power of 32 possible addresses when using IPv4.
Now, that's approximately 4 billion possible addresses in total, which might seem like a lot, but
given how many devices there are these days, especially with the prevalence of mobile devices,
4 billion is not nearly enough to publicly address every single device that needs an IP address.
So the public addresses are used much more sparingly these days, and in most cases, they're
managed and assigned to you by your Internet service provider.

But private addresses can be used pretty much at the discretion of the organization, and
various ranges of addresses have been designated and reserved as private, which means that
any of us can use the same private addresses over and over again with no effect on the public
Internet. Just as a quick example, if you have a small office of, let's say 100 computers, you can
use any of the reserved private address ranges however you like to address your systems.

If an office right next to you also has 100 computers, they could use the exact same range of
addresses, but neither of you would interfere with the other because the only addresses that
would be visible to the public Internet would be the addresses assigned to each company by
their respective Internet service providers. And in each case, only one public address is needed
on the outward facing interface of the router which connects each office to the ISP and
therefore the rest of the world.

So by using the private address ranges over and over again internally, it prevents the depletion
of the public address space. And you may have noticed this yourself even in home
environments. If you look at the IP addresses for any of the devices in your home, it's quite
likely the address begins with something like 192.168.something.something.

But if you go to a friend's house and connect your phone to their Wi-Fi, it's quite likely that
you'll still see an address of 192.168.something.something. Now, the .something.something
means that it can be just about any value. So you might not see the same address, but both of
those addresses come from the same private address range. And again, they can be used over
and over again because those addresses are never visible on the public Internet.

So as mentioned, public addresses are those that are visible to anyone on the Internet, which
means that you essentially have access to them from anywhere in the world as long as you have
Internet connectivity. And of course, one of the most common examples that we all use is when
we're connecting to web servers to browse the Internet. Any time you go to a website, you are
simply requesting a document from a server somewhere on the Internet. But of course, the
organization that owns that website wants it to be available to anyone and everyone, so it
needs to be publicly available.

By contrast, private IP addresses on their own do not have access to the Internet. They're
reserved portions of the overall address space that have been dedicated for use on internal
LANs only. But even internal LANs can still be quite large. So my earlier example of the two
companies with 100 computers would be examples of fairly small networks.

Some very large organizations could have thousands upon thousands of devices, so they would
need far more addresses overall, and we'll come to those larger address spaces in just a
moment. But when it comes to networking, having a single very large network is actually not as
efficient as having multiple smaller networks. So, large networks can be broken down into
smaller sub networks or subnets for better management. Again, we'll talk about that in much
greater detail as we move through this course.

So then if we compare the two, public addresses do need to be unique on the public Internet.
So, for example, if you go to a browser and you simply want to access a web page, the address
of that web server needs to be unique across the entire public Internet. If there were two
addresses that were the same, then our client would know which address to use. But when
you're dealing with an internal network, we're all shielded, so to speak, from the rest of the
Internet by our routers, and we'll talk about that in our next video as well.

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So we can all use private addresses in any manner that works for our network configuration. So
again, if I'm configuring an internal network and you're configuring an internal network, we can
both use the exact same private address configuration in our respective environments without
issue. So, coming back to the reserved private address ranges, there are three general ranges
that correspond to the size of the network you need to address.

And they're also labeled using classes, which is something else that we'll talk about later. But
the first range of addresses is known as Class A and they go from 10.0.0.0 through to
10.255.255.255 and it uses an 8-bit subnet mask by default. Something else that we'll talk
about later but it's numerical value is 255.0.0.0 and Class A addresses can accommodate very
large networks.

Then the second range is known as Class B and it uses 172.16.0.0 through 172.31.255.255 with
a 16-bit subnet mask or 255.255.0.0. Class B addresses can be used for medium-sized
networks. And lastly we have Class C which goes from 192.168.0.0 through 192.168.255.255
which by default uses a 24-bit subnet mask or 255.255.255.0 and these are used for small
networks. And again, I would say that it's quite likely that if you are on a home network right
now, then this is probably the value that you would be seeing in use.

Most home routers default to a Class C configuration, but this is why you often see the same
address ranges being used over and over again in internal environments. Because my network
can't communicate with your network unless they do so across the Internet by going through
routers. But routers only use the public addresses on the interface that connects to the
Internet to talk to each other. So all of the internal private addresses are fully shielded from the
Internet. So in the end, we can all use these private address ranges without depleting the public
address space at all, with the exception of the public addresses we need on our routers.

3. Video: Default Gateway, Loopback, and Link-Local (it_csnetp24_06_enus_03)

Upon completion of this video, you will be able to identify the purpose and characteristics of link-
local and loopback addresses and a default gateway.

identify the purpose and characteristics of link-local and loopback addresses and a default gateway

[Video description begins] Topic title: Default Gateway, Loopback, and Link-Local. Presented
by: Aaron Sampson. [Video description ends]

In this video, we'll take a look at the default gateway and the role it plays in your TCP/IP
configuration, as well as the loopback address and what's known as a link-local address. So
beginning with the default gateway, in simple terms, this is the IP address of the router on your
network, which itself is what enables your system to communicate with systems on another
network, perhaps the most common example being the Internet.

In other words, it's what routes traffic from the source network to the destination network. So
in short, without an address for a default gateway in your local TCP/IP configuration, your
system cannot communicate outside of your network, whether that means the Internet or even
just another network in your own environment. In terms of how that works, we can use a fairly
simple example of maybe even just a home network where you might have a desktop computer,
perhaps a mobile device, maybe even a printer.

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And each one of those devices would have its own unique IP address within the internal
network. And one of the interfaces of the router itself would also have an address that is part
of that same internal network. But all three devices would see that single interface,
192.168.1.1 in this example, as the default gateway.

In other words, all devices on this same network, all use the same default gateway. But every
router has at least two interfaces, and the other interface in this case is the one that connects
to the public Internet. Again, this public address is typically provided by our Internet service
providers and as a public address, it's visible to the rest of the world so to speak, so that any of
our internal devices can use it to communicate with any device on the Internet.

Now in terms of some of the options for implementing a default gateway, by far the most
common method is to use a router. So you'll often hear the term gateway and router used quite
interchangeably these days, and in day-to-day conversation, that's fine. The device itself is
referred to as a router, but its functionality is to act as a gateway because it's the exit point for
our internal devices and conversely the access point for all incoming traffic.

Now just using the example of a small office or even home environments, if we go back quite a
ways, before the days of high-speed Internet, all routing was performed by your Internet
service provider. Because we didn't have routers installed in our homes, we had to use our
phone lines to establish a direct connection to the ISP. But that was not really a routable
connection.

It was known as a point-to-point connection. Then they would handle all of the routing. But
again, that's quite out of date these days. But for larger internal environments, standard
network servers can be configured to act as routers. As long as that server has at least two
network adapters installed with IP addresses that are each on different networks, then most
operating systems provide routing services. So this can in some cases be a less expensive
option as compared to purchasing an official router for lack of a better word.

Especially if you have some legacy servers that aren't in use very much anymore because
routing in this kind of configuration isn't a particularly demanding process, so that server
doesn't need very high specs in terms of hardware. The loopback address, also known as the
localhost address, is quite literally an address that will loop traffic back to the network adapter
from which it originated.

You might also hear the term home address, but in IPv4 the address is always 127.0.0.1 and in
IPv6, it's all 0s then a 1. But with IPv6, if you have consecutive zeros, they can all be condensed
down into two colons and it's understood that everything in between the colons is a 0.

Now the address itself is not used for any type of communication on the LAN because again,
packets that are sent to this address will actually never leave that local adapter. They will just
bounce back if you will. But they can be used for diagnostic purposes. For example, if you have
just installed a new network adapter and you just want to test to see if it's working, you can
execute a command known as ping against the loopback address. So, assuming the version 4
address here from a command prompt on a Windows system, you could just type in ping space
127.0.0.1 and hit Enter.

If you see a reply, it means that TCP/IP has successfully installed itself onto that adapter. So
again, it's typically used for diagnostic purposes. Lastly, the link-local address can be used to
provide systems with connectivity within the local network only. Now, you might think that the
IP addresses we saw earlier such as 192.168.1.5 and 192.168.1.12 would already allow you to
communicate within your local network, and you would be entirely correct.

But the keyword here is only in that the link-local address can only be used on that single
network. In other words, it's non-routable. It cannot be used to contact your router or in turn
to connect to the Internet. Now as a more practical explanation as to what they're used for,
most devices on most networks receive their IP address configuration automatically through a
process known as Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol or DHCP, whereby a server or a router
on your network provides you with your address information automatically.

But there could be a scenario where perhaps the DHCP server goes down, in which case client
systems cannot receive their addresses, which then invokes a process known as Automatic IP
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Addressing or APIPA, which we'll talk about in our next video. But in essence, it means that the
client systems that are unable to get an address will each assign themselves an address that
falls within the same range of 169.254.something.something/16, which is a Class B or a
medium-sized network, or the fe80::/64 address range for IPv6.

But in either case, all systems will use these addresses so that they can at least communicate
with each other. Again, they can't be used to connect to your routers, but they do provide at
least local connectivity. Plus they're also useful for diagnostics because if you find these
addresses on any device in your network, then it indicates that your DHCP server has gone
down.

Ultimately, the default gateway is the only address that needs to be configured on any client
device. The loopback address is built into the protocol itself and APIPA addresses will only
appear if DHCP services have failed. So just be sure that all devices that need external
connectivity are configured with a default gateway.

4. Video: Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA) (it_csnetp24_06_enus_04)

In this video, we will describe Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA) solutions, including
Extended Unique Identifier (EUI-64).

describe Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA) solutions, including Extended Unique Identifier
(EUI-64)

[Video description begins] Topic title: Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA). Presented by:
Aaron Sampson. [Video description ends]

In this presentation, we'll take a closer look at Automatic Private IP Addressing, or APIPA. Now,
we touched on this in the previous video, but there are some additional considerations that
we'll examine this time. But to quickly recap, this is something that's used in an environment
that typically relies on having a DHCP server or Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol,
wherein a server or a router is configured with a pool of addresses that will be assigned to
client devices automatically. When a DHCP client device boots up, it will submit a request for
an IP configuration, which the DHCP server will issue. And perhaps more to the point, you do
not have to manually configure all of the client devices on your network.

But if for any reason the DHCP server were to go down, then some clients might be unable to
obtain an IP address configuration, in which case APIPA will automatically assign itself an IP
address. So, this can help to simplify the LAN configuration, but only to a degree in that any
client systems that do use APIPA to self-assign their own address configurations will not be
able to communicate with other systems who still have a valid IP address configuration from
when the DHCP server was still functioning.

But any and all clients that use APIPA will at least be able to communicate with each other. So
it's a fairly basic and minimally functional fix. But perhaps most notably, they won't be able to
reach their default gateway, which in turn disables Internet access as well. So when Internet
access is lost, you'll very quickly start to receive support calls. But in that regard, APIPA is
actually fairly useful as a diagnostics tool, because as soon as you start to see these addresses
pop up on your network, you almost certainly know that there's something wrong with your
DHCP server.
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So let's take a closer look at that process from the perspective of a client system. Again, the
default configuration of most client devices is to use DHCP to request an address, so if your
client cannot find a DHCP server then it will assign itself an IP address, as will any other clients
who need one.

All local clients that do use APIPA can then at least find each other by using a protocol known
as ARP or Address Resolution Protocol which is responsible for resolving your MAC address to
your IP address. But ARP works at layer 2 of the OSI model, which is also where switches
operate. Therefore, local clients connected by the same switches can still communicate with
each other using APIPA addresses.

In IPv4, the APIPA range is always 169.254.0.0 through to 169.254.255.255, which is a Class B
address range which can support approximately 65,000 hosts. So, APIPA can theoretically
allow many clients to communicate, but the routers on your network would never be using any
kind of dynamically assigned address.

It's always going to be statically assigned, meaning that it never changes, and it's never going to
be an address that falls within the APIPA range because those addresses are reserved for
APIPA. So as soon as any client system initializes with an APIPA address, it can no longer
contact the router and all external connectivity, including Internet access, is lost. Now, as
mentioned, APIPA can be good for diagnosing problems because it immediately suggests that
you should investigate your DHCP servers.

But addresses that are assigned through DHCP also have a lease duration or a validity period
of usually around a week or at least a few days, but that can vary to quite a degree. But the
point is that you might not even realize that there could be an issue with your DHCP server if
there are no clients that are actively trying to obtain a new lease. For easy visualization, let's
just imagine that all client devices happened to boot up and request an address on Monday
morning.

If the lease duration is one week, then all of those systems will keep using whatever address
they received for that period. So if then your DHCP server were to fail on Tuesday, no clients
would be requesting addresses. So you might not even realize that there is a problem with the
DHCP server. So you should still check the status of any server fairly regularly, because for
almost any service that has failed, notifications or log entries would be generated indicating
that the failure occurred.

Now as we just saw, the address space used for APIPA in IP version 4 supports around 65,000
hosts, which is clearly a very large number of hosts. But each host will randomly assign an
address from within that range, which does introduce a very small possibility that two hosts
could initialize with the same address.

Again, that's highly unlikely, but in IPv6, an Extended Unique Identifier or EUI-64 can be used,
which is a method hosts to self-assign an address that is guaranteed to be unique. Firstly, the
64 in the name means that it uses a 64-bit address, which is actually only half of the full IPv6
address space, but that range is enormously larger than 65,000 hosts.

It's 2 to the power of 64, which I can't even express in terms of numbers, so it's already almost
impossible that any 2 hosts would initialize with the same address. But it includes as part of the
address the 48-bit MAC address that you already have, which is a permanent value that is
always assigned to your local network adapter. And it's always unique and it never changes.

So since that unique value is included as part of the address, there is no possibility of a
duplicate address occurring. And since the address space is so vast, using EUI-64 can eliminate
the need for manual configurations and the need for DHCP. And if you aren't using DHCP, then
you also don't need APIPA because every device will already have its own unique address with
no manual configurations required. Now, that all said, DHCP is fully supported with IPv6 so if
you still want to control the address configuration of your clients, then by all means you can
continue to do so.

In terms of the structure of this address, again it builds on your existing MAC address, which is
always 48 bits. Then it divides that into two sections of 24 bits each. Now, the values
themselves are expressed in hexadecimals, which are the letters and numbers that we see here.
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But each pair of characters requires 8 bits to express, so with six pairs at 8 bits per pair, that's
48 bits.

The first section is referred to as an Organizationally Unique Identifier, or OUI, which actually
refers to the manufacturer of the interface. Then the second portion is referred to as the
Network Interface Card, representing that specific adapter. EUI-64 then splits those two
sections down the middle and inserts the additional 4 characters of FF, FE to get it up to 64 bits.

That whole 64-bit section then represents the unique host portion of the IP address. And since
the entire address in IPv6 is 128 bits, the other 64 bits represent the network address portion.
But again, since this value is always based on the MAC address, which is already guaranteed to
be unique, all IPv6 addresses will also be unique when using EUI-64.

So it's certainly up to you with respect to how you want to implement your addressing and how
you want to manage addressing in the absence of DHCP. But both APIPA and EUI-64 can help
to ensure that at least some level of communications can still occur on your network should
DHCP fail.

5. Video: RFC 1918 (it_csnetp24_06_enus_05)

Through this video, you will be able to recognize how organizations use RFC 1918 IP addresses to
assign to internal hosts.

recognize how organizations use RFC 1918 IP addresses to assign to internal hosts

[Video description begins] Topic title: RFC 1918. Presented by: Aaron Sampson. [Video
description ends]

In this presentation, we'll take a closer look at RFC 1918, which again stands for Request for
Comment, and also recall that RFCs are essentially the means by which TCP/IP is developed,
since it isn't owned by any single entity. Now, it's official purpose is to define the IP address
allocation for private Internets, which for all intents and purposes means internal LANs.

And it was proposed as a memorandum by the Internet Engineering Task Force, or IETF, which
itself is a standards organization for the Internet, responsible for the technical standards that
make up the Internet Protocol Suite, among other things. But the purpose of the RFC is to
detail the methods for assigning private IP addresses on TCP/IP networks so that public
addresses don't have to be used.

Now this came about because the overall address space in IP version 4 simply is not large
enough to assign public IP addresses to every single device on the Internet. So by dedicating a
few ranges for internal use only, it prevents the exhaustion of the public address space.

It expands the usable IP addresses that can be used internally, or to state that more accurately,
the addresses that can be reused internally because these address ranges are never exposed to
the public Internet. Therefore, any organization can use the exact same internal addressing
scheme as any other organization without causing any conflicts or communication issues. This
can greatly help to simplify your network setup as well, because internal addresses do not have
to be registered with any kind of registration authority, whereas public addresses do.

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Now, just quickly on that note, in order to connect to the Internet, any given organization
needs at least one public IP address. And in most cases, that address is provided to us by our
local Internet service provider. So they're the entity that effectively owns that public address,
so to speak, meaning that they're the entity responsible for registering it. They just assign it to
us for as long as we need it and continue to pay for it.

But if we were to change providers, we would have to relinquish that address. But private
addresses can be used by anyone in any manner that suits their needs, with no registrations
required. Now the address ranges themselves were covered earlier, but to recap, private Class
A network goes from 10.0.0.0 through to 10.255.255.255.

The private Class B range goes from 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 and the private Class C
goes from 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255. Now since these ranges have been reserved for
internal use only, they are not going to be unique in terms of the entire Internet. Remember
that your organization might use the exact same address configuration as mine, but again, since
they are not unique, they are never exposed to, nor routed to the public Internet.

So, that raises an important question. If these addresses can't be used on the public Internet,
then how is it that systems on internal networks are able to access the public Internet? For
example, all of you watching this video right now are almost certainly using a device that has a
private internal IP address, but the web server you're connected to is on the public Internet,
and it has to deliver its content back to your specific device.

So if your private address is never exposed to the public Internet, then how is the web server
with its public IP address even able to communicate with your system? Well, enter Network
Address Translation, or NAT, which is a service specifically designed to solve this problem.

It allows internal networked systems to communicate with systems on the Internet by

translating the IP addresses used within one network to those used by another. Now, to give
you a more specific example of what that means. For starters, recall that to communicate with
any system on any network other than your own, you have to go through your default gateway
or your router. And every router has at least two interfaces, one on each network to which it
connects.

So, perhaps the most common implementation of this is a local client on their LAN who wants
to connect to the Internet. So let's assume that the local client device is using the private
address of 192.168.1.100, and the default gateway for that client would be something like
192.168.1.1. So, that's the interface of the router that is connected to the internal LAN.

However, the interface that's connected to the Internet has to have a public IP address. Now,
just for the sake of simplicity, let's just imagine that address is 1.2.3.4. OK, so for all
communications using TCP/IP, the packets sent out have to include the destination address to
indicate where they're going, and a return address so that the remote system knows where to
send its packets back.

And it's the return address that represents the problem in this case, because the local client
will list 192.168.1.100 as the return address, but if the web server on the Internet attempted
to send its packets back to that address, they would never reach the client because private
addresses are never routed onto the public Internet. But recall that the packets from the client
had to go through the router. So from the perspective of the web server, the package did not
come from the client address of 192.168.1.100.

They came from the router address of 1.2.3.4. So that's where the web server sends its packets
back, because that is a public address that is visible to the web server. So you can think of NAT
as the job of the router to remember that the original request came from 192.168.1.100 so
that when it receives the packets back from the web server, it can forward them on to the
original client device.

So, through the use of NAT, every client on the internal LAN appears as if its return address is
1.2.3.4. Hence every LAN client is able to access the public Internet through the router. So
ultimately, this is why we're able to preserve so much of the public IP address space, because
any given organization now only needs one public IP address instead of one for every system.

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Now, very large organizations might still need many public addresses if they have many
internal networks, but they would still only need one public address per network, again greatly
reducing the number of public addresses that are needed. So, RFC 1918 in combination with
NAT enables us to use very simple and easy to implement address configurations internally
while still providing access to the public Internet without exhausting the public address space.

6. Video: Base-2 Conversions and Binary Values (it_csnetp24_06_enus_06)

After completing this video, you will be able to outline how to perform base-2 conversions and
work with binary values.

outline how to perform base-2 conversions and work with binary values

[Video description begins] Topic title: Base-2 Conversions and Binary Values. Presented by:
Aaron Sampson. [Video description ends]

In this video, we'll take a look at how to convert standard numeric or decimal values into binary
values, which is a key aspect of understanding the process of subnetting or taking larger
networks and dividing them up into smaller networks. But before we get to that, I also want to
talk about how the overall IPv4 address space is already broken down into smaller sections
which are known as address classes, which effectively determines the size of any given
network in terms of how many host systems that network can accommodate. So, for starters,
the entire address space with IPv4 is 32 bits in length, which translates into 2 to the power of
32 possible addresses. Now that's over 4 billion addresses, so you could think of it as a single
huge network that could have up to four billion devices on that network.

But in practical terms, the larger any given network is, the harder it is to manage the traffic. So
every network is inherently a sub-network of that overall space. But, of course, not every
network is equal. So classes are used to indicate the default sizes. And every IPv4 address
consists of two parts. One part is the network ID and one part is the host ID or the device on
that network. And a good way to visualize that is to just think about a street with houses on it.
The address for any given house is unique on that street, but the street is the same for all
houses on that street. So we would have something like 1 Oak Street, 2 Oak Street, 3 Oak
Street, and so on. But the question is how long is the street or to put that another way, how
many houses can be on that street?

So in IPv4, there are five address classes, A, B, C, D, and E But straight away I will tell you that
classes D and E are not used for regular host addressing on any given network. Class D is
reserved for what's known as multicast transmissions and class E is reserved for research and
development. So it's not used at all. So this is in fact one of the contributing factors to what I
mentioned in an earlier video about how the IPv4 address space has essentially been
exhausted. Right out of the gate, there are a lot of addresses that just aren't being used at all in
terms of standard host addressing, so everything we cover with respect to addressing will
focus on classes A, B, and C only. Now, this will all become much clearer when we get into the
subnetting demonstrations, so for now, let's just go over the range of addresses.

So class A networks begin at address 1.0.0.1 and end at 126.255.255.254. Any given class A
network itself is very large, as we see that it can accommodate up to approximately 16,000,000
hosts, but there aren't very many class A networks that can be used, only 127 of them. Class B

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is much smaller and there are a lot more of them. We see the address range of 128.0.0.1 to
191.255.255.254. So any single class B can support up to approximately 65,000 hosts, but
there are 16,000 class B networks. Class C goes from 192.0.0.1 to 223.255.255.254, and they
can only accommodate 254 hosts per network.

So they're quite small, but there are over 2 million of them. So in short, the larger the network,
the fewer of those networks exists, or conversely, the smaller the network, the more of them
there are. Now again, we won't be talking about class D and class E address ranges, but class D
uses 224.0.0 to 239.255.255.255, and class E is anything that begins with 240 and up. So when
it comes to any IP address, you can identify the class of your network simply by looking at the
first decimal value. If it's between 100 and 126, then you're on a class A network. If it's
between 128 and 191, you're on a class B network, and if it's between 192 and 223 then you're
on a class C network. But it's important to note that these are just the default sizes. Recall that
any network can be subdivided into smaller networks through the process of subnetting.

But the other key aspect of understanding subnetting is converting the decimal values, or the
regular numbers that you and I use, into the binary values of 1 and 0 that computers use. So as
mentioned, the structure of TCP/IP in version 4 uses 32 bits in total, with each bit being either
a 1 or a 0. But we as humans would have a very hard time working with addresses that are
strings of 32 ones and zeros. So the way that we can convert those bits into standard decimal
values is to simply assign a numeric positional value to each bit. Now, the total number of 32
bits is first broken down into four groups of 8 bits each separated by a period, and each group
of 8 bits is referred to as an octet. So if we look at just one octet, we see the values assigned for
each position. The first bit has a value of 128, the second is 64, the third is 32, then 16, then 8,
then 4, then 2, then 1.

So, what you do is you simply add up the positional values for any bit where the binary value is
set to 1. In other words, it means include that bit in the total. If the binary value is set to 0, it is
not added to the total. So we're just starting with a very simple example here. If the binary
value for each bit is set to 1 for all 8 bits of an octet, then the decimal value is 128 + 64 + 32 +
16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1, which equals 255. Now those positional values weren't just arbitrarily
determined. This is simply how binary works. And another way to look at this is by using
exponents. With a single bit, there are only two options, 1 or 0. Or if you think of something a
little more common like a light switch, it's either on or off.

So if you have a single light switch, those two possible positions can also be expressed in base 2
because there are two options on or off. So 2 to the power of 1 is 2. If you have two bits or two
light switches, then the total number of possible combinations is 2 to the power of 2, which is 4.
If you have three light switches, then the total number of possible combinations is 2 to the
power of 3, which is 8. And if you go all the way up to 8 light switches, then the total number of
possible combinations is 2 to the power of 8, which is 256. But recall that zero is a perfectly
valid number for computers, so the range of possible decimal values expressed with 8 bits goes
from 0 to 255. So you can convert any binary value into a decimal value, provided you have
enough bits.

You just use different combinations of which bits are set to 1 and which are set to 0. But this is
the key to understanding subnetting. It's not just the value of the bit, it's how many bits you are
working with. So let's look at a value that is somewhere in between. If the binary value is
01001001, then we still only add up the bits that are set to 1. So in this case, that's the 64-bit +
the 8-bit + the 1-bit, which equals 73. So again, with 8 bits, any number between 0 and 255 can
be expressed. And it works the same with all four octets. So that's why you never see a value
higher than 255 in either an IP address or a subnet mask. That's as high as you can go with 8
bits.

Now, on the topic of a subnet mask, that's the other key thing that we need to know about
before we talk about subnetting. Once again, we'll get into this in much greater detail when we
see the demonstrations, but for the time being, this is the value that actually determines the
size of the network because it divides the network into the network portion and the host
portion. Or more specifically, how many bits are used to identify the network versus how many
are used to identify the host on that network? And it's called the subnet mask because it
literally shields or masks the network bits from the host portion so that the network portion of
the address is literally not visible to the host portion, which then determines the size of the

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network or more specifically stated, it determines how many bits are left to address your host
systems. So, all of the bits that remain after the masked bits are the ones that you can use to
address your hosts. So, these also coincide with the classes of address.

Recall that the class A network could support around 16 million hosts and it uses a default
subnet mask of 255.0.0.0. So what we have here are 8 bits that are masked, then 24 bits that
remain which are available to address the host systems. 2 to the power of 24 is 16 million. OK,
so that's why the size of a class A network is so large because we have 24 bits available to
address our hosts. The class B network by default uses a 16-bit subnet mask which is
255.255.0.0. So if there are 16 bits available to address my host systems, that's 2 to the power
of 16 which is around 65,000. Class C networks by default use the first 24 bits to mask the
network portion.

So the default subnet mask is 255.255.255.0, which only leaves us the last 8 bits available to
address our host systems. So 2 to the power of 8 is only 256. So again, that's why any given
class A network is so large and any given class C network is so small. They are essentially the
opposite of each other in terms of the number of bits that are being used to address the host
systems. And then the class B falls somewhere in the middle. Now again, all of this will become
much clearer once we get into the demonstrations because we'll see how all of this comes
together. But remember that when it comes to the size of any given network, it's the number of
bits that are available to be used to address your hosts that will determine that size. But
everything about working with IP addresses also requires this understanding of binary to
decimal conversions.

7. Video: Exploring the Fundamentals of Subnetting (it_csnetp24_06_enus_07)

In this video, explore binary to decimal conversion and how to determine the size of a subnet,
classless Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM), and classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
notations.

explore binary to decimal conversion and how to determine the size of a subnet, classless Variable
Length Subnet Mask (VLSM), and classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) notations

[Video description begins] Topic title: Exploring the Fundamentals of Subnetting. Presented by:
Aaron Sampson. [Video description ends]

In this demonstration, we'll take a look at some subnetting fundamentals, including binary to
decimal conversions, determining the size of a subnet, and we'll also talk about what's known
as Classless Inter-Domain Routing or CIDR notations and variable length subnet masks. Now,
we aren't actually going to do any subnetting at this point.

I just want to go over some of the fundamentals and talk about how I'm going to set all of this
up, so to speak.

[Video description begins] A sheet appears with the heading Subnetting.xlsx underneath
MS.Excel. It contains a toolbar on the top with the following tabs: File, Home, Insert, Page
Layout, Formulas, Data, Review, View, Help, and Acrobat. The Home tab is active and it
contains various features such as: Clipboard, Font, Alignment, Number, Styles, Cells, Editing,
Add-ins, and Adobe Acrobat. It contains various columns and rows. It further contains several

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worksheets in the bottom: Class C, Class B, Class A, Base 2, and an addition tab. [Video
description ends]

So what you see here is this spreadsheet that I've put together that outlines all of the
components. So I'm really just going to go through this setup before we actually see any
subnetting in our upcoming demonstrations. So to get started, what I have here is a Host
address in the upper left-hand corner and the address is 192.168.0.100.

And this is a Default class C network. OK, this is one of the private address ranges that can be
used in a class C environment, which is just a fairly small network, but I'll come back to that in
just a moment. Then I have a Subnet Mask of 255.255.255.0 which is also the default subnet
mask for a private class C environment.

Then I have a second Host IP address here in blue which is 192.168.0.150 and again both of
these hosts are in this default class C network. Now what that more officially translates to is
that there are 8 bits available to address your host systems.

There are a Total of 256 possible values, and I stressed the word possible here because that's
just what the math allows, but notice in parentheses, I have 254 usable addresses.

[Video description begins] The Class C worksheet is now active. It contains various lines of
frameworks. Row 1 and Column A reads: Host 1 IP address = 192.168.0.100. Column O reads:
Default class C network. Row 2 and Column A reads: Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.0. Currently,
Column O reads: 8 bits available for host addresses. The subsequent row 3 and Column A
reads: Host 2 IP addresss = 192.168.0.150 and column O reads: Total of 256 possible values
(254 usable). [Video description ends]

Now I'll come back to that point in just a moment, but one of the primary components of
understanding subnetting is the fact that it is not the value of any number that you see in an IP
address. Rather, it is the number of bits that you have to work with.

So what you'll notice down below is that this address is broken down into two portions, and
every IP address always has those two components. There is a portion that indicates the
Network, which in this case is 24 bits in length. Then there is a portion that indicates the Host
on that network, which in this case, is 8 bits.

[Video description begins] The Network address (24 bits) is stated in the left. The bits of
network and host are highlighted on row 6. The Host address (8 bits) is stated in the right.
[Video description ends]

So, this is why a class C network is not particularly large because if you have 8 bits available to
address your hosts, then that only equates to 256 possible values.

Now to review that I have this Base 2 page over here as well. So, let's take a look at this.

[Video description begins] The base 2 worksheet is now highlighted. It contains the following
column headers: Base, Exponent, and Possible Combinations. [Video description ends]

And Base 2 refers to the fact that in binary there are only two values, 0 and 1. So the Base is 2.
Then the Exponent column here indicates the number of bits that you have to work with.

So again, a fairly common example in terms of thinking in binary is something like a light switch.
A light switch has two possible positions on and off. So if you have 1 light switch with 2
positions, then the possible total number of combinations is 2. That's it. It's either on or it's off.

But if you have two light switches, then you have 2 to the power of 2 Possible Combinations,
which is 4. If you keep going, 2 to the 3 is 8 Possible Combinations, 2 to the 4 is 16, and it just
keeps going. So what you'll notice is that each time you increase the Exponent value by 1, you
double the total number of Possible Combinations.

So, for example, 2 to the 5 is twice as much as 2 to the 4. 2 to the 6 is twice as much as 2 to the
5. So, by the time, we get to 2 to the 8 or 8 bits to work with, there are 256 possible
combinations. OK, so why do I keep saying possible combinations? Well, because two of the
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values on any network are not used for standard host addressing and this is another
fundamental component of all networking with TCP/IP.

Now, it's not that these are invalid addresses, they just have reserved or specific purposes. And
the two addresses that are not used are the values that would equate to all zeros in the host
portion of the address and all ones. So if they were all zeros, then every bit would be effectively
turned off, so to speak.

So again, in binary, 00000000 is 0 in a decimal value, so the IP address in that case would be
192.168.0.0. Now the meaning of that value, for lack of a better word, is that it indicates no
particular host on that network. And which device is not concerned with any specific host on a
network? Well, that's the router.

Routers do not directly connect host systems to each other, they directly connect networks to
each other. In other words, routers do not care about the host portion, they are only concerned
with the network portion. They deal in network IDs only. So the zero address for the host
portion is specifically for the router so that it quite literally ignores the host portion and only
works with the network portion.

OK, so that value of 192.168.0.0 is only meaningful to a router. The exact opposite is if all of the
bits in the host portion were set to 1. In that case, 11111111 in binary equates to 255 in
decimal, so the IP address would be 192.168.0.255.

That address is never used for any specific host because it means every host. In other words,
this is the broadcast address. Whenever a broadcast packet needs to be sent on this particular
subnet, that is the address it's sent to 192.168.0.255 and then every host hears it. OK, so in
short, the 0 host address means no host. The 255 host address means every host, so those two
are never used, which is why on a 256-value subnet only 254 of them are usable.

And it's always that way. OK. The all zeros value and the all ones value are simply not used for
host addressing. So it's the total number of possible combinations -2 in terms of the usable
addresses. So then from that point, in terms of everything else here on the spreadsheet, this
yellow bar is simply the bit values for each bit of the entire 32-bit IP address.

So it's always the same for each octet. The first bit is always worth 128, then 64, then 32, then
16, then 8, then 4, then 2, then 1. Then we see the period or the dot and the same thing repeats
over and over again for all four octets. So the actual binary values are simply the IP addresses
in binary.

So this is 192.168.0.100. Then for the subnet mask, we see all ones for 255.255.255.0, which
then is the all 0 value in binary. Then the second host is 192.168.0.150. And I will tell you that
these two host systems are on the same subnet.

They can absolutely communicate with each other and we can effectively see that because the
network address for both of them is 192.168.0. That's the same value. They are both on the
same subnet. Now, there's more to it than that, but that's what we're going to get to a little bit
later on. Then this green line here indicates the division between the network address and the
host address.

And what you'll notice is that this divisionary point happens to fall where the 1 changes to a 0
in the subnet mask. So this indicates where that division occurs. Everything to the left of the
green line, in this case, represents the Network address. Everything to the right of the green
line represents the Host portion of the address. But here's the key. This is what subnetting is all
about. This divisionary line does not have to stay put.

That's why I have this dashed line. OK, so again, we aren't going to do this yet, but we will. But
this is subnetting, moving the line that changes the number of bits that are available to be used
to address your hosts. OK, that's the idea of subnetting. So again, we'll see how that works in
some upcoming demonstrations.

But that's how I'm going to approach this because if you have a different number of bits
available to address your hosts, then that changes how many hosts there can be and therefore
the size of the network. OK, so then lastly, down below, I have the CIDR Notation or Classless

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Inter-domain routing. And the classless refers to the fact that you don't have to just stick with
the divisionary point as it's defined in its default. OK, that's the class C default. But as I just
stated, that line does not have to stay there.

So once you start moving it around, you are effectively changing the class or you're making
them classless. OK. Now this is also referred to as a variable length subnet mask because what
you'll also notice about the CIDR Notation is it ends with a /24. So what we can do here is
simply refer to the network portion of the address 192.168.0 and we can save the other 0
because that means to only talk about the network.

But the /24 refers to the number of ones in the subnet mask, which in this case is 24.

[Video description begins] The following lines are now highlighted. Line 17 reads: CIDR
Notation (Classless Inter-domain routing. Line 18 reads: 192.168.0.0/24. [Video description
ends]

OK. 24 ones in a subnet mask equates to 255.255.255, but it's a little bit easier to simply say
/24. That's 24 ones in the subnet mask. OK.

So again, we'll talk about all of this in much greater detail as we go through the other
demonstrations, but that's how we'll approach subnetting, and we will see it for all three
classes as well. Notice that I do have a Class B tab here and a Class A, but we'll start with Class
C simply because they're a little bit easier to work with in terms of their sizes, but the approach
is still the same no matter what the class is. OK. So again, those are the fundamental
components of subnetting. And in our next demonstration, we'll see how all of this comes
together.

8. Video: Subnetting a Class C Network (it_csnetp24_06_enus_08)

During this video, discover how to subnet a class C network.

subnet a class C network

[Video description begins] Topic title: Subnetting a Class C Network . Presented by: Aaron
Sampson. [Video description ends]

OK, in this demonstration, we'll take a look at how you can actually subnet a class C network.
Now just a couple of points before we get to this. I do want to point out that the reason why
you subnet in any environment is typically because you think the network that you're working
with is too large. If you have, let's just exaggerate, a million computers on a single network, then
there is simply too much traffic.

[Video description begins] A sheet appears with the heading Subnetting.xlsx underneath
MS.Excel. It contains a toolbar on the top with the following tabs: File, Home, Insert, Page
Layout, Formulas, Data, Review, View, Help, and Acrobat. The Home tab is active and it
contains various features such as: Clipboard, Font, Alignment, Number, Styles, Cells, Editing,
Add-ins, and Adobe Acrobat. It contains various columns and rows. It further contains several
worksheets in the bottom: Class C, Class B, Class A, Base 2, and an addition tab. [Video
description ends]

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The noise, for lack of a better word, becomes unmanageable. So the whole idea is to simply take
one very large network and break it down into multiple smaller networks. But that said, as we
have already seen, a class C network only uses 8 bits to address the host systems, and that
equates to a total of 256 possible values.

Now we already touched on how only 254 of those values are usable in terms of regular host
addressing, but let's not worry about that for the time being. Let's just focus on the total
number of possible values. OK, so if you have a network of only 256 computers, that's not a
very large network. So in practical terms, it would be highly unlikely that you would find a class
C network being subnetted at all. OK.

But conceptually they're very easy to work with. So we are certainly still going to go through
the process here. But once again, it would be quite unlikely that you would ever see a class C
network subnetted into smaller units. So let's just recap the configuration of the host systems
that I have here. Host 1 has an IP address of 192.168.0.100, then Host 2 is 192.168.0.150, and
both of them use the subnet mask of 255.255.255.0.

[Video description begins] The Class C worksheet is now active. It contains various lines of
frameworks. Row 1 and Column A reads: Host 1 IP address = 192.168.0.100. Column O reads:
Default class C network. Row 2 and Column A reads: Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.0. Currently,
Column O reads: 8 bits available for host addresses. The subsequent row 3 and Column A
reads: Host 2 IP addresss = 192.168.0.150 and column O reads: Total of 256 possible values
(254 usable). [Video description ends]

So again all of this is a very standard Default class C configuration and as such these two hosts
are on the same subnet. And I did mention that in the previous video.

Now that's going to come down to a point that we'll talk about later with respect to the
boundaries or the ranges of subnets that you end up with after you have subnetted. But I want
to mention how it is determined that these two hosts are on the same network. And it does
come down to the binary values. So if we look at the values in binary for both the IP addresses
and the subnet mask, this is actually what determines if they are on the same network.

And this will make a little more sense in just a few moments. But if we look at just the network
portion of the address for each host, it's fairly evident that they are on the same network
because both of them are 192.168.0 for just the network portion. OK, so that equates to two
houses being on the same street. I used that analogy earlier, but the network portion of the
address is 192.168.0 for both of them.

It's the exact same numeric value. So they are on the same network. But that's actually going to
change once we implement our subnetting. But the individual IP address for each host is not
going to change. So how will they end up being on different networks? Well, it comes down to
the subnet mask and a mathematical calculation that determines if they're on the same subnet.

Now that mathematical calculation is simple multiplication for each host against the subnet
mask for each bit.

[Video description begins] The Network address (24 bits) is stated on the left. The bits of
network and host are highlighted on row 6. The Host address (8 bits) is stated on the right.
[Video description ends]

So if we look at Host 1 for the very first binary value, we see 1, then we see a 1 in the subnet
mask. Then for the other host, we also see 1. So what you do is you say well 1 * 1 = 1.

Then you do the same calculation for the other host, 1 * 1 is 1. OK, we get the same value for
both calculations. Now, since the network portion of the ID is identical for both of them, and
we're always multiplying by 1, in each case, every single bit is always going to produce the same
answer. So if the answer for each one of those calculations is the same, then they are on the
same network, OK?

But if it should ever come out to be a different answer, then they are on a different network.
Again, that will be clear in just a few moments, OK? But just bear that in mind for the moment.
So coming back to the process of subnetting itself again, I mentioned how you take a single
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network and you break it down into smaller networks. So in our default state here, we can
think of this being one subnet with 256 hosts per network.

[Video description begins] The following lines are now highlighted. Line 17 and column A reads:
CIDR Notation (Classless Inter-domain routing). Line 17 and column Z reads: 1 subnet, 256
hosts per network. Line 18 reads: 192.168.0.0/24. [Video description ends]

That's the standard default class C. We haven't done anything in terms of subnetting but the
total number of possible addresses does not change. You're just dividing them up a little bit
differently. And I mentioned in the previous video that the process by which you subnet is to
take this divisionary line and move it, OK? That's what ultimately happens when you start
subnetting.

Now, I'm going to leave that solid line there just as a reference point, and I'm going to use the
dashed line to indicate how we move it and how that changes our subnet configuration. So I'm
just going to arbitrarily pick a spot and let's just say let's move it right there, OK? So what
happens then in terms of the network configuration is that I have masked some of the bits of
the host portion.

They are no longer visible to the host for lack of a better word. They have been given back to
the network portion. So the network portion of this address now is not these first 24 bits, it's
these 2 extra bits, meaning that I now have 26 bits in the Network address. So if I go to my
Network address value here, let's change this to be 26, that also changes our CIDR Notation to
26.

And if you recall as to what CIDR is all about, the /26 value means that there are now 26 ones
in the subnet mask. So how did I move that line? There's no actual line in TCP/IP configuration.
It's not like you're dragging and dropping this value around. So how do you move it? You change
the value of the bit from 0 to 1. That moves the line.

Now there are 26 bits in the network portion, and again, we reference that in our CIDR
Notation to say that there are 26 ones. Now the line has moved. OK. So what have we done?
Well, now there are no longer 8 bits in the Host portion because there's still only 32 in total.

So if 26 have now been allocated to the Network portion, then the Host portion is now only 6.
OK, so that has an effect on the size of the subnet. Let's go back to our Base 2 calculation.

[Video description begins] The Host address are now highlighted as 6 bits. [Video description
ends]

If I only have 6 bits available, then 2 to the power of 6 is 64.

[Video description begins] The Base 2 worksheet is now highlighted. It contains the following
column headers: Base, Exponent, and Possible Combinations. [Video description ends]

It's no longer a single subnet of 256 hosts per network, it's how many subnets.

Well, that's actually being indicated here as well. If I masked 2 bits, 2 to the 2 is 4. So now what I
have done is to create 4 subnets with 64 hosts per network. OK, so again, the total number of
hosts never changes, it's simply how you divide them up.

We still have 256 in either case, it's either 1 * 256 or 4 * 64.

[Video description begins] Line 18 and column Z reads: 4 subnets, 64 hosts per network. [Video
description ends]

So again, the total hasn't changed. But now with only 64 hosts per network, each network is
smaller, more manageable, less traffic. OK, but we aren't finished here because as I just said, in
order to move the line so to speak, we had to change the bit value of the subnet mask.

So we still have 255 in the first octet, 255 in the second, 255 in the third, but the fourth octet is
no longer 0. We changed the values of the bits to 1, which means that we add up their

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positional values a 128 + 64 is 192. So the subnet mask is the value that changes, not the
individual host addresses.

So now our subnet mask is 255.255.255.192. OK. And that is exactly the same as saying /26.
That's 26 ones in the subnet mask. OK. But now we have a little bit of a problem here, for lack
of a better word. Recall that I started this by saying that host 1 and host 2 we're on the same
subnet, and that was determined by examining the value of each bit of the IP address against
the subnet mask for each host, and it just does a multiplication of each bit at a time. Now the
values of the first 3 octets have not changed for either one. OK, nothing has changed in this
first 24-bit section here, but we did change the values of the subnet mask in the last octet.

So now if I look at each one individually, I say 0 * 1 is 0 but 1 * 1 is 1. The same thing happens
here. I have 1 * 1 which is 1 and then 1 * 0 which is 0. So I'm getting different answers now. If
the two host addresses produce different answers when compared against the subnet mask,
they are now on different networks. OK.

Now, again, we're going to talk about that in greater detail when we come to the video on
calculating subnet boundaries, OK? But that's the primary characteristic, if you will, that you
need to be mindful of when you start subnetting because if you're changing the size of the
subnet, then all of a sudden there are systems that can no longer communicate with each other.
So that needs to remain in the back of your mind, so to speak. And again, we will talk about that
in greater detail because we'll see how you calculate those boundaries.

But ultimately, that is simply the process of subnetting. You determine how large you want any
given subnet to be. Then you determine how many bits are required to accommodate that
many hosts, and you change the subnet mask accordingly. OK, let's just do one quick example
to finish up. Let's say I decide that 64 hosts per network is not enough.

Maybe I want, let's say somewhere in the neighborhood of a 100. OK, well, I already know that
where it is right now, I can only have 64. Well, let's go one more bit. Now how many can I have?
Well, unfortunately, we can't get bang on a 100. Binary just doesn't work that way. I can only
double the amount of available addresses if I allocate one more bit. OK, so now I have 7 bits
available to address my hosts.

2 to the 7 is 128, but that does accommodate 100. So close enough is what it comes down to.
So if I were to move that line one more bit, then this one gets flipped back to 0. Now my subnet
mask is 255.255.255.128 because that's the only bit that's on. So we change the subnet mask
to 128.

Then I can go down to my CIDR Notation and change that to 25 because now there are only 25
ones in our subnet mask. And once again, how many subnets have I created now? Well, if
masking 2 bits made 4 subnets, then masking only 1 bit is 2 to the 1 or 2 subnets. So now I have
half as many subnets but twice as many hosts per subnet.

So once again, it's still 256 in total, but with 7 bits to address my host, that's 2 to the 7 or 128.
So again, 2 subnets, 128 hosts per network.

[Video description begins] The Host address are now highlighted as 6 bits. Line 18 and column
Z reads: 2 subnets, 128 hosts per network. [Video description ends]

OK, but these two hosts are still on different subnets because look at the bit values here. 0 * 1
is 0, 1 * 1 is 1.

So they are on different subnets because you get different answers. So they still can't
communicate with each other. But again, just hold on to that thought for the time being. We'll
come back to that when we talk about our subnet boundaries. For now, let's just focus on the
process of moving that line by changing the subnet mask and determining how many hosts per
network there are. And we'll continue this with our class B and class A networks in our
upcoming demonstrations.

9. Video: Subnetting a Class B Network (it_csnetp24_06_enus_09)

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In this video, find out how to subnet a class B network.

subnet a class B network

[Video description begins] Topic title: Subnetting a Class B Network . Presented by: Aaron
Sampson. [Video description ends]

OK, now that we have seen the general process of subnetting in a Class C environment, in this
video, we'll take a look at applying that same process to a Class B network.

[Video description begins] A sheet appears with the heading Subnetting.xlsx underneath
MS.Excel. It contains a toolbar on the top with the following tabs: File, Home, Insert, Page
Layout, Formulas, Data, Review, View, Help, and Acrobat. The Home tab is active and it
contains various features such as: Clipboard, Font, Alignment, Number, Styles, Cells, Editing,
Add-ins, and Adobe Acrobat. It contains various columns and rows. It further contains several
worksheets in the bottom: Class C, Class B, Class A, Base 2, and an addition tab. [Video
description ends]

Now to get started, let's just recap the Default Class B configuration. For starters, I still have
my two host IP addresses. Host 1 is 172.16.0.100 and Host 2 is 172.16.32.150, and the default
Subnet Mask for a Class B configuration is 255.255.0.0. In other words, that divisionary line
between the Network address and the Host address falls right down the middle.

OK. So, with that, we have 16 bits available to address our host systems, which gives us a total
of somewhere in the neighborhood of 65000+ possible values. So, here's a situation where
subnetting is certainly a little more common. You probably wouldn't see too many
environments that would need 65,000 computers on any given network, that would be a lot of
traffic. So whereas you would likely not see subnetting in a Class C environment, it would be
much more common for Class B.

[Video description begins] The Class B worksheet is now active. It contains various lines of
frameworks. Row 1 and Column A reads: Host 1 IP address = 172.16.0.100. Column O reads:
Default class B network. Row 2 and Column A reads: Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.0. Currently,
Column O reads: 16 bits available for host addresses. The subsequent row 3 and Column A
reads: Host 2 IP addresss = 172.16.32.150 and column O reads: Total of 65000+ possible
values. [Video description ends]

So in its default state, I have a single subnet of approximately 65,000 hosts. Now why am I
saying approximately 65,000? Well, once again, this is just the nature of binary.

[Video description begins] The following lines are now highlighted. Line 17 and column A reads:
CIDR Notation (Classless Inter-domain routing). Line 17 and column Z reads 1 subnet, 65,000
hosts per network. Line 18 reads: 172.16.0.0/16. [Video description ends]

So, let's go back to my Base 2 page. And I have extended the exponent all the way to 16 because
we have 16 bits.

And again, recall that the possible combinations doubles each time you add one more bit.

[Video description begins] The Base 2 worksheet is now highlighted. It contains the following
column headers: Base, Exponent, and Possible Combinations. [Video description ends]
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So the Class C only used 8 bits. So that's 2 to the power of 8 or 256. But for every bit that you
add, the total number of possible combinations doubles so by the time you get all the way down
to 16 bits, the actual value is 65536, but close enough to say 65,000 plus. OK, and once again,
as things are right now, these two host systems are on the same network. Again, the network
ID for both of them is 172.16.

That's it. It's the same value for both. So if we look at all the individual bits for each one, and
then we compare those against the subnet mask, then we're always going to get the same
answer over on the left hand side in the network address because the values are exactly the
same.

So 1 * 1 is 1, 1 * 1 is 1, 0 * 1 is 0, and 0 * 1 of course is also 0. And again, since every value in the

network portion is identical, they will always come out to be the same. In the host portion, we
are multiplying against 0 for both of them. So even if we do see different values such as a 0 in
host 1 0 * 0 is 0, 1 * 0 is still 0.

[Video description begins] The Network address (16 bits) is stated on the left. The bits of
network and host are highlighted on row 6. The Host address (16 bits) is stated on the right.
[Video description ends]

Anything times 0 is 0. So we're going to get the same answer for all of the bits on the host side
as well. So once again, as things are, these two hosts are on the same network.

So when it comes to subnetting the Class B environment, basically the first thing you want to
ask yourself is how large do you actually want the network to be? As mentioned, as things are,
we have a single subnet of over 65,000 hosts, which is quite a lot. So let's just arbitrarily pick a
smaller number, let's say something like 3000 computers.

OK, that's a reasonable size. But recall that in binary, you might not be able to get exactly that
value, but you can get close. So let's go back to our Base 2 page. And if I look at maybe around
11 bits, well that gives me 2048. That's not enough. 12 bits does give me enough, but some
room to grow, so to speak, because it accommodates 4096. But if 3000 is the number, then
that's what I have to do. Again, 2000 is simply not enough, so you have to determine how many
bits it requires to accommodate that many hosts.

So in this case, it's 12 bits to get 3000 computers per network. OK, so let's go back to the
subnetting page. And as mentioned, subnetting is the process of simply moving the line, so we'll
leave the solid line where it was again as a reference. But if 4 bits were required, then that's
how many have to be masked. So 1, 2, 3, 4 there is where we place the line. OK, so again, what
do we do to actually move that line? We change the bit values from 0 to 1. So this becomes a 1.
This becomes a 1, so does this one, and so does this one. So now we have changed the subnet
mask, so it's no longer 255.255.0.0.

We add up the values of the bits that we just masked, and in this case, 128 + 64 + 32 + 16 is
240. So that's the new value in the third octet of our subnet mask. So we'll put in 240 there.
Then we'll also change the value for the Network address because it's no longer 16 bits. We
gave 4 more bits to the network portion, so the network is now 20 bits in total. And of course,
our Host address is smaller. It's no longer 16 bits.

Once again, we masked 4, so the host address is now only 12 bits. OK. But once again, that's
still 32 in total. In this case, it's 20 on the network side, 12 on the host side. That's still 32 bits in
total. Then for our CIDR Notation, we'll update that as well, because the / is always indicative
of the number of ones in the subnet mask.

So now we have 20. OK, so this also allows you to immediately recognize the fact that this
environment has been subnetted. If you see anything other than the default subnet mask
and/or a different value in the CIDR Notation, then you always know that it has been
subnetted. So now we have our smaller networks, but again, recall that we have made more
networks or more subnets. How many did we create? Well, how many bits were masked? In this
case we masked 4 bits. 2 to the power of 4 is 16. So now instead of 1 subnet approximately
65,000 hosts, we have 16 subnets with approximately 4000 hosts per network.
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OK, but the total number of computers still remains the same.

[Video description begins] The highlighted framework is: 16 subnets, 4000 hosts per network.
[Video description ends]

Now again to finish up, we have altered the configuration now with respect to the size of each
individual network. So let's take a look at what happens now in terms of host 1 being able to
communicate with host 2. Again, for the all zeros portion of the subnet mask, anything times 0
is 0, so no changes there. But in the section where we did mask the bits on the 32 bit, we see 0 *
1 is 0, 1 * 1 is 1.

Now that we have a different answer, when we compare each bit against the subnet mask, it
means that these two hosts are now on different networks. Again, we'll talk about that when
we come to calculating the subnet boundaries. But as things stand, these two hosts can no
longer communicate with each other because we have reduced the size of each subnet.

So with this configuration, these two hosts have been separated. They're on different subnets.
Now, the other consideration that I quickly want to mention here is that in creating 16 subnets,
you might think to yourself, well, this is the right size. I want somewhere in the neighborhood of
4000 hosts, but I don't have enough hosts to fill up 16 networks.

Maybe you only have enough to fill up three networks, but recall that these are all private
addresses. They are not used on the public Internet. So even though it might seem as though
we are wasting a lot of addresses if we only have, let's say two or three networks of 4000 each,
it doesn't matter. You don't have to use them. Again, anyone using private addresses can
configure their systems however they like and they have no effect on the public Internet.

So even if there are a lot of addresses that end up not being used, that's perfectly fine. The idea
behind subnetting is to get the size of any given network down to a more manageable size,
which we have now done with our subnetted Class B. Once again, we will apply the same
approach to a Class A network in our next video, and again we will still talk about calculating
those subnet boundaries a little bit later on.

10. Video: Subnetting a Class A Network (it_csnetp24_06_enus_10)

In this video, learn how to subnet a class A network.

subnet a class A network

[Video description begins] Topic title: Subnetting a Class A Network. Presented by: Aaron
Sampson. [Video description ends]

In this video, we'll take a look at subnetting a Class A network, but the process itself is still no
different than any of the other classes, so we'll move along a little more quickly here. But we'll
get started by recapping the Default class A configuration, which is to allocate only 8 bits for
the network portion and 24 for the hosts.

[Video description begins] A sheet appears with the heading Subnetting.xlsx underneath
MS.Excel. It contains a toolbar on the top with the following tabs: File, Home, Insert, Page
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Layout, Formulas, Data, Review, View, Help, and Acrobat. The Home tab is active and it
contains various features such as: Clipboard, Font, Alignment, Number, Styles, Cells, Editing,
Add-ins, and Adobe Acrobat. It contains various columns and rows. It further contains several
worksheets in the bottom: Class C, Class B, Class A, Base 2, and an addition tab. [Video
description ends]

So that gives us a total of over 16 million possible values because it's 2 to the power of 24. So
let's go back to our Base 2 page here.

[Video description begins] The Class A worksheet is now active. It contains various lines of
frameworks. Row 1 and Column A reads: Host 1 IP address = 10.0.0.100. Column O reads:
Default class A network. Row 2 and Column A reads: Subnet Mask = 255.0.0.0. Currently,
Column O reads: 24 bits available for host addresses. The subsequent row 3 and Column A
reads: Host 2 IP addresss = 10.0.50.150 and column O reads: Total of 16 million+ possible
values. [Video description ends]

And I have extended this once again all the way up to 2 to the 24 and it's 16777216.

[Video description begins] The Base 2 worksheet is now highlighted. It contains the following
column headers: Base, Exponent, and Possible Combinations. [Video description ends]

So clearly that is a very large network. That's 1 subnet of over 16 million hosts per network in
this case.

[Video description begins] The following lines are now highlighted. Line 17 and column A reads:
CIDR Notation (Classless Inter-domain routing). Line 17 and column Z reads: 1 subnet, 16
million hosts per network. Line 18 reads: 10.0.0/8. [Video description ends]

So just like the Class B, you would see subnetting much more commonly with this type of
configuration. As for the host addresses, we won't worry too much about the values, but again,
the private range for the Class A network is 10.0.0. something. In this case, in fact, it's just
10.whatever.whatever.whatever, because again, only the first octet value is used in a Class A
network.

The default Subnet Mask is 255.0.0.0. Then Host 2 in this case is 10.0.50.150. And we'll see
how the subnetting effects these two hosts in just a moment. But in terms of getting started,
you still approach this the same way. You determine how many hosts per network you would
like to have and you adjust accordingly.

So again, let's go back to our Base 2 page and let's arbitrarily say that maybe we want
somewhere around 30,000. OK, that's still a fairly large network, but this is just for the
purposes of demonstrating the process. So to accommodate 30,000, the closest we can get is
32,000, which requires 15 bits. OK, 2 to the 15 is 32,000 plus. So let's go back to our subnetting
page.

And if we need 15 bits, then we just grab our line here. And if we start moving it, there's 8 bits
to the right of the line. Then if we go all the way to the next period, that's 16. Well, that's one
too many. That's 65,000 hosts. So if we go back one more then there are the 15 bits that we
need. And once again, once you've determined the placement of the line, so to speak, then we
just flip the bit values in the subnet mask and determine what those values end up being.

So all of these get flipped to 1. And what you'll notice here is that every bit in the second octet
is being flipped. So already the subnet mask has changed to 255.255, which might appear as
though it's a Class B environment, but the class is still indicated by the IP address. So the fact
that we see a 10 address still indicates that this is Class A, even though the subnet mask might
seem like it's a default for a Class B, it doesn't matter.

You can configure your subnets however you like. They can be as large or as small as you like.
So this is still a Class A, no matter how small we make the subnets. But again, we're not finished.
There's still one more bit to go here. So there are all of the bits masked, and we have effectively
moved the line. So what's the new subnet mask?

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Well, as just mentioned, the second octet are all ones, so that's 255, so we'll change that value.
But then one more bit of the third octet was masked. That's the 128 bit. So now our subnet
mask is 255.255.128.0. OK, let's update the values for the network address. Now we don't
have 8 bits anymore. We have 17 bits.

All 8 of the first octet, then the next 8, then one more that's 17 bits have been allocated to the
network address portion. So that means that 15 bits remain for the host portion. So we'll
update that. And our CIDR Notation, of course, also changes. It's no longer /8, it's the number
of ones in the subnet mask, which again is also 17. OK, so the process is still exactly as it was for
the Class B.

But in terms of how many subnets we have created, well, it's the number of bits masked which
is 9. So that's 2 to the power of 9 in terms of the subnets. So back to Base 2. 2 to the 9 is 512
subnets, but that's fine. What we were after were smaller subnets.

We really don't need to be concerned about the number of subnets because we're using private
addresses. So regardless of whether we use those addresses or not, it simply doesn't matter. So
now we have 512 subnets with approximately 32,000 hosts per network.

[Video description begins] The highlighted framework is 512 subnets, 32,000 hosts per
network. [Video description ends]

OK, so again, the fact that we aren't using all of these addresses doesn't really matter. We have
the more desirable size for any given subnet.

And with respect to the configuration of these two hosts, in this case we actually have not
separated them. Let's look at the values in the subnet mask against each individual address. So
again, in the host portion we still have all zeros in the subnet mask, so anything time 0 is still
going to be 0. So nothing has changed at this point.

We did change all of the values in the subnetted portion here to 1, but look at the two
addresses. In both cases, they are still all zeros for every bit. So 0 * 1 is obviously still 0. So these
two hosts can in fact still see each other. The network is large enough so that these two hosts
still fall within the same subnet boundary. OK, again, we'll come to the boundaries in an
upcoming demonstration.

I want to quickly finish up though, by showing you a very common example that is done with
the Class A addresses, and that is in fact to subnet them down to the size of a Class C
environment. In other words, we take this line and we move it all the way down so that only 8
bits remain to address our hosts. So we just do the exact same thing.

We flip our bit values to 1 for every bit that is masked, and the subnet mask now appears as
though it's the default for a Class C environment, 255.255.255.0. Then we'll update our CIDR
Notation accordingly. Now it's /24. Now we have 24 bits for the network and 8 bits for the
host. So again, that configuration is exactly like a Class C

So why not use a Class C?

[Video description begins] The Network address contains 24 bits and the Host address
includes 8 bits. [Video description ends]

In short, you absolutely can. But the reason why this is common is quite simply because the 10
addresses are easy to work with. They're easy to remember. 10.0.0.1 might be your default
gateway, 10.0.0.10 might be your web server, 11 might be your email server, 12 might be your
print server.

I mean, it doesn't matter, but they are very simple addresses and they give you a much more
manageable size of subnet. So if you are working with small subnets and you like using those
private Class A addresses, then by all means feel free to do so. Again, we have created a
tremendous number of subnets now 2 to the power of 16 subnets. So that's 65,000 subnets,
but each one only accommodates 256 addresses, so it's very manageable.

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And it's easy to remember the fact that you might not use thousands upon thousands, even
millions of addresses still doesn't matter because these are private addresses, so they can be
implemented however you like. Ultimately that's your call, but the process is still the same. Just
figure out how many hosts you want on any given network, determine how many bits are
required to accommodate that many, then adjust the subnet mask values accordingly.

11. Video: Supernetting Strategies (it_csnetp24_06_enus_11)

Find out how to perform supernetting.

perform supernetting

[Video description begins] Topic title: Supernetting Strategies. Presented by: Aaron Sampson.
[Video description ends]

In our last few videos, we saw how you can take any existing network and break it down into
smaller units by subnetting, which as we saw, reduces the number of hosts that can be
accommodated on any given network. In this demonstration, we'll see effectively the exact
opposite of that process, which is known as supernetting.

So what you might imagine then is that if subnetting takes a single network and breaks it down
into smaller networks, supernetting takes multiple networks and puts them back together, for
lack of a better word, and creates a larger network. And that is absolutely something that you
might do if you are already in an environment that has several smaller networks and you would
like to combine them into a single unit. So what I've done here is to return back to my class C
network configuration because this is already a fairly small network.

Recall that a Class C only allocates 8 bits for your host systems. 2 to the power of 8 is only 256,
so that's a fairly small network. But as mentioned, what we can do is actually take these
multiple smaller networks and supernet them into a larger network.

Now the only change that I've made so far is to the IP address of Host 2. So Host 1 is exactly as
it was in the original subnetting video for Class C 192.168.0.100.

[Video description begins] The Class C worksheet is now active. It contains various lines of
frameworks. Row 1 and Column A reads: Host 1 IP address = 192.168.0.100. Column O reads:
Default class A network. Row 2 and Column A reads: Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.0. Currently,
Column O reads: 8 bits available for host addresses. The subsequent row 3 and Column A
reads: Host 2 IP addresss = 192.168.3.150 and column O reads: Total of 256 possible values.
[Video description ends]

The subnet mask is still the default value of 255.255.255.0. We're going to be working with the
subnet mask value, but Host 2 now has an IP address of 192.168.3.150.

So with this configuration, it means that this environment is using at least 4 subnets, and if we
look over on the right-hand side, I've listed out the network addresses for each of those. So
Subnet 1 is 192.168.0. Again, the 0 on the end indicates that we're not concerned with any
given host. We're only focusing on the network address.

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So 192.168.0 is still this value here in binary. Then 192.168.1.0 would be the next network
because each one only accommodates approximately 250 hosts. So once you get to 255 for the
last octet value of subnet 1, that's it. You can't go higher than that.

There is no 256 in any given octet. So the next network is 192.168.1.0, then the last IP address
on that network is 255 for the final octet. Then we get to the next subnet 192.168.2.0 and that
keeps going up to 192.168.3.

So those are the 4 subnets that are in use if this is one of the addresses that we're using. OK,
Host 2 is on a different network and we can verify that by still looking at the subnet mask
against the individual IP addresses. So over on the far right here, in the default situation, we
still have all zeros in the subnet mask. So, 0 * 0 for Host 1 is 0.

[Video description begins] Currently, 4 subnets line are highlighted. Line 1 reads: Subnet 1 =
192.168.0.0. Line 2 reads: Subnet 2 = 192.168.1.0. Line 3 reads: Subnet 3: 192.168.2.0 and Line
4 reads: Subnet 4 = 192.168.3.0. [Video description ends]

0 times 0 for Host 2 is 0, fine. Anything times 0 is still going to be 0. But this calculation is
performed for every bit of the IP address. So look what happens once we get to the network
portion. 0 * 1 is 0, but 1 * 1 is 1. The same thing happens on the 2 bit here 0 * 1 is 0. 1 times, 1 is
1.

So if you're getting different answers, then these hosts are on different networks. They
therefore cannot see each other unless there are routers between them. OK, so as it stands
each one of these is a default Class C network. We haven't done anything yet, but if I have 4
networks, then I need at least three routers to connect them all, one to connect Subnet 1 to 2,
one to connect Subnet 2 to 3, and one to connect Subnet 3 to 4.

So that would give me sort of a linear path if you will. But that would be the minimum. You
would need at least three routers to connect these four networks together. Well, why supernet
these back together? Because if I do, I don't need any routers, at least not to connect the
subnets to each other. We're still going to have a default gateway to get us to the Internet, of
course but I would still not need any routers to connect the subnets together.

OK, so what's the process then? When we were subnetting, all we ever did was to take this
divisionary line and move it into the host portion. So in other words, we always went to the
right of where the default was, because that masked the bits from the host portion and
resulted in fewer bits being available to address the hosts. If we have fewer bits available, we
have a smaller network. OK, well, that's all fine.

Supernetting then moves the line the other way. All right. So now what we have done is not
really to mask the bits from the host portion. Rather we have exposed bits from the network
portion or to put that another way, we've given them back to the host portion. So now there are
10 bits available to address the hosts, but we're still using the same Class C addresses that we
know and love of 192.168.whatever.

OK, so how do we move that line the other way? The exact same process. We just flip the bit
value of the subnet mask. So, instead of 1, this simply becomes 0, this one becomes 0, and that's
it. Now we still have to recalculate the values of course, because our third octet is no longer
255.

We only ever add up the value of the bits that are set to 1. So that's our first 6 bits in this case.
Or 128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4, which is 252. So our subnet mask is now 255.255.252.0.
Likewise, we adjust the number of bits in the network portion. Now it's not 24.

We gave 2 back to the host portion, so it's only 22 bits for the network portion. Now the host
portion gets those 2 extra bits, and it's 10 bits in length.

[Video description begins] The Network address contains 22 bits and the Host address
includes 10 bits. At the bottom, it highlights the following lines. Line 1 reads: CIDR Notation
(Classless Inter-domain routing). Line 2 reads: 192.168.0.1/22. [Video description ends]

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Our CIDR Notation adjusts to /22 and we have now supernetted all 4 of those subnets back
into a single subnet. OK, so let's verify. Let's do the math.

Every bit is always multiplied against the subnet mask. As we know, anything times 0 is 0. So
over here in the supernetted portion, 0 * 0 is 0, 1 * 0 is 0. 0 times 0 is 0, 1 * 0 is still 0. So these
two hosts are now on the same network and I no longer need those routers for these subnets
to see each other.

OK, so now what we've done is to create a single supernetted environment that allocates 10
bits to your host addresses. 2 to the 10 is 1024. So, now we have approximately 1000 hosts on
a single subnet instead of 4 subnets with approximately 250 per network. So it's a simpler
configuration. Now, that all said, you do have another option.

You could just switch to the Class B environment and then subnet that Class B down to the
same size. But that would require you to change your entire IP address configuration. You'd
have to change all of your IP addresses to the 172.16 configuration that is used for the private
Class B. So if you wanted to continue to use these same IP addresses while still allowing for
larger network sizes, then supernetting would be a better option.

12. Video: Calculating Subnet Boundaries (it_csnetp24_06_enus_12)

During this video, you will learn how to determine the address ranges of subnets.

determine the address ranges of subnets

[Video description begins] Topic title: Calculating Subnet Boundaries. Presented by: Aaron
Sampson. [Video description ends]

OK, in this video we will take a look at the effect of subnetting in terms of the address
boundaries that are created by any given subnet configuration. Now I'm going to start with the
Class C configuration because again, it's the simplest to visualize and I have already
implemented the subnet configuration here. And I'd also like to just go over a couple of quick
review points.

[Video description begins] A sheet appears with the heading Subnetting.xlsx underneath
MS.Excel. It contains a toolbar on the top with the following tabs: File, Home, Insert, Page
Layout, Formulas, Data, Review, View, Help, and Acrobat. The Home tab is active and it
contains various features such as: Clipboard, Font, Alignment, Number, Styles, Cells, Editing,
Add-ins, and Adobe Acrobat. It contains various columns and rows. It further contains several
worksheets in the bottom: Class C, Class B, Class A, Base 2, and an addition tab. [Video
description ends]

For starters, the Note in the upper right-hand corner here that states The "all zeros" and the
"all ones" addresses are not used for standard host addressing. Now that goes for every
network and/or every subnet that you create. So again, those are not valid addresses in terms
of the hosts, but they are still included in the range or the boundary of any given network. So I'll
point that out again in just a few minutes.

[Video description begins] The following line is now highlighted: Note: The "all zeros' address
and the "all ones" addresses are not used for standard host addressing. [Video description
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ends]

But with respect to the actual subnet configuration, I have already implemented everything. So
in this example I have taken the class C network, which normally accommodates 256
addresses, and it's been broken down in this case into 4 subnets because I have masked 2 bits.
So I moved that line by masking the first bit and the second bit of the subnet mask in my final
octet.

So that creates an actual decimal value subnet mask of 255.255.255.192. Meaning we gave 2
more bits to the network address. So now my network address is 26 bits instead of 24. My
CIDR Notation says /26 because that's the number of ones in the subnet mask, and that leaves
me 6 bits to address my hosts.

OK, so that's all summarized here. 2 bits masked, 6 bits available to address each host. That
creates 4 subnets of 64 hosts each. OK, and again, the number of subnets can be calculated by
the number of bits that were masked, which in this case is 2 or 2 to the power of 2, which is 4.
So that's 4 subnets and each one can accommodate 64 hosts. So as for the boundaries, then I
have those down below.

[Video description begins] The following lines are now highlighted. Line 1 reads: 2 bits masked.
Line 2 reads: 6 bits available to address hosts. Line 3 reads: 4 subnets of 64 hosts each. [Video
description ends]

So, in this case, I'm just calling them Subnet 1, 2, 3, and 4. So in the default state for this class C
configuration, the network ID would be the first 3 octet values, which is 192.168.0. Again,
that's the default network ID. OK, so that's still where everything starts. So the first possible
address is 192.168.0.0.

Now again remember the all zeros value in binary is the routing entry, but it's still in this range.
OK, but if I can only accommodate 64 hosts and we start at 0, then the last address in this range
is 0.63. OK, that's 64 possible combinations. But 0 counts, so it goes from 0 to 63. That's the
end of that subnet.

And if we were to express 63 in binary, then that would be all ones because you would have to
enable all 6 remaining bits to get to 63. Notice the sum down below here in the spreadsheet
says 63, if I add up those 6 bits, so all ones in binary is the broadcast address. So is still within
this range. But that address is not used for host addressing.

OK, the "all zeros" and the "all ones" are never used in any network for host addressing. So the
0 decimal address would be all zeros in binary and in this case 63 is the all ones value. So this is
the broadcast address. So the usable values in this case would be 192.168.0.1 as the first
address, then 192.168.0.62 as the last usable address.

But that's still the boundary from 0 to 63. OK, so always just remember that about the all zeros
value and the all ones value. They are not used to address your hosts but they are still within
the boundary of that subnet. So if Subnet 1 ends at 63, then the next subnet begins at 64, OK.
And once again, you can sort of think of that as the first value or the value that would equate to
0.

So if I'm counting by 64, for lack of a better word, for each subnet, then the last one is 127. OK.
So 64 counts and then you just add up 64, 65, 66, 67 and you just keep counting. The 64th
address will be 127.

Then the next subnet begins at 0.128 and again that would be the first value on this subnet. So
if you add up 63 more than you end up at 191. The last subnet then begins at 192 and goes up
to 255. So what you'll notice is that the octet value is incrementing in each case by 64.

So here we have a 0 for the last octet value. Then we have a 64, then we have a 128, then we
have a 192. So each one adds 64 to the previous value. Then the same thing happens for the
last value. It's 63 at the end here. Add 64 to that and you get a 127. Add 64 to that and you get
191. Add 64 to that and you get 255 and that's the end of this entire address range.

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OK, so if we look at our two host systems, then 192.168.0.100 falls in between 64 and 127. So
Host 1 is on Subnet 2, Host 2 is 192.168.0.150, so that falls within the range of Subnet 3. So the
two hosts can no longer see each other.

And again, let's quickly recap. You can determine that by examining the IP address against the
subnet mask, and in this case we see 1 * 1 is 1, 1 * 0 is 0, so that's a different answer. As soon as
TCP/IP sees that it is a different answer, it determines that these two hosts are on different
networks and in terms of forwarding the packets to communicate with this system, it will
attempt to forward them to the default gateway.

It will no longer attempt to establish a direct connection. If they are in the same subnet, then
they should be plugged into the same switch and they should find each other no problem. But
as soon as that answer comes out to be different. So if Host 1 is trying to reach Host 2, this
calculation will say, well Host 2 is on a different network. Therefore your packets must be
forwarded to the default gateway in order to reach Host 2.

[Video description begins] The following subnets are now highlighted. Line 1 reads: Subnet 1:
192.168.0.0 - 192.168.0.63. Line 2 reads: Subnet 2: 192.168.0.64 - 192.168.0.127 (Host 1).
Line 3 reads: Subnet 3: 192.168.0.128 - 192.168.0.191 (Host 2). Line 4 reads: Subnet 4:
192.168.0.192 - 192.168.0.255. [Video description ends]

It will never attempt to find it on the same subnet. OK, so as long as there is a default gateway
between these networks, then they can certainly communicate. But you have to have those
routers in place for these systems to be able to communicate with each other. OK. So again,
that one is relatively simple because we are only dealing with very small subnets here, only 64
hosts per subnet. So it does get a little more complicated when we start looking at the Class B
environments, but the process is still the same.

So once again, I have already implemented everything here. I have in this case 3 bits masked,
which means that there are 13 bits available to address the hosts, and that configuration
creates 8 subnets.

[Video description begins] A sheet called Class B is now active. The following lines are now
highlighted. Line 1 reads: 3 bits masked. Line 2 reads: 13 bits available to address hosts. Line 3
reads: 8 subnets of 8192 hosts each. [Video description ends]

Again, 3 bits masked is 2 to the power of 3, which is 8, so that creates 8 subnets.

Since we are working with a Class B, which by default supports somewhere in the
neighborhood of 65,000 hosts, in this case with 8 subnets, then each one can accommodate
roughly 8000 hosts, specifically 8192, but close enough. So again, the process is still the same,
but it is a little more difficult to calculate now because it's a lot easier to count by 64 in our
previous example than it is to count by 8192.

But there is a little bit of a shortcut, for lack of a better word, or at least something that I find
helps to visualize how you increment your values. And that's the fact that each octet value can
only go as high as 255. That's the highest number you can have. So if we look at the very last
octet value here in Subnet 1, it goes to 255. Once you hit that point, you can't go any farther. So
the octet value before that must then increase by 1.

OK, now for easy math and/or easy visualization, let's just round that 255 down to 250. OK,
now let's look at the very first address, 172.16.0.0. So we know that the last octet value, the 0
right there can only go as high as 255. Let's round down to 250. As soon as that hits 250, then
you have to increment the previous value by 1, OK.

So each time you increment this previous octet by 1, you get 250 more addresses. So if I were
to increment that value 4 times, 0, 1, 2, and 3, that's a 1000 addresses. OK again, rounded
down. So for every 4 increments of the third octet, you get 1000 addresses.

Well, if 4 increments gets me 1000, then 32 increments will get me 8000. OK, again, if 4
increments gets me 1000, then 32 increments gets me to 8000. So that indicates then that I
still have a fairly regular increment. In this case, it's 32. In other words, I'm counting by 32.

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But it's not on the last octet, it's on the third octet. So look at the values for the third octet. We
see 0, then we see 32, then we see 64, then we see 96, and that keeps going. Then we see 128,
then 160, then 192, then 224. Each of those values on the third octet is 32 higher than the one
before, so we just keep adding 32.

The same thing happens on the upper range 172.16.31.255 is the last value because again, 0
counts. If you need 32 values but you're including 0, then the range is 0 to 31. So 172.16.0.0 is
the first address of Subnet 1.

172.16.31.255 is the last address of that subnet. From that point the 31 must be incremented
to 32. OK. Then that one goes up to 172.16.63 32 with an increment of 32 gets me to 63
because again you include the 32.

So it's 32, 33, 34, 35, 36 and by the time you get to 63, that's the 32nd value. Then that one
goes to 255. Then you have to increment the 63 to 64. OK, so again, it's the exact same
counting mechanism, for lack of a better word. I'm just adding 32 each time, but the 64 can be
thought of as the 0 address. Then you add 32.

That gets you to 95. So, again, the third octet value is incrementing by 32 in each case, but on
the third octet because we have so many more computers per network, so that just keeps going
and going.

[Video description begins] The following subnets are now highlighted. Subnet 1: 172.16.0.0 -
172.16.31.255 (Host 1). Subnet 2: 172.16.32.0 - 172.16.63.255 (Host 2). Subnet 3: 172.16.64.0
- 172.16.95.255. Subnet 4: 172.168.0.192 - 172.16.127.255. Subnet 5 reads: 172.16.128.0 -
172.16.159.255. Subnet 6 reads: 172.16.160.0 - 172.16.191.255. Subnet 7 reads:
172.16.192.0 - 172.16.223.255. Subnet 8 reads: 172.16.224.0 - 172.16.255.255. [Video
description ends]

So subnet 5 in this case starts at 128.0, then add 32 more, goes to 159.255.

159 increments to 160, then that one goes to 191.255, then 192.0 to 223.255, finally 224.0
through to 255.255 as the last address. So in terms of the hosts, once again host one has been
submitted away from Host 2 because 1 falls within the very first subnet at 172.16.0.100.

That's within Subnet 1, but Host 2 is in 16.32, so there is Host 2. And once again, if we look at
the binary, we see that 0 * 1 is 0, 1 * 1 is 1. Different answer, different subnets. And if Host 1
attempts to communicate with Host 2, it will simply forward its packets off to the default
gateway. OK, so one final example.

Class A. In this case, I have 10 bits masked and 14 available to address my hosts, which creates
a 1024 subnets, each one supporting 16,384 hosts. OK, so now we have even larger subnets,
but it's still the exact same process. Again, every four increments of the third octet gets you
1000 addresses.

[Video description begins] A sheet called Class A is now active. The following lines are now
highlighted. Line 1 reads: 10 bits masked. Line 2 reads: 14 bits available to address hosts. Line 3
reads: 1024 subnets of 16,384 hosts each. [Video description ends]

So to get to 16,000 addresses, well 16 * 4 is 64. So, now I'm incrementing by 64. So look at the
range. The first one for Subnet 1 is 10.0.0.0 to 10.0.63.255. I incremented by 64, zero counts so
the last value is 63 then .255 and that's the end of that subnet.

The next one then begins at 64. OK. 64.0, then add 64 to the third octet value from the
previous one, which was 63, and that's a 127.255. That's the last address there. Then 127
increments to 128, and it's the exact same counting mechanism. In this case, I'm just adding 64
to each octet value.

So we see 0, 64, 128, 192. But then look what happens for Subnet 5. The last value of Subnet 4
was 10.0.255.255. That's it. Those are as high as they can go. So now the next octet value has to
increment by 1, but we still count by 64. So if the first one is 10.1.0.0, then the last one is
10.1.63.

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That one fills up to 255, then we go to 10.1.64. I'm still counting by 64 on that octet, it's just
that the previous octet value has now incremented by 1, but each one of those still
accommodates approximately 16,000 hosts. Now that process just keeps going. But clearly I
couldn't list out the ranges for all 1024 subnets, but you just continue on using the same
counting mechanism.

OK, so again, it can be a little bit tricky at first to visualize those increment values, but I do
always like to remember that again, 4 increments of the third octet gets you about a 1000
addresses. So then it's just how many times do I have to do that to get to 8000, 16,000, 32,000,
whatever it's going to be.

So then finally, just to look at the two hosts, in this case Host 1 and Host 2 are both still on the
first subnet because both of these addresses are effectively still falling to the right of the
divisionary line. And, forgive me, I forgot to flip these bit values here. My mistake. These of
course would all be ones now that they have been masked. So in this case, now all of the bit
values are being compared against 0.

[Video description begins] The following subnets are now highlighted. Subnet 1:10.0.0.0-
10.0.63.255 (Host 1 and 2). Subnet 2: 10.0.64.0-10.0.127.255. Subnet 3: 10.0.128.0-
10.0.191.255. Subnet 4:10.0.192.0-10.0.255.255. Subnet 5 reads: 10.1.0.0-10.1.63.255.
Subnet 6 reads: 10.1.64.0-10.1.127.255 . Subnet 7 reads: 10.1.128.0-10.0.191.255. Subnet 8
reads: 10.1.192.0-10.1.255.255. [Video description ends]

So 0 * 0 is 0, 1 * 0 is 0, anything times 0 is 0. So we're always going to get the same answer. So

these two hosts are in the same subnet and they would not need a default gateway between
them. OK, now this will become a little bit easier the more you do it, like anything, but just
always remember that as soon as you start subnetting, you are going to be creating these
boundaries. So you need to be mindful of where your hosts are with respect to those
boundaries.

13. Video: Course Summary (it_csnetp24_06_enus_13)

In this video, we will summarize the key concepts covered in this course.

summarize the key concepts covered in this course

[Video description begins] Topic title: Course Summary. Presented by: Aaron Sampson. [Video
description ends]

So in this course, we've examined how to implement IP version four network addressing. We
did this by exploring the differences between public and private IP addresses, RFC 1918 and
how it's used for internal host addressing. Understanding link-local, loopback, and default
gateway addresses, as well as Automatic Private IP Addressing and EUI-64.

Performing base-2 conversions and working with binary values, subnetting fundamentals,
binary to decimal conversions, CIDR notations, and determining subnet sizes. Subnetting Class
A, B, and C networks, performing supernetting and calculating subnet boundaries. In our next
course, we'll move on to explore use cases for modern network environments.

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© 2025 Skillsoft Ireland Limited - All rights reserved.

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