Analog Electronics

Lecture 2
Frequency Response

Assoc. Prof. Roaa Mubarak

The course includes:
1. Introduction to Amplifiers.
2.Frequency Response of Amplifiers.
3. Multistage Amplifiers.
4. Differential Amplifier.

Reference:
Microelectronics Circuits, Sedra/Smith- sixth edition
Electronics Devices, Floyd – Ninth Edition
Frequency Response
Frequency Response
The frequency response of a circuit is the variation in its
behavior with change in signal frequency.
Frequency Response
The frequency response of a circuit may also be considered as
the variation of the gain and phase with frequency.
Frequency Response Applications
• The sinusoidal steady-state frequency responses of circuits are of
significance in many applications, especially in communications and
control systems.

• A specific application is in electric filters that block out or eliminate

signals with unwanted frequencies and pass signals of the desired
frequencies.

• Filters are used in radio, TV, and telephone systems to separate one
broadcast frequency from another.
Frequency Response
1. Time and Frequency domains
2. Transfer Function
3. Decibel Scale
4. Bode Plots
5. Bandwidth
6. Series and Parallel Resonance
6.1 Series Resonance
6.2 Parallel Resonance
7. Passive Filters
7.1 Low Pass Filter
7.2 High Pass Filter
Frequency Response
1. Time and Frequency domains
• In mathematics, physics, electronics, and control systems engineering,
the frequency domain refers to the analysis of mathematical
functions or signals with respect to frequency (and possibly phase), rather than
time, as in time series.
• The time-domain graph shows how a signal changes over time, whereas a
frequency-domain graph shows how the signal is distributed within different
frequency bands over a range of frequencies.
Frequency Response
1. Time and Frequency domains
• A given function or signal can be converted between the time and frequency
domains with a pair of mathematical operators called transforms.
• An example is the Fourier transform, which converts a time function into a
complex valued sum or integral of sine waves of different frequencies, with
amplitudes and phases, each of which represents a frequency component.
• The "spectrum" of frequency components is the frequency-domain
representation of the signal.
• A spectrum analyzer is a tool commonly used to visualize electronic signals in
the frequency domain.
• The inverse Fourier transform converts the frequency-domain function back to
the time-domain function.
Frequency Response
1. Time and Frequency domains
• Advantages:
1. One of the main reasons for using a frequency-domain representation of a
problem is to simplify the mathematical analysis. Such as using differential
equations which are much easier to solve.
2. looking at a system from the point of view of frequency can often give an
intuitive understanding of the qualitative behavior of the system, and a
revealing scientific nomenclature has grown up to describe it, characterizing
the behavior of physical systems to time varying inputs using terms such
as bandwidth, frequency response, gain, phase shift, resonant frequencies,
time constant, damping factor, Q factor, harmonics, spectrum, poles,
and zeros.
Frequency Response
2. Transfer Function
• The transfer function 𝑯(𝝎) (also called the network function) is a useful
analytical tool for finding the frequency response of a circuit.
• The frequency response of a circuit is the plot of the circuit’s transfer function
𝑯(𝝎) versus 𝝎, with 𝝎 varying from 𝝎 = 𝟎 to 𝝎 = ∞.
• The transfer function H(𝝎) of a circuit is the frequency-dependent ratio of a
phasor output Y(𝝎) (an element voltage or current) to a phasor input X(𝝎)
(source voltage or current).
Frequency Response
2. Transfer Function
• Since the input and output can be either voltage or current at any place in the
circuit, there are four possible transfer functions:

• Being a complex quantity, 𝐻(𝜔) has a magnitude 𝑯(𝝎) and a phase 𝝋; that is,
𝑯(𝝎) =
Frequency Response
2. Transfer Function
• To obtain the transfer function, we first obtain the frequency‐domain
equivalent of the circuit by replacing resistors, inductors, and capacitors with
their impedances 𝑹, 𝒋𝝎𝑳, and 𝟏/𝒋𝝎𝑪.
• The transfer function 𝑯(𝝎) can be expressed in terms of its numerator
polynomial 𝑵(𝝎) and denominator polynomial 𝑫(𝝎) as

• The roots of 𝑵(𝝎) = 𝟎 are called the zeros of 𝑯(𝝎) and are usually represented
as 𝒋𝝎 = 𝒛𝟏. 𝒛𝟐. …. Similarly, the roots of 𝑫(𝝎) = 𝟎 are the poles of 𝑯(𝝎) and are
represented as 𝒋𝝎 = 𝒑𝟏.𝒑𝟐. …
• To avoid complex algebra, it is expedient to replace j𝝎 temporarily with 𝒔
when working with 𝑯(𝝎) and replace 𝒔 with j𝝎 at the end.
Frequency Response
2. Transfer Function
• Example 1
For the 𝑅𝐶 circuit shown , obtain the transfer function
𝑽𝒐/𝑽𝒔 and its frequency response. Let 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑉𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡.
Solution:
The frequency‐domain equivalent of the circuit.
By voltage division, the transfer function is given by

We obtain the magnitude and phase of 𝐻(𝜔) as

Frequency Response
2. Transfer Function
• To plot 𝑯 and 𝜑 for 𝟎 < 𝝎 < ∞, we obtain their values at some critical points and
then sketch.
• At 𝝎 = 𝟎. 𝑯 = 𝟏 and 𝝋 = 𝟎.
• At 𝝎 = ∞. 𝑯 = 𝟎 and 𝝋 = −𝟗𝟎 𝒐 .
• Also, at 𝝎 = 𝝎𝟎. 𝑯 = 𝟏/ 2 and 𝝋 = −𝟒𝟓 𝒐 .

Frequency response of the RC circuit: (a) amplitude response, (b) phase response.
Frequency Response
3. Decibel Scale
• The decibel’s scientific definition has its roots in the early 20th century and is
based on the measurement of power used in telephony back then in the US
Bell System; the decibel was initially used to quantify power losses during the
transmission of telegraph and telephone signals sent via long cables.

• The decibel is a logarithmic ratio between two values – a measured and a

reference value. On a decibel scale, one decibel equals one-tenth (deci-) of
one bel, the latter concerning Alexander Graham Bell.

• A unit of measure used to show the proportion of one estimation of intensity

or field amount to another on a logarithmic scale
Frequency Response
3. Decibel Scale
• In communications systems, gain is measured in bels. Historically, the bel is
used to measure the ratio of two levels of power or power gain 𝑮; that is,

• The decibel (𝒅𝑩) provides us with a unit of less magnitude. It is 1/l0th of a bel
& given by

• When 𝑃1 = 𝑃2, there is no change in power and the gain is 0𝑑𝐵. If 𝑃2 = 2𝑃1,
the gain is,
Frequency Response
3. Decibel Scale

1. That 10log10 is used for power, while 20log10 is used for voltage or current,
because of the square relationship between them (𝑃 = 𝑉 2/𝑅 = 𝐼 2𝑅) .
2. That the 𝑑𝐵 value is a logarithmic measurement of the ratio of one variable
to another of the same type.
3. It is important to note that, only use voltage and current magnitude,
Negative signs and angles will be handled independently.
Frequency Response
3. Decibel Scale
• The decibel (dB) is a dimensionless unit, used for quantifying the ratio
between two values, such as signal-to-noise ratio.

• dBm or dBmW (decibel-milliwatts) is a unit of power level expressed using

a logarithmic decibel (dB) scale respective to one milliwatt (mW). It is
commonly used by radio, microwave and fiber-optical communication
technicians & engineers to measure the power of system transmissions on
a log scale, which can express both very large and very small values in a short
form.

• dBW is a similar unit measured relative to one watt (1,000 mW), rather than a
milliwatt.
Frequency Response
3. Decibel Scale
Frequency Response
3. Decibel Scale
• Acoustics
The decibel scale is routinely utilized in acoustics to measure the pressure level
of sound. The reference pressure level for sound in air is fixed at the usual
threshold of sensitivity of the average human.
• Electronics
The decibel scale is mostly used in electronics to express amplitude or power in
preference to percentages or arithmetic ratios. The decibel scale is a useful
measure since the overall decibel gain from a series of components (amplifiers
and attenuators) can simply be determined by summing all individual
components’ gains.
• Telecommunications
In telecommunications, decibels indicate signal losses or gains when sound
travels from a transmitter to a receiver via some medium, such as free space,
fiber optics, or a coaxial cable.
Frequency Response
3. Decibel Scale
Frequency Response
4. Bode Plots
• Obtaining the frequency response from the transfer function is an uphill task.
The frequency range required in frequency response is often so wide that it is
inconvenient to use a linear scale for the frequency axis.
• Also, there is a more systematic way of locating the important features of the
magnitude and phase plots of the transfer function.
• For these reasons, it has become standard practice to plot the transfer
function on a pair of semilogarithmic plots: the magnitude in decibels is
plotted against the logarithm of the frequency; on a separate plot, the phase
in degrees is plotted against the logarithm of the frequency.
• Such semilogarithmic plots of the transfer function—known as Bode plots—
have become the industry standard.
Frequency Response
4. Bode Plots
• Bode plots are semilog plots of the magnitude (in decibels) and phase (in
degrees) of a transfer function versus frequency.
• Bode plots contain the same information as the nonlogarithmic plots discussed
in the previous section. The transfer function can be written as:

In a Bode magnitude plot, the gain

is plotted in decibels (𝑑𝐵) versus frequency. In a Bode phase plot, 𝜑 is plotted in

degrees versus frequency. Both magnitude and phase plots are made on semilog
graph paper.
Frequency Response
4. Bode Plots
• A transfer function may be written in terms of factors that have real and
imaginary parts.
Frequency Response
4. Bode Plots
Frequency Response
4. Bode Plots
Frequency Response
4. Bode Plots
Frequency Response
5. Bandwidth
• The maximum amount of data transmitted over an internet connection in a
given amount of time.

• Bandwidth is how much information you receive every second, while speed
is how fast that information is received or downloaded. Let's compare it to
filling a bathtub. If the bathtub faucet has a wide opening, more water can
flow at a faster rate than if the pipe was narrower. Think of the water as the
bandwidth and the rate at which the water flows as the speed.
Frequency Response
5. Bandwidth
• The bandwidth of a signal is defined as the difference between the upper and
lower frequencies of a signal generated. As seen from the below
representation, Bandwidth (B) of the signal is equal to the difference between
the higher or upper-frequency (fH) and the lower frequency (fL). It is
measured in terms of Hertz(Hz) i.e. the unit of frequency.
Frequency Response
5. Bandwidth

• Let’s understand this better with the help of an example. Whenever you tune
into a radio you find various stations at varying particular frequencies. The
bandwidth of FM radio is 200 KHz from 88.1 MHz to 101.1 MHz for most
places. As you tune, the radio you find various stations at various frequencies.

• The audible bandwidth of human ear ranges from 20 Hz to 20,000Hz. Sounds

below 20Hz are known as Infrasonic and sounds above 20000Hz are known as
ultrasonic. Dogs can hear ultrasonic sounds. Whereas Blue whales can produce
infrasonic sounds.
Frequency Response
6. Series and Parallel Resonance
• Resonance occurs in any system that has a complex conjugate pair of poles; it
is the cause of oscillations of stored energy from one form to another.
• It is the phenomenon that allows frequency discrimination in communications
networks. Resonance occurs in any circuit that has at least one inductor and
one capacitor.
• Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive and inductive
reactance's are equal in magnitude, thereby resulting in a purely resistive
impedance.
• Resonant circuits (series or parallel) are useful for constructing filters, as their
transfer functions can be highly frequency selective. They are used in many
applications such as selecting the desired stations in radio and 𝑇𝑉 receivers.
Frequency Response
6.1 Series Resonance
• Consider the series RLC circuit shown
in the frequency domain. The input impedance is

Resonance results when the imaginary part of the transfer function is zero, or

The value of 𝜔 that satisfies this condition is called the resonant frequency 𝝎𝟎.
Thus, the resonance condition is
Frequency Response
6.1 Series Resonance

• The frequency response of the circuit’s current

magnitude is The average power dissipated by the RLC circuit is

• bandwidth 𝑩, which is defined as the difference between the two half‐power

frequencies, 𝐵 = 𝜔2 − 𝜔1

• The “sharpness” of the resonance in a resonant circuit is measured

quantitatively by the quality factor 𝑄 (dimensionless).
Frequency Response
6.1 Series Resonance
• The quality factor of a resonant circuit is the ratio of its resonant frequency to
its bandwidth. The quality factor is a measure of the selectivity (or “sharpness”
of resonance) of the circuit.
Frequency Response
6.2 Parallel Resonance
• The parallel RLC circuit is the dual of the series RLC circuit. So we will avoid
needless repetition. The admittance is

• Resonance occurs when the imaginary part of 𝑌 is zero,

Frequency Response
7. Passive Filter
• Single-time-constant (STC) circuits are those circuits that are composed of or
can be reduced to one reactive component (inductance or capacitance) and
one resistance. STC circuits can be classified into two categories, low-pass (LP)
and high-pass (HP) types, with each category displaying distinctly different
signal responses
• By using various combinations of resistors, inductors and capacitors, we can
make circuits that have the property of passing or rejecting either low or high
frequencies or bands of frequencies.
• These frequency selective networks, which alter the amplitude and phase
characteristics of the input a.c. signal, are called filters.
• Their performance is usually expressed in terms of how much attenuation a
band of frequencies experiences by passing through them. Attenuation is
commonly expressed in terms of decibels (dB).
• A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass signals with desired frequencies and
reject or attenuate others.
Frequency Response
7. Passive Filter
• Types of Electrical Filters
1) A passive filter is a filter consists of only passive elements R, L, and C.
2) An active filter is a filter consists of active elements (such as transistors and op
amps) in addition to passive elements R, L, and C.
There are four types of filters whether passive or active:
1. A low pass filter passes low frequencies and stops high frequencies.
2. A high pass filter passes high frequencies and rejects low frequencies.
3. A band pass filter passes frequencies within a frequency band and blocks or
attenuates frequencies outside the band.
4. A band stop filter (or band-rejection) passes frequencies outside a frequency
band and blocks or attenuates frequencies within the band.
Frequency Response
7.1 Low pass Filter
• A lowpass filter is designed to pass only frequencies from dc up to the cutoff
frequency ωc.

• The cutoff frequency (or roll off or break or critical frequency) is obtained by
setting the magnitude of 𝐇(ω) equal to 𝟏 / 2 thus
Frequency Response
7.1 Low pass Filter
• Note that 𝐇(0) = 1. 𝐇(∞) = 0, shows the plot of |𝐇(ω) | along with the
ideal characteristic.
Frequency Response
7.1 Low pass Filter
Frequency Response
7.2 High pass Filter
• A high pass filter is designed to pass all frequencies above its cutoff frequency
ωc.

• Again, the corner or cutoff frequency is

Frequency Response
7.2 High pass Filter
• Note that 𝐇(0) = 0. 𝐇(∞) = 1, shows the ideal plot of |𝐇(ω) |.
Frequency Response
7.2 High pass Filter