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Knots and Graphs I—Arc Graphs and

Colorings

Article in Advances in Applied Mathematics · April 1999

DOI: 10.1006/aama.1998.0634

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Advances in Applied Mathematics 22, 312᎐337 Ž1999.
Article ID aama.1998.0634, available online at http:rrwww.idealibrary.com on

Knots and Graphs IᎏArc Graphs and Colorings

Frank Harary

Department of Computer Science, New Mexico State Uni¨ ersity, Las Cruces,
New Mexico 88003

and

Louis H. Kauffman

Department of Mathematics, Uni¨ ersity of Illinois at Chicago, 851 South Morgan Street,
Chicago, Illinois 60607-7045

Received May 22, 1998; accepted September 19, 1998

I. INTRODUCTION

It is well-known that combinatorial knot theory is a graph theoretic way

to approach the theory of knots, links, and their topology in three-dimen-
sional space. The usual formulation of this theory via knot diagrams works
with a formal system that is a mixture of diagrams and graphs. Our
purpose is to introduce a specific, clear and simple graph theoretic Žand
hence set-theoretic . foundation for the theory of knot and link diagrams.
In the course of our work, we introduce a very natural arc-graph
associated with any knot or link diagram, and we show how these arc-graphs
can be put to use in studying the algebraic invariants of knots such as the
fundamental group, the quandle or the involutory quandle. By specializing
the quandle to the case of colorings with values in ZrnZ Žthe integers
modulo n., we define a new invariant, the coloring number C Ž K ., for
knots and links. There are two main variations of this coloring number,
that we denote by C Ž K . and CM Ž K .. CM Ž K . is the least number of colors
needed on a minimal diagram for K. We close with a discussion about this
new invariant and conjectures related to it.
Section 2 sets the background for knot and link diagrams, and defines
the arc-graph AŽ K . of a diagram K. We then define admissible labellings
Ž G, L. for plane 4-regular graphs G and show that such labelled graphs
312
0196-8858r99 $30.00
Copyright 䊚 1999 by Academic Press
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
 KNOTS AND GRAPHS 313

are in precise correspondence with link diagrams. We illustrate this theory

with specific examples and with a new proof that every such G can be
given the structure of an alternating weave.
In Section 3 we discuss the Reidemeister moves on link diagrams and
their translation into the language of labelled 4-regular plane graphs.
Section 4 discusses the basic theory of the involutory quandle, IQŽ K ., of a
link K and shows how the arc-graph is central to the structure of this
invariant. Section 5 specializes the IQ to the case of colorings with values
in a cyclic group. The new invariant C Ž K . is introduced and we discuss a
number of conjectures in relation to this invariant. In particular, in Section
6 we discuss the conjecture that CM Ž K . is equal to ¨ Ž K ., the number of
crossings of K, for K a reduced, connected, alternating knot diagram
whose determinant is a prime number.
Ca¨ eat. Throughout this paper the term graph will refer to a graph in
which loops and multiple edges are allowed.

II. KNOTS, LINKS, AND 4-REGULAR GRAPHS

We first give a quick description of the diagrammatic approach to the

theory of knots and links. We then show how to use graph theory to give
this diagrammatic formal system a simple and effective set-theoretic un-
derpinning. This translation of knot diagrams to graph theoretic concepts
is significant in that it provides a direct connection between combinatorial
knot theory, graph theory, and the foundations of mathematics. We shall
point out some of the implications of the diagrams themselves, both for
graph theory and for foundations.
The formal diagrammatic system for knots and links is based on dia-
grams such as the ones shown in Figure 1.
DEFINITION 2.1. Each diagram is composed of a finite collection of
disjoint arcs in the plane. Each arc has each of its endpoints paired with an
endpoint of another arc Žpossibly the other endpoint of the same arc.
across an interior point of an arc in the collection of arcs. The arc
containing the interior point is called the o¨ ercrossing arc. The configura-
tion of overcrossing arc and paired endpoints is called a crossing. In the
pairing of endpoints at a crossing it is possible to draw a straight line
segment between the two paired endpoints in such a way that this segment
intersects the overcrossing arc in exactly one point. This point is the
designated interior point of the overcrossing arc. The mirror image of a
knot or link is obtained by reversing all of its crossings. A link is said to be
oriented if there is a specific direction, indicated by an arrow, chosen for
each of its components.
314 HARARY AND KAUFFMAN

FIG. 1. Exemplary knot and link diagrams.

In Figure 1 we have shown the trefoil diagram T, its reflection or mirror

image T U , and an oriented link L. Each of these diagrams may be
regarded as a description of a projection of a curve ŽT or T U . or curves
Ž L. from 3-dimensional space to the surface of the plane Žor to the surface
of a 2-dimensional sphere.. The diagrams are drawn in such a way that one
can interpret a continuous line segment that is flanked by two segments
ending on either side of the line as the crossing of two segments of the
projection. The continuous line is above Žin 3-space. the line that it crosses
over Žsee Figure 2..
In Figure 2 we illustrate two possibilities for such a crossing. In the first
case line a crosses over line b Žline b is broken into two segments in the
diagram.. In the second case line b crosses over line a. We have indicated
possible orientations at these crossings. A crossing is said to be of type q1
if the overcrossing line becomes parallel to the undercrossing line when

FIG. 2. Crossing structure.

 KNOTS AND GRAPHS 315

the overcrossing line is turned counterclockwise; of type y1 when it is

turned clockwise.
Returning to Figure 1, note that each diagram is composed of a
collection of arcs with their endpoints paired across interior points of
Žovercrossing. arcs.
DEFINITION 2.2. For graph theoretic purposes it is fruitful to define the
arc-graph, AŽ K ., of an unoriented link diagram K. The arc-graph Žsee
Figure 3. has one vertex for each arc in K, and one edge for each pairing
of arc endpoints. This edge is labelled by the arc that passes between the
endpoints. Each vertex is labelled by its corresponding arc.
The arc-graph AŽ K . of link diagram K consists in a disjoint union of
labelled cycle graphs, i.e., it is a regular graph of degree 2 Žsee w6x.. The
number of cycle graphs in AŽ K . is equal to the number of topological
components in the corresponding link K. It is common topology parlance
to speak of a link diagram with n components. By this it is meant that AŽ K .
has n cycles.
It is natural to wonder to what extent one can reconstruct the diagram
K from the labelled graph AŽ K .. This is equivalent Žsee w1x. to the

FIG. 3. Diagrams and their arc graphs.

316 HARARY AND KAUFFMAN

well-known Žand solved. Gauss code reconstruction problem. We shall

discuss this question elsewhere. For our purposes, the arc-graph of a knot
or link diagram is useful because it gives a combinatorial formulation of
many properties of the diagram, and because, from it, we can read certain
significant topological invariants of knots and links. These invariants will
be taken up in Section 4.
We now look directly at the link diagrams themselves.

DEFINITION 2.3. The shadow graph G of a diagram K is obtained by

taking each crossing in the diagram and adding to the diagram the segment
connecting the paired endpoints at that crossing. Let SŽ K . denote this
new diagram. This new segment intersects the overcrossing line in a single
interior point. The set of these intersection points is defined to be the set
of vertices of the shadow graph G. An edge in G is a path from a vertex to
a vertex that consists in first going along one of the new segments to an
endpoint of an arc in G, then along the arc, then along a new segment to a
vertex. This gives the subset SŽ K . the structure of a plane graph G, the
shadow graph of K. It is a 4-regular plane graph, with loop and multiple
edges allowed.
Certainly a link diagram can be regarded as a 4-regular plane graph G
Žthe shadow graph of the diagram. with extra structure. The art of
translating this structure Ždepicted diagrammatically by broken line seg-
ments associated across other lines. is to make a perspicuous choice of
labelling for the graphical edges. Here we present a new method for
accomplishing that labelling, illustrated in Figure 4.
In Figure 4 the broken segment Žor missing segment. at the crossing is
filled in. In its place are two parentheses on either side of the overcrossing
line. The concave sides of the parentheses face away from the overcrossing
line and they are inscribed upon the edges at the vertex that corresponds
to the undercrossing line. As we can see from Figure 4, there ensue four
types of labels for each edge: no parentheses, one parenthesis Žtwo
possibilities here since the edge has two ends., two parentheses. Let us
denote the absence of a parenthesis by O Žfor overcrossing. and the
presence of a parenthesis by U Žfor undercrossing.. Then the four possible
edge labels are OO, OU, UO, and UU. An edge labelled OO crosses over
at both of its ends. An edge labelled OU or UO goes from over to under
or vice versa. An edge labelled UU underpasses at both ends. Note that
the double label on the edge is correlated with its endpoints. Thus if e is
an edge of G and e s  a, b4 is the set of endpoints in the boundary of e,
then a label on e is a function LŽ e .: e ª  O, U4 .
To be quite precise, if e s  a4 then we replace e by the multiset  aX , aY 4
so that two function values are possible. A labelling of G is a choice of
label for each edge in G.
 KNOTS AND GRAPHS 317

FIG. 4. Parenthetical crossing code.

Now recall that G is given as a 4-regular plane graph. Hence, each

vertex has a cyclic order of edges given from the planar embedding. Let
²1234: denote the typical order of edges e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 incident to a vertex ¨
of G. Then in an admissible labelling, e1 and e2 receive the same label at
¨ . Furthermore, the label ŽU or O. received by e1 and e3 at ¨ are opposite
ŽU if O and O if U. to that received by e2 and e4 at ¨ . With this notion of
admissible labelling for G, we have captured precisely the structure of
knot or link diagram in purely graph theoretic terms.
Note that if e1 and e3 receive the O label at ¨ , then the segment e1 e3
overcrosses at ¨ , while the segment e2 e4 undercrosses at ¨ . If the reader
will look back at Figure 4, she will see two diagrams and their admissible
labellings. The trefoil diagram T is alternating. A diagram is alternating if
every edge in its shadow graph G has two labels ŽUO or OU., hence
exactly one parenthesis. That is, a weave is alternating if one encounters
an overcrossing immediately after each undercrossing and vice versa.
Notation. We shall denote by Ž G, L. a 4-regular plane graph G with an
admissible labelling L.
ALTERNATION LEMMA 2.4. Let G be a 4-regular plane connected graph.
Then there exists an admissible labelling for G such that each edge of G
recei¨ es exactly one parenthesis. Hence, there is a link diagram G噛 with
shadow G such that G噛 is an alternating diagram.
Proof. Call the operation of replacing a vertex in G by reassembled
edges as shown in Figure 5 a smoothing of that vertex.
318 HARARY AND KAUFFMAN

FIG. 5. Four-regular node and two smoothings.

It is easy to see that one can choose to smooth the vertices of G, a

connected 4-regular graph in the plane, in such a way that the result is a
single Jordan curve Ža simple closed curve. J in the plane. By the Jordan
Curve Theorem, J divides the plane into two connected regions. Color the
unbounded region white and the bounded region black. Then each region
in the plane designated by G receives the color black or white in such a
way that regions sharing an edge of G have different colors. Now place a
double parenthesis at each vertex of the shaded G according to the
convention shown in Figure 6. ŽThe parentheses appear horizontal when a
black region is in the right lower quadrant..
As shown in Figure 6, the resulting labelling assigns exactly one paren-
thesis to each edge of G. This completes the proof.
Remark. Let Ž G, L. be a plane 4-regular graph with an admissible
labelling. Note that we can form the arc-graph AŽ G, L. just as in the case
of link diagrams. An arc in Ž G, L. is a sequence of edges with labels of the
form UO, OO, OO, . . . , OO, OU such that each adjacent pair of edges are

FIG. 6. Parentheses in relation to shaded regions.

 KNOTS AND GRAPHS 319

FIG. 7. Diagramᎏparenthesis structure ᎏarc graph.

part of the crossover structure at a vertex of G. This gives an algorithm for

constructing a link diagram from Ž G, L.. We can think of this situation as
indicated in Figure 7. The labelled graph and the arc-graph are the two
basic graph᎐theoretical structures associated with a link diagram.
DEFINITION 2.5. We define the Ž signed . checkerboard graph CGŽ K .
associated with a connected unoriented link diagram K as follows: Con-
sider the 4-regular plane shadow graph of K. This graph describes a
decomposition of the plane into connected regions. Color these regions
with two colors Žcall the colors ‘‘black’’ and ‘‘white’’. so that the un-
bounded region is colored white. Such a coloring exists by the argument
given at the beginning of the proof of the Alternation Lemma. Now
construct the graph CGŽ K . whose vertices are in 1-1 correspondence with
the black regions, such that there is an edge between two vertices of C Ž G .
whenever the corresponding black regions meet at a crossing of K, i.e.,
they share a vertex of the 4-regular graph. With respect to the coloring of
320 HARARY AND KAUFFMAN

FIG. 7.1. The checkerboard graph for a knot or link diagram.

the regions the crossings of K fall into two types that we shall designate as
q1 and y1: A crossing is said to be of type q1 if the two shaded regions
at that crossing are swept by the overcrossing line as it is turned counter-
clockwise; of type y1 if the shaded regions are swept as it is turned
clockwise. In CGŽ K ., assign the sign q1 to an edge if it corresponds to a
crossing of type q1 and a sign of y1 to an edge if it corresponds to a
crossing of type y1. This gives CGŽ K . the structure of a signed graph.
Figure 7.1 illustrates these ideas.
The signed graph CGŽ K . associated with a link diagram K can be used
for many graph theoretic investigations related to the topology of knots
and links. We shall elaborate on this further in other papers in this series.
In the present paper we give one application below, and another in the
final section on coloring knots and links. Note that the signed graph for
the mirror image of a link K is obtained by changing all the signs in the
graph for K.

Remark. Another proof of the Alternation Lemma can be formulated

by using the concept of the checkerboard graph CGŽ K .. It is easy to see
that a connected diagram K is alternating if and only if the checkerboard
graph CGŽ K . has constant signs Žall q1 or all y1.. Consequently, for an
arbitrary 4-regular graph H, we can take the corresponding unsigned
checkerboard graph CGŽ H . and then choose crossing states at each vertex
so that all the signs of CGŽ H . are Žsay. positive. The corresponding link
diagram Žcall it K Ž H .. is necessarily alternating.
 KNOTS AND GRAPHS 321

III. REIDEMEISTER MOVES

Two curves embedded in 3-space are said to be ambient isotopic if there

is a family of embeddings parametrized on the unit interval that connects
them. In w2x Reidemeister proved that a set of three basic moves, shown in
Figure 8, on link diagrams suffices to study the topological properties of
knots and links in 3-dimensional space. He showed that the equivalence
relation generated by his moves, plus equivalence of graphical structure via
homeomorphism of the plane or the two dimensional sphere, is equivalent
to the relation of ambient isotopy of embedded curves in 3-dimensional
space. Each of these moves is regarded as a local change in a larger
diagram that is otherwise unaltered by the move. Each move is performed
locally on a portion of the diagram topologically equivalent Žas underlying
plane graphs. to that part depicted in Figure 8. Figure 9 illustrates the use
of the Reidemeister moves. The combinatorial theory of knots and links is
the theory of the link diagrams under the equivalence relation generated
by the Reidemeister moves. In Figure 10 we illustrate the translation of
the Reidemeister moves to moves on labelled 4-regular plane graphs
Ž G, L. as described in Section 2.
We shall not pursue the formulation of the Reidemeister moves for
admissible labelled graphs Ž G, L. other than to point out that this refor-
mulation gives a complete translation of link diagrams and their associated
topology into graph theory. It will be helpful to the graph theorist to work

FIG. 8. The Reidemeister moves.

322 HARARY AND KAUFFMAN

FIG. 9. Using the Reidemeister moves.

in this language. See Figure 10.1 for a parallel depiction of unknotting,

first in link diagrams, then in the Ž G, L. language.

IV. THE INVOLUTORY QUANDLE

We now show how the graph AŽ K . of a link diagram K is of use in

studying an algebraic invariant called the involutory quandle of K, de-
noted IQŽ K ..
The IQ of a link K is an algebraic structure with one Žnonassociative.
binary operation. We shall denote this operation a*b by the juxtaposition
of symbols ab. Thus the quandle operation applied to a and b is denoted
by aU b s ab. It is useful to use the convention that products without
 KNOTS AND GRAPHS 323

FIG. 10. Four-regular encoding of Reidemeister moves.

FIG. 10.1. Diagram language and graphical language.

324 HARARY AND KAUFFMAN

indicated parentheses are to be left-associated. That is,

abc s Ž ab . c,
abcd s Ž Ž ab . c . d,
and so on.
The axioms for an involutory quandle Q w3x are as follows:
1. aa s a for all a in Q.
2. Ž ab. b s a for all a and b in Q.
3. Ž ab. c s Ž ac .Ž bc . for all a, b and c in Q.
We can associate an involutory quandle IQŽ K . with a link diagram K as
follows w3x:
We shall write w a < b < c x when the arc b overcrosses the meeting of the
arcs a and c. Thus w a < b < c x corresponds to an edge in AŽ K . with endpoints
a and c. The quandle IQŽ K . is generated by a set of elements that are in
one to one correspondence with the arcs of the diagram K. For each
crossing in K with the edge w a < b < c x in AŽ K . we have the relation ab s c
in the quandle IQŽ K . Žsee Figure 11..
Note that by axiom 2. above we have ab s c if and only if a s cb. Thus
this relation does not depend upon an orientation assigned to the link
diagram.
The involutory quandle IQŽ K . is defined to be the algebra under the
three axioms described above, and obtained by taking the generators and
relations as described above.
For example, view Figure 12 for a description of IQŽT . where T is a
trefoil diagram. In this figure a simple calculation shows that the IQ of the
trefoil knot has exactly three elements. In Figure 13 we illustrate the
generators and relations for the IQ of the figure eight knot E. The IQ of
the figure eight knot is finite, having order five. We shall postpone the
calculation of this IQ until we have discussed an important lemma due to
Winker w4x.

FIG. 11. Quandle operation at a crossing.

 KNOTS AND GRAPHS 325

FIG. 12. The involutory quandle Ž IQ . of the trefoil knot.

WINKER’S LEMMA 4.1. If a, b, c are elements of Q, an in¨ olutory quandle,

then aŽ bc . s acbc.

Proof. acbc s ŽŽ ac . b . c s ŽŽ ac . c .Ž bc . s aŽ bc ..

With the help of Winker’s Lemma, we can efficiently rewrite the

generators and relations for IQŽ E ., starting with the equations from

FIG. 13. The involutory quandle Ž IQ . of the figure eight knot.

326 HARARY AND KAUFFMAN

Figure 13:

ac s b, bd s c, ca s d, db s a,
l
acd s c, ca s d, d Ž ac . s a,
l
acd s c, ca s d, dcac s a,
l
ac Ž ca . s c, cacac s a,
l
acaca s c, cacac s a.

Since the last pair of equations are equivalent to each other, we see that
the IQ of the figure eight knot has a description with two generators and
one relation.

IQ Ž E . s Ž a, c < acaca s c .

Using the same graphical technique for diagramming products as we had

for the arc-graph, we can write the arc graph

G Ž IQ Ž E . . s w a < c < x x w x < a < y xw y < c < z x w z < a < c x

as shown in Figure 14 to represent the IQ of E.

In this representation x s ac, y s aca, z s acac. Note that the products
obtained by traversing the edges of such a graph are naturally left-associ-
ated and Winker’s Lemma tells us that every element in IQŽ E . can be
written a left-associated product of generating elements. The relation
acaca s c tells us that a, ac, aca, acac, and acaca s c are the only such
products. Thus IQŽ E . has exactly five members forming the set
 a, x, y, z, c4 . It is an easy matter to use the graph GŽ IQŽ E .. to compute
products in IQŽ E .. For example, xy s acŽ aca. s acacaca s cca s ca s z.
We leave it as an exercise for the reader to determine the full multiplica-
tion table for IQŽ E .. Not all knots and links have finite IQ. Winker w4x
shows that the first knot with an infinite involutory quandle is the knot 816
ŽFigure 15. in the Reidemeister tables.

FIG. 14. Diagram for IQŽ E ..

 KNOTS AND GRAPHS 327

FIG. 15. Knots and links with infinite involutory quandle.

Finally, we have the basic result of Winker.

THEOREM 4.2 w4x. If K is a knot and IQŽ K . has one element, then K is
topologically equi¨ alent to an unknotted circle.
We shall not prove this theorem here Žsee w4x.. It asserts that the IQ
detects knottedness. Unfortunately, it is often very difficult to decide upon
the triviality of IQŽ K . for a given knot K.
This ends our general discussion of the involutory quandle. We now turn
to its invariance under the Reidemeister moves.
PROPOSITION 4.3. If links K and K X are equi¨ alent ¨ ia Reidemeister
mo¨ es, then IQŽ K . and IQŽ K X . are isomorphic algebraic structures.
Proof. View Figure 16.

V. COLORING LINK DIAGRAMS

Let A be an abelian group, written additively. Define a binary operation

on A by the formula aU b s ra q sb where r and s are fixed integers.
LEMMA 5.1. The abo¨ e binary operation aU b gi¨ es any abelian group A the
structure of a Ž possibly tri¨ ial . in¨ olutory quandle exactly when r s y1 and
s s 2. This operation is gi¨ en by the formula

aU b s 2 b y a.

Proof. In order to have aU a s a we need a s aU a s ra q sa s Ž r q

s . a. Thus we require that r q s s 1. In order to have Ž aU b .U b s a for any
a and b, we require that a s Ž aU b .U b s r Ž ra q sb . q sb s rra q Ž r q 1. sb.
328 HARARY AND KAUFFMAN

FIG. 16. Involutory quandle axioms and the Reidemeister moves.

Hence we need rr s 1 and Ž r q 1. s s 0. If r s 1 then s s 0 and the

quandle structure is the trivial one aU b s a for all a. If r s yl then s s 2
and Ž aU b .U b s a is satisfied. Finally, taking r s y1 and s s 2, we have
Ž aU c .U Ž bU c . s 2Ž2 c y b . y Ž2 c y a. s 4 c y 2 b y 2 c q a s 2 c y 2 b q
a s 2 c y Ž2 b y a. s Ž aU b .U c. This completes the proof.

DEFINITION 5.2. Given a link K, we let AbŽ K . be the involutory

quandle defined on K by the free abelian group on the arcs of the
diagram K, modulo the relation c s 2 b y a where a and c are endpoints
of an arc labelled b in the arc-graph AŽ K . of K Žsee Figures 11 and 17..

FIG. 17. The basic coloring rule.

 KNOTS AND GRAPHS 329

In other words we take the relation c s 2 b y a whenever in the diagram

K, b is the label of the overcrossing arc at a crossing while a and c are
labels for the undercrossing arcs incident to this crossing. We call AbŽ K .
the Ž unreduced. color quandle of K.
In the following examples of AbŽ K ., w a1 , a2 , . . . , a n < r 1 , r 2 , . . . , rn x de-
notes the free Žadditive. abelian group with generators a1 , a2 , . . . , a n and
relations r 1 ,’r 2 , . . . , rn . We often write relations in the form of equations
such as 3b s 7a. If there are no relations then we leave the space in the
notation for relations blank and write w a1 , a2 , . . . , a n < x to denote the free
abelian group generated by  a1 , a2 , . . . , a n4 .
1. Here U is the unknot, a standard circle in the plane, and AŽU . is
the trivial graph with one node labelled by a; AbŽU . s w a < x s Z is the set
of integers, i.e. the free abelian group on one generator and no relation.
2. In the example illustrated in Figure 3, the link L has two
components linking each other once. So AŽ L. is a graph with two vertices
and two loops, one loop at each vertex. The vertices are labelled a and b
and the corresponding loops are labelled b and a, respectively. We have

Ab Ž L . s w a, b < ab s a, ba s b x s w a, b <2 b y a s a, 2 a y b s b x
s a, b <2 Ž a y b . s 0 s Z q Zr2 Z.

3. In this example, illustrated in Figures 3 and 12, the knot K is a

trefoil and AŽT . is a triangle graph with vertices a, b, c and edges labelled
a, b, c such that the label of an edge and its two vertex labels always form
the set  a, b, c4 . We have AbŽ K . s w a, b, c <2 c y a s b, 2 a y b s c, 2 b y c
s ax s Z q Zr3Z as can be computed by doing integer invertible row and
column operations on the relation matrix.
DEFINITION 5.3. Let AbU Ž K . denote the quotient of AbŽ K . obtained
by setting any of the generators of AbŽ K . equal to zero. We call AbU Ž K .
the Ž reduced. color quandle of K.
We see in these examples the general fact that AbŽ K . s Z q AbU Ž K ..
The reduced color quandle AbU Ž K . is a quotient of the involutory quandle
IQŽ K ., and is sometimes isomorphic to it Žas for the trefoil T ..
Notice that for the trefoil T, we are coloring the knot diagram with
colors from Zr3Z s  0, 1, 24 so that all three colors occur not only on the
standard diagram for T but also on any other diagram for T Žas can be
seen by doing Reidemeister moves..
DEFINITION 5.4. It is useful to define a relation matrix M Ž K . associated
with the expression of AbŽ K . in terms of generators and relations. The
matrix M Ž K . has one row for each relation of AbŽ K . and one column for
each generator. If each relation is written in the form m1 a1 q m 2 a2
330 HARARY AND KAUFFMAN

q ⭈⭈⭈ qm n a n s 0 where the m i are integers, then the row of M Ž K .

corresponding to this relation is the vector Ž m1 , m 2 , . . . , m n .. Let M U Ž K .
denote any reduced relation matrix obtained from the relation matrix
M Ž K . for AbŽ K . by striking out any row and any column. Thus M U Ž K . is
a cofactor submatrix of M Ž K ..
In general, AbU Ž K . will be a finite abelian group whenever K is a knot
diagram. The order of the group AbU Ž K . is the absolute value of any
cofactor of M Ž K ., the determinant of the reduced relation matrix M U Ž K ..
This expression,

Det Ž K . s Abs Ž Det Ž M U Ž K . . . ,

is an invariant of the knot K, called its determinant.

The determinant of the knot is a coloring number in the sense that the
knot diagram can be colored using the color set  0, 1, 2, . . . , N y 14 where
N s DetŽ K .. However this number is not necessarily the least number of
colors needed to color the knot in that modulus.
As usual let E denote the figure eight knot. Figure 18 illustrates the fact
that DetŽ E . s 5 and exhibits a coloring of E using only four of the five
colors. It also shows how the fifth color may appear in a diagram that is
equivalent to the first under Reidemeister moves.
PROPOSITION 5.5. There exist diagrams equi¨ alent Ž by Reidemeister mo¨ es .
to E that require fi¨ e colors. Figure 19 shows such a diagram.
Proof. One can verify that the diagram in Figure 19 requires all five
colors for any coloring from the color set Zr5Z by using an enumeration
of the set of all such colorings. This is done by solving the corresponding
system of equations over the ring of integers. We omit the details of this
calculation.
DEFINITION 5.6. Let K be a knot or link that can be colored Žin the
sense of the binary operation c s aU b s 2 b y a. with values in ZrnZ for
some n ) 1. Let N Ž K . be the least such modulus greater than 1 in which
K has a nontrivial coloring. ŽThe number N Ž K . is equal to the determi-
nant of K when that determinant is a prime number. Otherwise N Ž K . is a
divisor of the determinant that can be determined by working with the
algebra of the relation matrix for AbU Ž K . ᎏas we have discussed in this
section.. Define the coloring number C Ž K . to be the least number of colors
Ž) 1. in ZrN Ž K . Z that suffice to color some diagram in the Reidemeistcr
move equivalence class of K.
DEFINITION 5.6.1. A diagram for a link is said to be minimal if it has
the least number of crossings among all diagrams for that link in the
equivalence class generated by the Reidemeister moves. Let K be a knot
 KNOTS AND GRAPHS 331

FIG. 18. Coloring the Figure Eight Knot.

FIG. 19. A diagram for the figure eight knot that forces five colors.
332 HARARY AND KAUFFMAN

or link as in definition 5.6. Instead of considering all diagrams for K,

consider only those diagrams that have a minimum number of crossings.
Let CM Ž K . denote the least number of colors needed in modulus N Ž K .
to color K among its minimal diagrams. This number is also an invariant
of K, and can be computed in some cases where all the minimal diagrams
for K are known.
In the light of our discussion for the figure eight knot it is natural to
make the following surmise.
Conjecture 5.7. For a given diagram K there exists an equivalent
diagram L such that L requires N Ž K . colors.
Note added in proof. The truth of this conjecture was pointed out to us
by a number of people, Dan Silver being the first. We leave its proof as an
exercise for the reader!
We can prove that the usual diagram for E requires four colors, while
N Ž E . s 5.
PROPOSITION 5.8. For the usual figure eight knot diagram E, the coloring
number is equal to 4. That is, C Ž E . s 4 with N Ž E . s 5.
Proof. We shall actually prove that there does not exist a knot Žone
component. that is colorable via Zr5Z using only three colors. Note that
a knot cannot be nontrivially colored with less than three colors since a
crossing that does not support three colors supports only one color. Hence
a knot that is not colored with three or more colors is necessarily single
colored. Therefore consider the structure of crossings that support three
colors.
Suppose that the color set is  0, 1, 24 . We wish to determine knots that
support nontrivial colorings. Since Žmodulo 5. 0U 1 s 2, 1U 0 s 4, 0U 2 s 4,
2U 0 s 3, 1U 2 s 3 we see that neither 0 nor 2 can be the color of an
overcrossing line color at any crossing with three colors using the color set
 0, 1, 24 . Therefore all overcrossing arcs are colored 1, and all undercross-
ing arcs are colored 0 or 2. But in a knot diagram every overcrossing arc is
also an undercrossing arc at its end points. Thus, no arc can be an
overcrossing arc. This means that the diagram is the diagram of an unknot.
The same considerations apply to the other possible choices for 3-coloring
using Zr5Z. We omit the details for these remaining cases.
The figure eight knot is the first instance of a knot K for which C Ž K . is
strictly less than N Ž K .. It is quite easy to obtain knots where C Ž K . is less
than the determinant of K. Figure 20 shows a three coloring of the torus
knot K Ž2, 9. where DetŽ K Ž2, 9.. s 9. However, it is easy to see that here
N Ž K Ž2, 9.. s 3. We therefore know that C Ž K Ž2, 9.. s N Ž K Ž2, 9.. since it is
a general fact that for a knot that admits a nontrivial 3-coloring, there will
 KNOTS AND GRAPHS 333

FIG. 20. Coloring an alternating knot in less than its number of vertices.

be such a coloring for every diagram of that knot. Furthermore, if a knot

diagram admits two colors, then it necessarily admits a third color. The
only way that one of the two colors can be transformed to the other color
along the arcs of the knot is if an arc crosses under a third color.
Consider the example of K Ž2, 5. in Figure 21. Here we see a coloring
that uses all five colors with N Ž K Ž2, 5.. s 5.
PROPOSITION 5.9. If p is a prime number then CM Ž K Ž2, p .. s p s
N Ž K, p ..
Proof. Recall that the coloring number for minimal diagrams is de-
noted by CM Ž K .. We can check directly that K Ž2, p . can be colored with
p colors just as in Figure 21 for the case p s 5 and that for the diagram of
type shown in Figure 21 this is the least number of colors possible. Figure
21 illustrates the essentially unique smallest diagram for the torus knot of
type K Ž2, p .. This completes the proof.

FIG. 21. Coloring a torus knot that has prime determinant.

334 HARARY AND KAUFFMAN

FIG. 22. C Ž K Ž2, 5.. - 5: Irina Teneva’s Example.

On the other hand C Ž K Ž2, p .. can be less than p even when p is prime!
We are most grateful to Irina Teneva for the example shown in Figure 22
showing a 4-coloring of a diagram that is isotopic to K Ž2, 5.. Note that
Teneva’s diagram is not a minimal diagram for K Ž2, 5..
Figure 23 gives another example of a knot K with N Ž K . s 5 that we
conjecture has C Ž K . s 5.

VI. GRAPHS, TREES AND A GENERAL CONJECTURE

ABOUT CM Ž K .

The invariant C Ž K . is a new invariant of knots and links. It would be

remarkable if one could find a general algorithm to compute C Ž K . for any
knot or link. Most likely this is an NP-complete problem. Nevertheless,
some of the techniques of computation that we do know, w8x, lead to
further conjectures about C Ž K . and CM Ž K .. For example, letting AlexŽ t .
denote the classical Alexander polynomial and ConŽ z . the Alexander᎐
Conway polynomial, we know that AbsŽDetŽ K .. s AbsŽAlexŽy1.. s
AbsŽConŽ2 i .. where i 2 s y1. It follows from properties of these polyno-
mials that for alternating knots, AbsŽ Det Ž K .. is equal to the number of
spanning trees in the checkerboard graph CGŽ K . associated with K. We
defined and discussed this checkerboard graph in Section 2 above. The
number of spanning trees grows exponentially in the number of crossings
of the diagram K. Thus, for most alternating diagrams K the number of
colors needed to color the diagram is much less than AbsŽDetŽ K ...

DEFINITION 6.1. Recall that a bridge of a graph is an edge whose

deletion disconnects the graph. A connected link diagram K is said to be
reduced if there is no bridge in its checkerboard graph CGŽ K .. A link
 KNOTS AND GRAPHS 335

FIG. 23. A candidate for C Ž K . s 5.

diagram that is not reduced can be simplified topologically by untwisting at

the crossing corresponding to the bridge.

Alternation Conjecture 6.2. Let K be a connected reduced alternating

knot diagram with ¨ Ž K . crossings and prime p s AbsŽDetŽ K ... We con-
jecture that ¨ Ž K . is the coloring number of K for minimal diagrams of K:
¨ Ž K . s CM Ž K ..
In Figure 24 we show a typical instance of this conjecture: the knot 8 17
from the Reidemeister tables. It has determinant 37 and we see that eight
colors suffice for this reduced diagram. This conjecture is false without the
primality assumption for the determinant of K. Figure 25 shows a coun-
terexample for the knot K s 77 . We have DetŽ77 . s 21 s 3 = 7. A little
work reveals that N Ž77 . s 7 and there is a Zr7Z coloring of the reduced
alternating diagram for 77 shown in Figure 25 that uses only 6 colors.
336 HARARY AND KAUFFMAN

FIG. 24. Large determinant and low coloring number.

FIG. 25. Coloring an alternating knot Žwith non-prime determinant. with fewer colors
than crossings.

Remark. Since ¨ Ž K . is computed directly from the span of the bracket

polynomial of K, see w7x, for K connected, reduced and alternating, this
conjecture suggests that, in this infinity of cases, the coloring number
CM Ž K . can be obtained from a simple algebraic calculation associated
with the knot K. It may be that deeper properties of the bracket polyno-
mial will be involved in a proof of this conjecture.
 KNOTS AND GRAPHS 337

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Louis Kauffman thanks the National Science Foundation for support of this research under
grant number DMS-9205277 and the NSA for partial support under grant number MSPF-
96G-179. Frank Harary thanks the Departments of Computer Science and Mathematical
Sciences and the Computer Research Laboratory at New Mexico State University for
supporting infrastructure.

REFERENCES

1. L. H. Kauffman, Gauss Codes Quantum Groups and Ribbon Hopf Algebras, Re¨ . Math.
Phys., Vol. 5, No. 4 Ž1993., 735᎐773.
2. K. Reidemeister, ‘‘Knotentheorie,’’ Chelsea, New York Ž1948., Julius Springer Ž1932..
3. D. Joyce, A classifying invariant of knots, the knot quandle, J. Pure Appl. Algebra, Vol. 23
Ž1982., 37᎐65.
4. S. Winker, Quandles, knot invariants and the n-fold branched cover, Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of
Illinois at Chicago Ž1984..
5. R. Fox, A quick trip through knot theory, in ‘‘Topology of Three Manifolds,’’ M. K. Fort,
Jr. Ed., Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ Ž1962., 120᎐167.
6. F. Harary, ‘‘Graph Theory,’’ Addison Wesley, Reading, MA Ž1969..
7. L. H. Kauffman, ‘‘On Knots,’’ Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ Ž1987..
8. L. H. Kauffman, ‘‘Knots and Physics,’’ 2nd edition, World Scientific, Singapore Ž1994..

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