What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to share

information (data) and resources. The integration of computers and other different
devices allows users to communicate more easily. A computer network is a collection
of two or more computer systems that are linked together. A network connection can
be established using either cable or wireless media.Hardware and software are used
to connect computers and tools in any network.

What Do Computer Networks Do?

Computer Networks are one of the important aspects of Computer Science. In the
early days, it is used for data transmission on telephone lines and had a very
limited use, but nowadays, it is used in a variety of places.
Computer Networks help in providing better connectivity that helps nowadays. Modern
computer networks have the following functionality:
• Computer Networks help in operating virtually
• Computer Networks integrate on a large scale
• Computer Networks respond very quickly in case of conditions change
• Computer Networks help in providing data security

Key Components of a Computer Network

In simple terms, a computer network is made up of two main parts: devices (called
nodes) and connections (called links). The links connect the devices to each other.
The rules for how these connections send information are called communication
protocols. The starting and ending points of these communications are often called
ports.

1. Network Devices
Basic hardware interconnecting network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards
(NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers, are used in all networks. In
addition, a mechanism for connecting these building parts is necessary, which is
usually galvanic cable and optical cable are less popular ("optical fiber")The
following are the network devices :
• NIC (Network Interface Card): A network card, often known as a network
adapter or NIC (network interface card), is computer hardware that enables
computers to communicate via a network. It offers physical access to networking
media and, in many cases, MAC addresses serve as a low-level addressing scheme.

Repeater: A repeater is an electrical device that receives a signal, cleans it of

unwanted noise, regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level or to
the opposite side of an obstruction, allowing the signal to travel greater
distances without degradation. Repeaters are necessary for cable lengths longer
than 100 meters in some systems.

Hub: A hub is a device that joins together many twisted pairs or fiber optic
Ethernet devices to give the illusion of a formation of a single network segment. A
network hub is a relatively simple broadcast device. Any packet entering any port
is regenerated and broadcastout on all other ports, and hubs do not control any of
the traffic that passes through them.

Bridges: Bridges broadcast data to all the ports but not to the one that received
the transmission. Once a port and an address are associated, the bridge will only
transport traffic from that address to that port.

Switches: A switch differs from a hub in that it only forwards frames to the ports
that are participating in the communication, rather than all of the ports that are
connected.

Routers:- A router is a computer networking device that links two or more computer
networks and selectively exchanges data packets between them. A router can use
address information in each data packet to determine if the source and destination
are on the same network or if the data packet has to be transported between
networks.

2. Links
Links are the ways information travels between devices, and they can be of two
types:

: Wired: - Communication done in a wired medium. Copper wire, twisted pair, or

fiber optic cables are all options. A wired network employs wires to link devices
to the Internet or another network, such as laptops or desktop PCs.

:- Wireless: Wireless means without wire, media that is made up of

electromagnetic waves (EM Waves) or infrared waves. Antennas or sensors will be
present on all wireless devices.

3. Communication Protocols
A communication protocol is a set of rules that all devices follow when they share
information. Some common protocols are TCP/IP, IEEE 802, Ethernet, wireless LAN,
and cellular standards. TCP/IP is a model that organizes how communication works in
modern networks. It has four functional layers for these communication links:

• Network Access Layer: This layer controls how data is physically

transferred, including how hardware sends data through wires or fibers.
• Internet Layer: This layer packages data into understandable packets
and ensures it can be sent and received.
• Transport Layer: This layer keeps the communication between devices
steady and reliable.
• Application Layer: This layer allows high-level applications to access
the network to start data transfer.

How Does a Computer Network Work?

Computer Networks simply work using nodes and links. Data communication equipment
is simply termed as Nodes

Whenever a Computer Network is working, nodes have the work of sending and
receiving data via the links. Computer Network provides some set of protocols that
help in following the rules and protocols.

Criteria of a Good Network

• Performance: It can be measured in many ways, including transmit time
and response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to
travel from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an
inquiry and a response.

• Reliability: In addition to accuracy is measured by frequency of

failure, the time it takes a link to recover from failure, and the network's
robustness in catastrophe.

• Security: Network security issues include protecting data from

unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and development, and implementing
policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data loss.

Types of Computer Networks

Division Based on Area Covered

• Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a network that covers an area of

around 10 kilometers. For example, a college network or an office network.
Depending upon the needs of the organization, a LAN can be a single office,
building, or Campus. We can have two PCs and one printer in-home office or it can
extend throughout the company and include audio and video devices. Each host in LAN
has an identifier, an address that defines hosts in LAN. A packet sent by the host
to another host carries both the source host's and the destination host's address.

• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MAN refers to a network that covers an

entire city. For example: consider the cable television network.
• Wide Area Network (WAN): WANrefers to a network that connects countries
or continents. For example, the Internet allows users to access a distributed
system called www from anywhere around the globe.WAN interconnects connecting
devices such as switches, routers, or modems.

Based on Types of Communication

• Point To Point networks: Point-to-Point networking is a type of data
networking that establishes a direct link between two networking nodes.A direct
link between two devices, such as a computer and a printer, is known as a point-to-
point connection.
• Multipoint: is the one in which more than two specific devices share
links. In the multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally.

Broadcast networks: In broadcast networks, a signal method in which numerous

parties can hear a single sender. Radio stations are an excellent illustration of
the "Broadcast Network" in everyday life. The radio station is a sender of
data/signal in this scenario, and data is only intended to travel in one direction.

Types of Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is of two types. These types are mentioned below.
• Client-Server Architecture: Client-Server Architecture is basically the
architecture where the clients and the server are connected as two clients can
communicate with each other and the devices present work as servers in the network.
• Peer-to-Peer Architecture: Peer-to-Peer Architecture, computers are
connected to each other and each computer is equally capable of working as there is
no central server here. Each device present here can be used as a client or server.

Applications of Computer Network

There are multiple applications of computer networks including: There are multiple
applications of computer networksincluding:
• Business applications: Computer networks are often used by businesses
to ensure impact communication, to share resources, and to allow their employees to
access the whole system and applications from remote locations.

• Educational applications: Online networks are widely employed in

educational institutions allowing students to access educational possibilities,
share knowledge, and collaborate with their professors.

• Healthcare applications: The healthcare sector has benefited a lot from

the computer networks, which are used to store and share patient details thus
allowing healthcare providers to provide more personalized treatment.

• Entertainment applications: Besides that with computer networks, you

can entertain yourself with online games, streaming movies and music, or
utilization of social media.

• Military applications: Military networks are often closed and not used
for general communication, which ensures the safety of military information.
 • Scientific applications: Scientific research heavily depends on
computer networks because they will help establish collaboration among researchers
and facilitate the sharing of data and information.

• Transportation applications: Computer networks are used to monitor a

transit system in various ways, by managing the traffic, tracking vehicles as well
as even improving efficiency in transportation.

• Banking and finance applications: The banks and finance sector are the
biggest users of computer networks to carry out transactional processing,
information sharing, and the provision of secure access to financial services

A Local area network (LAN) is a network that is used to link devices in a single
office, building, or campus of up to a short distance. LAN is restricted in size.
In LAN networks internet speed is from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps (But now much higher
speeds can be achieved). The most common topologies used in LAN networks are bus,
ring, and star. Imagine your home Wi-Fi network. All the devices connected to it,
like your computer, phone, or smart TV, form a LAN. They can share files, printers,
and internet access, making it easy to work and play together.

If we connect LAN in a real-life example then the family is the best example each
family member is connected to each other in the same way each device is connected
to the network. Several experimental and early commercial LAN technologies were
developed in the 1970s. Cambridge Ring is a type of LAN that was developed at
Cambridge University in 1974.

How do LANs Work?

LANs nearly always connect devices to the network via Ethernet, WiFi, or both of
these technologies. Ethernet is a way to connect devices to the Local Area Network
ethernet define the physical and data link layer of the OSI model. WiFi is a
protocol that is used to connect devices to the Local Area Network wirelessely.
There are many devices that is connected to the LAN for example Servers, desktop
computers, laptops, printers, Internet of Things (IoT) devices, and even game
consoles.

Types of LAN
There are different architectures in LAN as discussed below-

1 .) Client/Server LANs: Multiple devices (the clients) are connected to a main

server in a client/server LAN. The server controls network traffic, device access,
application access, and file storage.

2.) Peer-to-Peer LANs: Peer-to-peerLANs are commonly smaller because they shortage
a central server and can't support huge workloads like client/server LANs can.

Through wired or wireless connections to a switch or router, the devices share data
and resources. Peer-to-peer networks are the norm in homes.

3.) Ethernet: It is most widely used architecture. ethernet specifies the network
speed, cable type and network interface adapters. This type of architecture used in
both wired or wireless networks.

4.) Token ring: Token ring is a type of local area network (LAN) setup that was
once widely used but is now less common. It manages network access through the use
of tokens and has an operating speed of 100 megabits per second.
What is a Virtual LAN?
The same physical network can have its traffic divided into two networks using
virtual LANs, or VLANs.

Imagine establishing two independent LANs in the same room, each with its own
router and Internet connection. Similar to that, but with only one router and one
Internet connection required, VLANs divide networks virtually rather than
physically.

What Equipment is Needed to Set up a LAN?

For setting up a Local Area Network (LAN) requires many type of hardware and,
depending on the complexity of the network, some additional components for enhanced
functionality and performance. Here's a list of the essential equipment needed to
set up a basic LAN-
• Router:- This is the central device that is used to connect the LAN to
the internet.
• Modem:- This it required only if connecting to the internet. Modem
convert the signals from your Internet Service Provider (ISP) to a router usable.
• Switch (optional for larger networks):- Used to expands the number of
devices that can be connected to the LAN.
• Ethernet Cables:- It is used to connect devices to the router or
switch.
• Network Interface Cards (NICs):- It is required for each devices that
is connect to the LAN through Ethernet.
• Wireless Access Point (if wireless connectivity is needed):- Allows
wireless devices to connect to the LAN.
• Devices:- Device you want to connect like Laptop, Computers,
smartphones, tablets, smart TVs, and other devices.

5 popular LAN Topologies

Network topologies describe how devices in a LAN are connected and how data moves
between them. Popular types of topologies include:
• Star Topology: All devices connect to a central hub or switch. Data
flows through the hub, which directs it to the appropriate device. If one device
fails, it doesn't affect others.
• Ring Topology: Devices form a closed loop where data travels in one
direction. Each device acts as a repeater to strengthen the signal. Data passes
through each device until it reaches the destination.
• Mesh Topology: Devices are interconnected with multiple paths between
them. If one path fails, data can take an alternative route. This redundancy
enhances reliability but requires more cabling and configuration.
• Bus Topology: Devices are connected in a line along a single cable.
Data travels along the cable, and each device receives all transmissions, but only
the intended recipient processes the data.
• Tree Topology: Tree topology is a network setup where devices are
arranged in a hierarchy, similar to branches of a tree.

What are the Benefits of a LAN?

• Privacy: LAN is a private network, thus no outside regulatory body
controls it, giving it a privacy.
• High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed(around 100 mbps) and data
transfer rate comparatively to WAN.
• Supports different transmission mediums: LAN support a variety of
communications transmission medium such as an Ethernet cable (thin cable, thick
cable, and twisted pair), fiber and wireless transmission.
 • Inexpensive and Simple: A LAN usually has low cost, installation,
expansion and maintenance and LAN installation is relatively easy to use, good
scalability.

What are the Drawback of LAN?

• The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high
because there is special software required to make a server.
• Communication devices like an ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers,
cables are costly.
• LAN administrator can see and check personal data files as well as
Internethistory of each and every LAN user. Hence, the privacy of the users are
violated
• LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area
• Since all the data is stored in a single server computer, if it can be
accessed by an unauthorized user, can cause a serious data security threat.

What is a WAN?
WAN stands for Wide Area Network. It is a computer network that covers a large
geographical area consisting of two or more LANs or MANs. These networks are
established with leased telecommunicationcircuits, in which two sides which are
connected have routers that connect the LAN of both sides together in a network to
facilitate communication.

History of WAN
The roots of WAN are connected to the U.S Department of defense which developed
ARPANET to let researchers communicate and share computer resources remotely. The
connection can be circuit-switched telephone lines, radio wave transmission or
optical fibertransmission. It is used to exchange data with users all over the
world.

What is a WAN Router?

An organisation can access a carrier network by using a WAN router, sometimes
referred to as an edge router or border router, which routes data packets between
WAN locations.

What is Software-Defined WAN (SD-WAN)?

• It is a technique for making WAN architectures easier to construct,
run, and administer is software-definedWAN (SD-WAN). It relies on virtualization,
overlay networks, application-level policies and onsite SD-WAN devices and
softwareplatforms.

Types of WAN Technologies

There are mainly two technologies that are used in the WAN network design.
• Circuit switching: Circuit switched networks operate on the virtual
connection principle, which dictates that all messages will take the same way and
that resources along this path are set aside for this connection.
• Packet Switching: The size of a packet in a packet switched network is
dictated by the outgoing link, and these packets may follow different route. These
packets are ready to collected and reassembled at the destination.
• TCP/IP protocol suite: TCP/IP is a protocol suite of foundational of
the internet protocols used to interconnect devices on Internet and other computers
networks or device network. Full form of TCP/IP is Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol.
• Router: A router is a networking device which transfers data packets
between device networks and also we can say it is used to interconnect LANs to form
a wide area network (WAN).
• Packet over SONET/SDH (PoS):Packet over SONET and SDH is a
communication protocol used for WAN transport. When using optical fiber and SONET
or SDH communication protocol used to defines how point-to-point links communicate.

Characteristics of WAN
• Broader Reach: The reach of WAN in terms coverage of geographical area
is very high which can be a region, country or the world itself.
• Higher Capacity: The capacity of WAN in terms of number of LANs or
WANsconnected in a network is very high, which results in connection of large
number of user over different location all around the globe.
• Use of Public Carrier: WAN uses telephone network, cabled system,
satellites etc for connection and transmission purpose which are easily available.
• Resource Sharing: WAN enables its users to share data and information
over large area. Computer resources can be accessed remotely which makes
transmission and exchange of data very easy.

Advantages of WAN

• It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of

organisation to transmit data quickly and cheaply.
• The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access
to data provided by WAN.
• The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of
work can be minimised.
• WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very
easily and allows to exchange data and do business at global level.

Disadvantages of WAN

• Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.

• The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.
• Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection
point.
• The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large
distances and high number of connected system within the network.

MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network. It is a computer network that connects
number of LANs to form larger network, so that the computer resources can be
shared. This type of network covers larger area than a LAN but smaller than the
area covered by a WAN which is designed to extend over the entire city. MAN is
specially designed to provide high-speed connectivity to the users in which the
speed ranges in terms of Mbps. The architecture of MAN is quite complicated
hence,it is hard to design and maintain.

History of MAN
When LANs are establishes in 1994 in order to provide data communication in
building and offices, the businesses are primarily relied on public switched
telephone networks for the interconnection of LANs. But the telephone network was
not capable enough to handle that much of traffic. Hence, to overcome this problem
it was suggested that LANs are connected using the single-mode optical fiber lines,
which results in the creation of metropolitan area network(MAN) to provide the
interconnection of LANs efficiently.

Characteristics of MAN
• It can covers the area which ranges from 5 to 50 km, which is capable
of carrying from a group of buildings to the whole city.
• In MAN, data rates are moderate to high.
• In MAN, mostly used medium is optical fibers which results in high-
speed connectivity.
• MAN networks provides high reliability because the error rate in this
network is very less.
• A MAN network can use a variety of access technologies, such as
wireless, fiber-optic, or copper-based connections, to provide connectivity to
different devices and networks.
• Hybrid topology: A MAN network may use a combination of different
topologies, such as a ring, bus, or star topology, depending on the specific
requirements of the network.

Advantages of MAN
• MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-
100 Mbps.
• The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.
• It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of
dual bus architecture.
• MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed
internet to all the users.
• MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network,
making it easier to monitor and manage network resources and security.
Disadvantages of MAN
• The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to
design and maintain.
• This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to
set up fiber optics.
• It provides less fault tolerance.
• The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.
Examples of MAN
• Cable TV network.
• Used in government agencies.
• University campuses.
• Used in hospitals to connect multiple buildings
Uses of MAN Network
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) has several uses, including:
1. Resource Sharing: A MAN allows multiple LANs in a metropolitan area to
share resources such as printers, storage devices, and other peripherals.
2. Data Exchange: A MAN provides a high-speed communication channel for
the exchange of data between different LANs.
3. Internet Access: A MAN can provide high-speed internet access to users
in a metropolitan area.
4. Video and Audio Streaming: A MAN can support video and audio streaming
for applications such as video conferencing and multimedia presentations.
5. Backup and Recovery: A MAN can provide backup and recovery services for
data stored on multiple LANs.

Process of MAN Network Constructed

1. Network infrastructure
• Core Layer
• The core of MAN is usually designed using high-capacity fiber optic
cables.
• They form the central hub of the network interconnecting several parts
and powerful router and parts and switches are used to control data flow and
routing within the MAN.
• Distribution layer
 • The whole data from multiple origins and ready it for distribute to the
core layers or end-users.
2. Connection to local area network (LANs)
• The access layer add routers, switches and other devices that directly
combine end-users or particular LANs to the MAN.t This is where most user interface
with the network.
3. Internet and External connection
• These devices manage connection between the MAN and the broads internet
or other outer networks, they handle data routing, security and sometimes load
balancing.
4.Network management and Security
• This helps in control optimal operations and troubleshooting problems.
Tools and system are in locate to monitors network performance, traffic patterns,
and potential issues.
• These have various security such as firewall, encryption, VPNs, and
other security protocols are implemented to secure data and ensure safe access.

OSI MODEL

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains how
different computer systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of
7 layers and each layer has specific functions and responsibilities. This layered
approach makes it easier for different devices and technologies to work together.
OSI Model provides a clear structure for data transmission and managing network
issues. The OSI Model is widely used as a reference to understand how network
systems function.

Layers of the OSI Model

There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in
handling data. All the layers are mentioned below:
• Physical Layer
• Data Link Layer
• Network Layer
• Transport Layer
• Session Layer
• Presentation Layer
• Application Layer

Layer 1 - Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical
layer contains information in the form of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for
transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this
layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to
the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

• Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of

the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus
providing synchronization at the bit level.

• Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate
i.e. the number of bits sent per second.

• Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,

devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star topology, or mesh
topology.

• Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are
Simplex, half-duplex and full duplex.

Layer 2 - Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from
one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network,
it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC
address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

• Logical Link Control (LLC)
• Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending
on the frame size of the NIC (Network Interface Card).

The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution

Protocol) request onto the wire asking, "Who has that IP address?" and the
destination host will reply with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a
way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver.
This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end
of the frame.

• Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC addresses)of the sender and/or receiver in the header of
each frame.
• Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the
data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can
be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
• Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which
device has control over the channel at a given time.

Layer 3 - Network Layer

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other
located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection
of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
The sender and receiver's IP address are placed in the header by the network layer.
Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet

Functions of the Network Layer

• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable
from source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP addresses
are placed in the header by the network layer.

Layer 4 - Transport Layer

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services
from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The
transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found. Protocols used in
Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.

At the sender's side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from the
upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to
ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port numberin
its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
• Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by
default or manually. For example, when a web application requests a web server, it
typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web
applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.

At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and
forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also
performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments
produced has a header associated with it.

• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct

process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called service point
address or port address. Thus, by specifying this address, the transport layer
makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.

Services Provided by Transport Layer

• Connection-Oriented Service
• Connectionless Service

Layer 5 - Session Layer

Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections,
management of connections, terminations of sessions between two devices. It also
provides authentication and security. Protocols used in the Session Layer are
NetBIOS, PPTP.

Functions of the Session Layer

• Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows
the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.

• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that

are considered synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points
help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends
of the messages are not cut prematurely, and data loss is avoided.

• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start

communication with each other in half-duplex or full duplex.

Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some
Messenger application running in their browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the
application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data.
This message or so-called Data is compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is
sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.
Layer 6 - Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called theTranslation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to
transmit over the network. Protocols used in the Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG,
GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into
another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext, and the
decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well
as decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on
the network.

Layer 7 - Application Layer

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application
layer which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce
the data to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for
the application services to access the network and for displaying the received
information to the user. Protocols used in the Application layer are SMTP, FTP,
DNS, etc.

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.
• Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote
host.

• File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a

user to access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage
or control files from a remote computer.

• Mail Services: Provide email service.

• Directory Services: This application provides distributed database

sources and access for global information about various objects and services.

How Data Flows in the OSI Model?

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7
layers of OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender's end
and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver's end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
• Application Layer: Applications create the data.
• Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
• Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
• Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
• Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
• Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
• Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted
physically.

We can understand how data flows through OSI Model with the help of an example
mentioned below.
Let us suppose, Person A sends an e-mail to his friend Person B.
Step 1: Person A interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes
his email to send. (This happens atApplication Layer).

Step 2: At Presentation Layer, Mail application prepares for data transmission like
encrypting data and formatting it for transmission.

Step 3: At Session Layer, there is a connection established between the sender and
receiver on the internet.

Step 4: At Transport Layer, Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds
sequence number and error-checking information to maintain the reliability of the
information.

Step 5: At Network Layer, addressing of packets is done in order to find the best
route for transfer.

Step 6: At Data Link Layer, data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC
address is added for local devices and then it checks for error using error
detection.

Step 7: At Physical Layer, Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/

optical signals over a physical network medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.

After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Person B, the process will reverse and
decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on Person B email
client.

Layer Working Protocol Data Unit Protocols

1 - Physical Layer Establishing Physical Connections between Devices. Bits
USB, SONET/SDH, etc.
2 - Data Link Layer Node to Node Delivery of Message. Frames Ethernet,
PPP, etc.
3 - Network Layer Transmission of data from one host to another, located in
different networks. Packets IP, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF, etc.
4 - Transport Layer Take Service from Network Layer and provide it to the
Application Layer. Segments (for TCP) or Datagrams (for UDP) TCP, UDP, SCTP,
etc.
5 - Session Layer Establishes Connection, Maintenance, Ensures Authentication and
Ensures security. Data NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP, etc.
6 - Presentation Layer Data from the application layer is extracted and
manipulated in the required format for transmission. Data TLS/SSL, MIME, JPEG,
PNG, ASCII, etc.
7 - Application Layer Helps in identifying the client and synchronizing
communication. Data FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHCP, etc.

Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Model

OSI Model TCP/IP Model
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. TCP/IP stands for Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
OSI model has 7 layers. TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers.
Package delivery is guaranteed in OSI Model. Package delivery is not guaranteed
in the TCP/IP Model.
In the OSI model, only layers 1,2 and 3 are necessary for data transmission. All
layers of the TCP/IP model are needed for data transmission.
Protocols at each layer is independent of the other layer. Layers are integrated;
some layers are required by other layers of TCP/IP model.
OSI Model is a conceptual framework, less used in practical applications. Widely
used in actual networks like Internet and Communication Systems.

OSI vs TCP/IP

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7 different
layers. Its advantages include:

• It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier to

understand and troubleshoot.

• It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed

functions and protocols.

• Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.

• It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get updates

separately.

Disadvantages of OSI Model

• The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard to
understand for beginners.

• In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the

Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), so the OSI Model is not always directly
applicable.

• Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations,
which can make the process more time-consuming and less efficient.

• The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it's great

for understanding concepts but not always practical for implementation.

Services and Protocols Of Each Layer OSI MODEL

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

Services:
• Bit transmission over physical medium.
• Defines hardware specifications (cables, cards, voltages).
• Data encoding and signaling.
• Synchronization of bits.
• Topology and transmission mode (simplex, half-duplex, full-duplex).
Protocols/Technologies:
• Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
• USB (Universal Serial Bus)
• DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
• RS-232 (Serial Communication)
• Bluetooth Physical Layer
• Fiber optics standards

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

Services:
• Framing (converts bitstream into frames).
• Physical addressing (MAC addresses).
• Error detection and correction (CRC).
• Flow control.
• Medium access control.
Protocols:
• Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
• PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
• HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control)
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
• Frame Relay
• MAC (Media Access Control) protocol

3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

Services:
• Logical addressing (IP addressing).
• Routing and forwarding.
• Packet sequencing and fragmentation.
• Inter-networking.
• Error handling and diagnostics.
Protocols:
• IP (Internet Protocol – IPv4, IPv6)
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
• IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)
• OSPF, BGP, RIP (Routing Protocols)
• IPSec (for secure IP communication)

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

Services:
• End-to-end communication.
• Segmentation and reassembly of data.
• Flow control.
• Error detection and correction.
• Reliable data transfer (TCP) or best-effort (UDP).
Protocols:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
• SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
• DCCP (Datagram Congestion Control Protocol)

5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

Services:
• Establishment, management, and termination of sessions.
• Dialog control (full-duplex or half-duplex).
• Synchronization (adding checkpoints in data stream).
Protocols:
• NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System)
• PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol)
• RPC (Remote Procedure Call)
• SAP (Session Announcement Protocol)

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

Services:
• Translation (syntax and semantics).
• Data compression.
• Data encryption and decryption.
• Encoding formats (e.g., JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC).
Protocols:
 • SSL/TLS (for encryption)
• JPEG, MPEG (multimedia formats)
• ASCII, EBCDIC (text encoding formats)
• XDR (External Data Representation)
• XML, JSON (data formatting)

7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

Services:
• Network services to end-user applications.
• File transfers, email, remote login.
• Resource sharing and network management.
Protocols:
• HTTP, HTTPS (Web browsing)
• FTP, SFTP (File transfer)
• SMTP, POP3, IMAP (Email services)
• DNS (Domain Name System)
• SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
• Telnet, SSH (Remote access)

TCP-IP MODEL

The TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a four-layer

networking framework that enables reliable communication between devices over
interconnected networks.

Each layer has specific functions that help manage different aspects of network
communication, making it essential for understanding and working with modern
networks.

TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1970s
and is based on standard protocols. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the
OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.

Role of TCP/IP
TCP/IP enables interoperability between diverse systems over various network types
(e.g., copper, fiber, wireless). It ensures seamless communication across LANs,
WANs, and the internet. Without TCP/IP, large-scale global networking would not be
possible.
The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that
the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by the sender. To
ensure that, each message reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP
model divides its data into packets and combines them at the other end, which helps
in maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring from one end to another
end.

TCP

Layers of TCP/IP Model

It’s composed of four interconnected layers compared to the seven layers in the OSI
model. Each layer performs a specific task on the data that is being transmitted
over the network channel, and data moves from one layer to another.
• Application Layer
• Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
• Network/Internet Layer(IP)
• Network Access Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of theTCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

1. Application Layer
The Application Layer is the closest to the end user and is where applications and
user interfaces reside. It serves as the bridge between user programs and the lower
layers responsible for data transmission.
• Function: Provides services and interfaces for end-user applications to
access network resources.
• Key responsibilities:
• Supports application protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, etc.
• Enables communication between software applications across networks.
• Handles data formatting, encryption, and session management.
2. Transport Layer
This layer ensures data is delivered reliably and in the correct order between
devices. The two main protocols in this layer are TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
• Function: Ensures reliable or unreliable delivery of data between
hosts.
• Key responsibilities:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable, connection-
oriented delivery with error checking, retransmission, and flow control.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides faster, connectionless
transmission without guarantees.
• Manages flow control and segmentation/reassembly of data.
3. Internet Layer
It handles the routing of data packets across networks. It uses the Internet
Protocol (IP) to assign unique IP addresses to devices and decide the most
efficient path for data to reach its destination.
• Function: Determines the best path for data to travel across networks.
• Key responsibilities:
• IP (Internet Protocol):Provides addressing and routing.
• Handles packet forwarding, fragmentation, and logical addressing (IP
addresses).
• Involves protocols like IP, ICMP (for diagnostics), and ARP (for
address resolution).
4. Network Access Layer
This layer is the lowest layer in the model and responsible for the physical
connection between devices within the same network segment.
• Function: Manages the physical transmission of data over the network
hardware.
• Key responsibilities:
• Handles how data is physically sent over cables, Wi-Fi, etc.
• Manages MAC addressing, framing, and error detection at the physical
link.
• Includes Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and other data link technologies.

Working of TCP/IP Model

When Sending Data (From Sender to Receiver)
• Application Layer
• A user sends data through an application (e.g., opening a website via a
browser).
• The application prepares data for transmission (e.g., using HTTP, FTP,
SMTP).
• Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
• TCP breaks data into small segments, adds a header (with sequence
numbers, source/destination ports).
• Ensures reliable delivery (TCP) or fast, connectionless delivery (UDP).
 • Internet Layer (IP)
• Adds IP addresses to each packet (source and destination).
• Determines the route the packet should take to reach the destination.
• Link Layer (Network Access Layer)
• Converts packets into frames, adds MAC (physical) addresses.
• Sends data as binary bits (0s and 1s) over the physical medium (e.g.,
Ethernet, Wi-Fi).


When Receiving Data (At the Destination)

• Link Layer
• Receives bits and reconstructs frames.
• Passes frames up to the Internet layer.
• Internet Layer
• Reads the IP address to confirm it's the correct recipient.
• Removes the IP header and sends the data to the Transport layer.
• Transport Layer
• Reassembles TCP segments in the correct order.
• Verifies data integrity using acknowledgments and checksums.
• Application Layer
• The data is delivered to the appropriate application (e.g., browser
displays a web page).

Advantages of TCP/IP Model

• Interoperability : The TCP/IP model allows different types of computers
and networks to communicate with each other, promoting compatibility and
cooperation among diverse systems.
• Scalability : TCP/IP is highly scalable, making it suitable for both
small and large networks, from local area networks (LANs) to wide area networks
(WANs) like the internet.
• Standardization : It is based on open standards and protocols, ensuring
that different devices and software can work together without compatibility issues.
• Flexibility : The model supports various routing protocols, data types,
and communication methods, making it adaptable to different networking needs.
• Reliability : TCP/IP includes error-checking and retransmission
features that ensure reliable data transfer, even over long distances and through
various network conditions.

Disadvantages of TCP/IP Model

• Security Concerns : TCP/IP was not originally designed with security in
mind. While there are now many security protocols available (such as SSL/TLS), they
have been added on top of the basic TCP/IP model, which can lead to
vulnerabilities.

• Inefficiency for Small Networks : For very small networks, the overhead
and complexity of the TCP/IP model may be unnecessary and inefficient compared to
simpler networking protocols.

• Limited by Address Space : Although IPv6 addresses this issue, the

older IPv4 system has a limited address space, which can lead to issues with
address exhaustion in larger networks.

• Data Overhead : TCP the transport protocol, includes a significant

amount of overhead to ensure reliable transmission. This can reduce efficiency,
especially for small data packets or in networks where speed is crucial.
Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and Brouter)

Network devices are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to
communicate and interact with each other. Network devices like hubs, repeaters,
bridges, switches, routers, gateways, and brouter help manage and direct data flow
in a network. They ensure efficient communication between connected devices by
controlling data transfer, boosting signals, and linking different networks. Each
device serves a specific role, from simple data forwarding to complex routing
between networks.

Functions of Network Devices

• Network devices help to send and receive data between different
devices.
• Network devices allow devices to connect to the network efficiently and
securely.
• Network devices improves network speed and manage data flow better.
• It protects the network by controlling access and preventing threats.
• Expand the network range and solve signal problems.
Common Types of Networking Devices and Their Uses
Network devices work as a mediator between two devices for transmission of data,
and thus play a very important role in the functioning of a computer network. Below
are some common network devices used in modern networks:
• Access Point
• Modems
• Firewalls
• Repeater
• Hub
• Bridge
• Switch
• Routers
• Gateway
• Brouter
• NIC
Access Point
An access point in networking is a device that allows wireless devices, like
smartphones and laptops, to connect to a wired network. It creates a Wi-Fi network
that lets wireless devices communicate with the internet or other devices on the
network. Access points are used to extend the range of a network or provide Wi-Fi
in areas that do not have it. They are commonly found in homes, offices, and public
places to provide wireless internet access.
Modems
Modem is also known as modulator/demodulator is a network device that is used to
convert digital signalinto analog signals of different frequencies and transmits
these signals to a modem at the receiving location. These converted signals can be
transmitted over the cable systems, telephone lines, and other communication
mediums. A modem is also used to convert an analog signal back into digital signal.
Modems are generally used to access the internet by customers of an Internet
Service Provider (ISP).
Types of Modems
There are four main types of modems:
• DSL Modem: Uses regular phone lines to connect to the internet but it
is slower compared to other types.
• Cable Modem: Sends data through TV cables, providing faster internet
than DSL.
 • Wireless Modem: Connects devices to the internet using Wi-Fi relying on
nearby Wi-Fi signals.
• Cellular Modem: Connects to the internet using mobile data from a
cellular network not Wi-Fi or fixed cables.
Firewalls
A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls the flow of data
between your computer or network and the internet. It acts as a barrier, blocking
unauthorized access while allowing trusted data to pass through. Firewalls help
protect your network from hackers, viruses, and other online threats by filtering
traffic based on security rules. Firewalls can be physical devices (hardware),
programs (software), or even cloud-based services, which can be offered as SaaS,
through public clouds, or private virtual clouds.
Repeater
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its main function is to amplify (i.e.,
regenerate) the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or
corrupted to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same
network. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at
its star topology connectors connecting following the original strength. It is a 2-
port device.
Hub
A hub is a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different
branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different
stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected
devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub
remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for
data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
Types of Hub
• Active Hub: These are the hubs that have their power supply and can
clean, boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a
repeater as well as a wiring center. These are used to extend the maximum distance
between nodes.
• Passive Hub: These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and
power supply from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without
cleaning and boosting them and can't be used to extend the distance between nodes.
• Intelligent Hub: It works like an active hub and includes remote
management capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network devices.
It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and
to configure each port in the hub.
Bridge
A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and
destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same
protocol. It typically connects multiple network segments and each port is
connected to different segment. A bridge is not strictly limited to two ports, it
can have multiple ports to connect and manage multiple network segments. Modern
multi-port bridges are often called Layer 2 switches because they perform similar
functions.
Types of Bridges
• Transparent Bridges: These are the bridge in which the stations are
completely unaware of the bridge's existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added
or deleted from the network, reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These
bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
• Source Routing Bridges: In these bridges, routing operations is
performed by the source station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The
host can discover the frame by sending a special frame called the discovery frame,
which spreads through the entire network using all possible paths to the
destination.
Switch
A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer designed that can boost its
efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is
a data link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding
data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors
and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the
switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the
same.
Types of Switch
• Unmanaged Switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design
and do not offer advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small
networks or for use as an expansion to a larger network.

• Managed Switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options

such as VLANs, QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more
complex networks and allow for centralized management.

• Smart Switches: These switches have features similar to managed

switches but are typically easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for
small- to medium-sized networks.

• Layer 2 Switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the
OSI model and are responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same
network segment.

• Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the

OSI model and can route data between different network segments. They are more
advanced than Layer 2 switchesand are often used in larger, more complex networks.

Router
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect
LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they
make decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides the broadcast
domains of hosts connected through it.

Gateway
A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may work
upon different networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from
one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also
called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are
generally more complex than switches or routers.

Brouter
It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of both
bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer.
Working as a router, it is capable of routing packets across networks and working
as a bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network traffic.

NIC
NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the
computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It
has a unique ID that is written on the chip, and it has a connector to connect the
cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between the computer and the router or
modem. NIC is a layer 2 device which means that it works on both the physical and
data link layers of the network model.

Transmission Media

Transmission media is the physical medium through which data is transmitted from
one device to another within a network. These media can be wired or wireless. The
choice of medium depends on factors like distance, speed, and interference.

What is Transmission Media in Computer Networks?

A transmission media is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver
i.e. it is the path along which data is sent from one device to another.
Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:


1. Guided Media
Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals
being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical
links.
Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires twisted about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are
the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):UTPconsists of two insulated copper wires
twisted around one another. This type of cable has the ability to block
interference and does not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used
for telephonic applications.

Unshielded Twisted Pair
Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
• Least expensive
• Easy to install
• High-speed capacity
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
• Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
• Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of a
special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil shield) to block external
interference. It is used in fast data rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels
of telephone lines.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

• Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
• Eliminates crosstalk
• Comparatively faster

Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

• Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
• More expensive
• Bulky

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of
PVC or Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection
cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband
mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into
separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial
cables.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cables has high bandwidth .
• It is easy to install.
• Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.
• Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
• Coaxial cables support multiple channels

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cables are expensive.
• The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
• As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
• There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-
joint” by hackers, this compromises the security of the data.

Optical Fiber Cable

Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept of total internal reflection of light through
a core made up of glass. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic
covering called the coating. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of
data. The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength
Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional
mode.

Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable

• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost

Applications of Optical Fibre Cable

• Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
• Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
• For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet
cables.
• Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in
designing the interior and exterior of automobiles.

2. Unguided Media
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media . No physical
medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features of Unguided Media
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

Radio Waves
Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending
and receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz - 1GHz. AM and FM
radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.
Types of Radio Waves:
• Short Wave: AM Radio
• VHF (Very High Frequency): FM Radio/TV
• UHF (Ultra High Frequency): TV
Radio Wave Components:
• Transmitter: Responsible for encoding the signal.
• Receiver: Responsible for decoding the signal.


Radiowave

Microwaves
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to
be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz - 300GHz. Micro
waves are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.

Advantages:
• Cheaper than using cables
• Freedom from land acquisition
• Ease of communication in difficult terrains
• Communication over oceans

Disadvantages:
• Insecure communication.
• Out of phase signal.
• Susceptible to weather conditions.
• Bandwidth is limited.
• High cost of design, implementation, and maintenance.

Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz - 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer,
etc.

• Unicast transmission
• Broadcast transmission
• Multicast transmission

Unicast Transmission (One-to-One)
In Unicast transmission, the data is transferred from a single sender (or a single
source host) to a single receiver (or a single destination host).
The network switches hear the MAC addresses of the devices on the networks to which
they are connected. They can then forward packets only onto those networks
containing devices with the connected MAC addresses. Unicast gradually becomes less
efficient as more receivers need to see identical data.
Example
In the following figure, Host A sends the IP address 11.1.2.2 data to the Host B IP
address 20.12.4.3.
• Source Address = IP address of host A is 11.1.2.2
 • Destination Address = IP address of host B is 20.12.4.3


Broadcast Transmission (One-to-All)

In Broadcast transmission, the data is transmitted from one or more senders to all
the receivers within the same network or in other networks. This type of
transmission is useful in network management packets such as ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol) and RIP (Routing Information Protocol) where all the devices
must see the data.
There are two types of broadcast transmission
• Directed Broadcast, and
• Limited Broadcast

Directed Broadcast
Directed Broadcast transmits data from one source host to all the other hosts that
exist in some other network. It is used in two scenarios
• When the hosts are responsible for parsing data from
broadcast packets.
• When all the hosts require the same data.


Limited Broadcast
In Limited Broadcast, the data is transmitted from a single source host to all the
other hosts residing in the same network.

Multicast Transmission (One-to-Many)

When the data is transmitted from a single source host to a specific group of hosts
having the interest to receive the data, it is known as multicast transmission.
Multicast can be more efficient than unicast when different groups of receivers
need to see the same data.
Example Multicast is the technique used in Internet streaming of video or audio
teleconference, sending an email to a particular group of people, etc.

Transmission Modes in Computer Networks (Simplex, Half-Duplex and Full-Duplex)

Transmission modes also known as communication modes, are methods of transferring

data between devices on buses and networks designed to facilitate communication.
They are classified into three types: Simplex Mode, Half-Duplex Mode, and Full-
Duplex Mode

What is Transmission Modes?

Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as
a communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to
occur between individual devices that are interconnected. There are three types of
transmission modes:


Simplex Mode
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only
one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The
simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction. Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only
introduce input, the monitor can only give the output.

Advantages of Simplex Mode
• Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of communication.
• It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one
communication channel.
• There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and
receiving devices, which simplifies the communication process.
• Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or
response is not required, such as broadcasting or surveillance.

Disadvantages of Simplex Mode

• Only one-way communication is possible.
• There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received
correctly.
• Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require
bidirectional communication.

Half-Duplex Mode
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in
both directions at the same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be
utilized for each direction. Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at
a time and messages are sent in both directions.
Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

Advantages of Half Duplex Mode
• Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication, which is
useful in situations where devices need to send and receive data.
• It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex mode, as the
channel can be used for both transmission and reception.
• Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it only
requires one communication channel.

Disadvantages of Half Duplex Mode

• Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as both
devices cannot transmit at the same time.
• There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can cause
problems in some applications.
• There is a need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving
devices, which can complicate the communication process.

Full-Duplex Mode
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In
full_duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link
with signals going in another direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
• Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission
paths, one for sending and the other for receiving.
• Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both
directions.
Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the
time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two
directions. Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same
time.
Channel Capacity=2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay
Advantages of Full-Duplex Mode
• Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication,
which is ideal for real-time applications such as video conferencing or online
gaming.
• It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can
transmit and receive data simultaneously.
• Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and accuracy, as
there is no need for error correction mechanisms.

Disadvantages of Full-Duplex Mode

• Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two
communication channels.
• It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it requires
two physically separate transmission paths or a division of channel capacity.
• Full-duplex mode may not be suitable for all applications, as it
requires a high level of bandwidth and may not be necessary for some types of
communication.

Network Toplogies:-

Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements like nodes, links,
or devices in a computer network. Common types of network topology include bus,
star, ring, mesh, and tree topologies, each with its advantages and disadvantages.

What is Network Topology?

Network topology is the way devices are connected in a network. It defines how
these components are connected and how data transfer between the network.
Understanding the different types of network topologies can help in choosing the
right design for a specific network.

Types of Network Topology

Below mentioned are the types of Network Topology
• Point to Point Topology
• Mesh Topology
• Star Topology
• Bus Topology
• Ring Topology
• Tree Topology
• Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of
the sender and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in
which one is the sender and the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides
high bandwidth.

Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular
channel. Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These
channels are known as links. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc
Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Mesh Topology
• Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a
mesh topology, the total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1.
In Figure , there are 6 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of
ports required by each device is 5. The total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
• Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, then the total number of dedicated links required to connect them is N C
2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure, there are 6 devices connected to each other, hence the
total number of links required is 6*5/2 = 15.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

• Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• Mesh Topology is robust.
• The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is
transferred among the devices through dedicated channels or links.
• Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable
for less number of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet
service providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology
is also used in military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.

Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node.
The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting
devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active
hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the
computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as
CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
Star Topology

Advantages of Star Topology

• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the
number of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore
the total number of ports required is N.
• It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not
other than that.
• Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
• Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the
whole system will crash down.
• The cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where
all computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in
wireless networks where all devices are connected to a wireless access point.

Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection
and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In
Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN
ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.
Bus Topology

Advantages of Bus Topology

• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the
number of cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop
lines are required.
• Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks
that support up to 10 Mbps.
• The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is
used to build small networks.
• Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known.
• CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

• A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of
cabling.
• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the
network. To avoid this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure
Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
• Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
• Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are
connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also
used in cable television networks.

Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring
devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of
nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring
topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach
the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made
bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual
Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the
workstations to transmit the data.
Ring Topology
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
• Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed
from one node to another node.
• Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Operations of Ring Topology

• One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the
responsibility for performing the operations.
• To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the
transmission is done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
• When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate
in the ring.
• There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release
releases the token just after transmitting the data and Delayed token release
releases the token after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.

Advantages of Ring Topology

• The data transmission is high-speed.
• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 • Cheap to install and expand.
• It is less costly than a star topology.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

• The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire
network to fail.
• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
• The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can
disturb the whole topology.
• Less secure.

Tree Topology
Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a
hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard
Automatic Configuration) are used.
Tree Topology
In tree topology, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which
contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub
to the secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the
secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point connection and a
non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.

Advantages of Tree Topology

• It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it
decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
• It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from
different computers.
• We can add new devices to the existing network.
• Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
• The cost is high because of the cabling.
• If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At
the top of the tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or
divisions (child nodes) of the company. Each department has its own hierarchy, with
managers overseeing different teams (grandchild nodes). The team members (leaf
nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected to their respective managers
and departments.

Hybrid Topology
Hybrid Topology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have
studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It
means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a
combination of various types of topologies seen above. Each individual topology
uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Hybrid Topology
The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a
combination of all different types of networks.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

• This topology is very flexible .
• The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

• It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 • Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
• The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot
of cabling and network devices .
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network
may have a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the
backbone through a switch or router. Within each building, there may be a bus or
ring topology connecting the different rooms and offices. The wireless access
points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices. This hybrid topology
allows for efficient communication between different buildings while providing
flexibility and redundancy within each building


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