ANALYSIS comme) 9 SN Coie Ps aed « Introduction, Complex number, Euler's formula, Demoivre's theorem, Roots of a complex number, Elementary functions, Differentiability, Analytic function. « Polat form Cauchy-riemann equations, Harmonic function, Milene thomoson method, Complex integration, Cauchy's integral formula © Taylor series. « Laurent series, Residue. INTRODUCTION We know that there is no real numbers whose square is a negative real number. So equations ofthe form x? + 1=0, x2 +4=0 etc. are not solvable in real number system. If the roots are to be found out then another number system called the complex number system is needed. Euler was first to introduce the symbol i (pronounced as iota) for the square root of 1 Here jis called an imaginary or a complex quantity or number. Euler was also able to connect trigonometric and exponential function with complex number. The development of complex analysis was further done by various mathematician like Cauchy, Reimann, Weierstrass, ete. Complex analysis finds its great use in a variety of applied fields, such as in Electrical Enginnering solving many differential equations which atise in various branches of physics, fluid flow, and quantum mechanics etc Complex Number : ‘Acomplex number is an expression of the form2.=x-+iy. Where x, yare real numbers and j = Jo] - Here x is called the real part of'z denoted by Re(z) and ys called the imaginary part of z denoted by Im(z). So, Re(z) =x, Im(z) = yModern College Physics. (Mathematical Physi Ifx = 0, then z is pure imaginary, similarly if y= 0 then z is pure real. ‘Also a complex number can be represented in another notation such as (x, y). Example: In (4 + 5i), the real part is 4 and imaginary part is a Similarly in (3 — 41), the real part is 3 and imaginary part is—4. Note: #o-1,Pa 2. i= t=@PoClY=b po= (= (C1)"= 1 ifnis even -1 ifnis odd. But 2"! =P i=iifnis even =-i, ifn is odd. Complex Algebra : Let us consider two complex numbers. 2, = (%, FiY,) = O% * iY) 3. Multiplication : 22, =O, tiy) & + iy.) 1% t1y,) + iy, (x, + iy,) =x,x, + byy, + iy, + PY XR tiKy, te). C- XX, — Ya) + GY, + XY) = (Vy HY OY) 1. Addition : i i 2, +2,=(, tiy,) + 0% *i¥) ie, z,+Z,=@,+ x) ti (y, + Y2) | (%, +Xp ¥, FY.) | 2. Subtraction : | 2,-%=(%, tiy)-&* iy,) | =x, +i, 47% | =(x,-x) ti, - ¥.) | = —%y Vi -D) | 4. Division = 2 _ (itis) _ (xiv (x2 iva) XX) —ixyyo HiyiX2 “iY Za (X2+iy2) (%2+i¥2)(%.-i¥2) 3-7; : op Zen (ka +¥¥2) + (HYi =*Y2) 2, ty; op Zen (2 #2) , iY: =¥Y2) % (%+y) (x+y!)Properties of Algebraic Operations on Complex Numbers : etus consider three complex numbers z,, z, and z aw Addition is commutative : 2, + 252,42, Wehave 2, =x, tiy, 5 ot iy, 2, 42,78, tH, +X, + iy, =N, + iy, +x, + iy, ie, BPA ty @) Addition is associative : 2, + (2, +2,)=(2, +2,) +2, Now 2+ (2, 4%) =X, iy, + (x, + iy, +x, + jy,) =, + iy, +x, + iy,) + (x, + iy,) =@, +z) +2, Note : (a) z+ 0=x+iy+0. =z So zero is additive identity of z. (b) z+(-2)=x+iy—-x-iy=0 So, -zis called additive inverse. (3) Multiplication is commutative : ie., z,2,=22, Z,2, = (X, + iy,) (%, + iy,) = &X,—y,¥.) + IY, + yx) = GX, ~ Ya) +1, + YH) = (x, + iy,) &, + iy) ie, 2,2,=2,2,. (4) Multiplication is associative : z, (2, Z,) = (2, 2) 2 Z2,= (x, + iy,) (X, + iy.) = (x, — y,¥,) + 1%; + X45) Now 2, (2,2,) = (x, + iy,) (0X, —Y,¥,) + i (Y,x, + X,)} =X, OX, — Vag) + 1X, OX + VD) + iy, OG, — YY.) =, OS FLY) in€., 2, (2,23) = (406%, — ¥,Y,) — ¥, Xs + MY} + 1 O4O,X, + XY3) +H, x3 — ¥29)} soso L Also z,2, x, * iy,) &, + iy.) =~ ¥,¥2) FEO FY) Now (2,2,) 2, = {4% —¥i¥2) 1X, + YX) (+ iy,) = (5%, — Ys) %— 2% # YG) Ys FY OY.) +1, + YG) = X(X,X5 — Yo¥3) — Vu WX F XaVq) + 1 44,0X, + LY.) + Y, OX— YY} ---@) From equations (1) and (2) we find that, 2,(z,2,) = (2,2) 2 5. Multiplication is Distributive : (z, + Z,) 2,=2,2,+ 2,2, ix, + iy,) + (x, + iy,) = (x, +x,) +1, +)Modern College Physics (Mathematical Physi 2 B42) = (FH) FOE INCS* iy.) #99 =(X, £X,) X54 fy (+X) + OF +y)- oe = xX, FX — YN, IVa tH FD ae iy mY) = (X,Y) FEY Xyy,) # OG% ~ 3295 2 or (Z,42,)2,= 22+ eee . : (6) There existsa multiplicative inverse Le 77 oe! Aszaxti 2 = je, 2=(% y) be. 21= O% yy" Then (x, y) (% yy" = (1, 0) Let (x, y)'=(u, v), then (x, y) (U, => (xu-yy, yu txv)= (1,0) i.e., Equating real and imaginal xu-yv=1, yutxv=0 > xu—xyv=xand uy?+xyv=0 : % Adding these x°u + uy? =x =? U (ety)=x fy x+y’) =i. v)=(1, 0) ry parts we get: ie, u=— sy, Similarly, v (?+y’) So the complex number (x, y) has a unique multiplicative inverse [e +¥) WH But the inverse z" is undefined when z= 0. Equality of Complex Numbers : Two complex numbers z, and z, are equal. ie., ifz, =x, + iy, z,=x, + iy, then z, =z,. Ifx, =x, ie.,Re(z,)=Re(z,) andy, =y, ie., Im(z,) =Im(z,). Graphical Representation of Complex Numbers : ‘The complex number z= (x + iy) can be represented by a point (x, y) on the plane plane) called the complex plane or Argand diagram. The two mutually prependicularstt lines X’OX and Y'OY are consideredas shown. So we can plot a point whose x andy coot are the real and imaginary parts of z respectively. This point P (x, y) represents the co” number z= x + iy, But ifa complex number ig purely real, then it is aot ccented byapointo X-axis, Similarly ifth ; ly rea the Vea tthe complex number is purely imaginary then itis represented by 2X(Real Axis) Y' secomplexnumber (0, 0)'s represented by the origin O. Example: : ' The complex number (4+ 3i), (3 + 4i) are represented in the complex or Argand plane as shown below. a4 BY eal P(4, 3) BIT (4+3i) Bit } 4 +--+ + — fiefs 45) (Real Axis) Here x and : yaxes are called as Real and Ima inary Axes res} yectively. ene Number: : 3 modulus or Absolute value of a complex number is : «s the distance between the point (x, ¥) andthe origin ie,, the length of the line OP. g8 Modem College Physics (Mathematical Physi¢ Y So, (OP)’ = (PQ)? + (QP)? or OP =,/x?+y? give the Modulus or Absolute value denoted by lz). (It isalso the magnitude ofthe complex number). ie, |z|= yx? +y* Hence |z|=,/{Re(z)}’ +{lm(z)}* But xOR ie, 2, + lz) > 2, +24) Replacing z, byz, in the above inequality, we get lal + Fegl> le — 21 oF 1+ bel > baa — 2a) ‘Again when, Z,,Z, and O are collinear then |2, 23|= 1+ ll Hence we conclude that |z, + 2| < [2,1 * [241 Also 2, — 2|= 21+ l2ql- So in general |z, + 21 $ l@| + lz, In the triangle OPR’; |OP - PR'|< OR’ (length of one side of a triangle is greater than or equal to diflerence oflength ofother two sides.) numbers z, and= le1- Fall 2,+2,=(x, +x) +i(y, +y,) X, +X) -i(y, +Y,) Hence 2, +7, or 2,42, = (%,~iy,) +O ~iy,) or |z, +2, =z: +22]. Similarly, Modem College Physics (Mathematical Physics: -z,||<|z, +2] + lal Y 5 (Real Axis) (Imaginary Axis) Q(x, -¥) |zl=l2z|Complex Anal Zt, = 2722. Because zy @ % 22 (% Fiy,) (x, + iy.) HPV) Fi KY, + xy.) => Zh - 8 0% FY) —1Ogy, + xy.) Also, a =(x:~iy,),22 =(x,~iy,). Then, 3 eee -- W(X: iy, or 222 = (XX. ~Y,¥2)~i(x,y, +x,y,) Hence, ZZ = 721 Z2 - The proofis as follows : +iy, -(222 if 221 =%Ye xa tiy, Uo xity3 x+y; | Then (2)-(22 XYi=Xie a) xeyt ay! Also we know|z| = yx’ +y’ ie, |z/ So,zz=|z/. Polar Form of Complex Number ‘As we know z = (x + iy) is any complex number represented by the point P(x,y) in the complex plane. Let (r, 8) be the polar coordinates of point P. |x=rcos0 sing=PM _¥ =>l/y =rsin 0} OP r Then z =x + iy becomes z=r cos 6 + ir sin 0. or |[z=r(cos@+isin @) = re"| which is knowns the polar form of the complex nung, Here e = cos @ + sin 6 which is Euler's formula. Also x?+y? =r? > r=yx?+y? =|z] Angle 6 (in radian) which OP =r makes with positive Real Axis (X-axis) is called argumy or amplitide of z denoted by arg(z) or amp(z). 2 tan@ ==> [0 = tan" (y/x) x Itis defined only when z+ 0. The value of @ can be replaced by the general value 0=9; 2nm where n is any integer. So arg (z) has infinite number of possible values. The value of @ which satisfies — m < @ < ris called the principal argument of z andis denoted by Arg(z). So Arg(z)=8,-" a=tTRE an 0) SMMNNRASERERAREREREAA A 50°58 Complos AnBUSS 44 in 2nd quadrant. So the argument of is given by wen Batt Pisa) Y — ans wal NX Inpok iar form z= re"? = 2e! 2 = * x =-1-i, thenx=-1l, y=-1, rex ty? =V2 1 int lies in 3rd quadrant. if Poi x wna=P|-13 095. Theargumentofzis givenas 0=(x+0) -(=+4) 4 gore? = Ve" Ifz=2-2i, then x = 2, y=-2, |zl= ie, r=V4+4 =2V2 -Zliesin 4th quadrant. e-1 an4se% 4 tana = x x" x so, 0=20-2=2% oO 4.4 ae ars In polar form z= re" = 2/2 e7**. ree Properties of Arguments 1. The argument of the product of two comp! arguments. ie., arg (z, 2,) = arg, * a8 2. o ex numbers is equal to the sum of their Proof: z,=re", z. ne 2 Ody = He! rm [c0s(8,+8,)-+isin(0, +6,)] ©. arg (z,Z,) = 0, + 0, = arg Z, + arg Z- 2. The argument of the quotient of two comp! arguments. ie., arg (Z,/Z,) = ar& 2, — TB Z- io, (0,402) lex numbers is equal to the difference oftheir acne, 2 = Proof: z,=ne, 2, =ne =H gm) na ~ (00 amma) Nn 12 Modern College Physics (Mathematical Ph, Sig.) [cos(0, -0, )+isin (0, -0, )] Hence arg (2 = 8-8, =arg (z,) -arg z, Ingeneral Arg (z,z,)# Arg (z,) + Arg (2,) ane (2 :) # Arg (z,) —Arg (2,). Multiplication of a Complex Number by i: Asz=x+iy=rcos 0 +ircos 0 (x=rcos 0, y=r sin 0) 2=1 (cos @ + isin 0) = re” | | | Also i=cos= +i sin =e? 2 27 ini Then iz=e'’? re aien wht) «ca % 40} isn +9)] Hence iz represents a vector obtained by rotating the vector z through a right angle in the Positive direction. EULER'S FORMULA ‘We know the expansion of sin 0 and cos @ as. 3 A 3! OS! a So et =1+i0+ UO), CO i 2 * Sea i or ec” =14+i04-—Complex Analysis 13 4 =1+i0- a oo Pian 3 ala . or |e" =cos0-+isin g] Using the expansion of cos @ and sin 0 which is known as Euler's Formula. With the help of Euler's Formula, we can write the polar s form of compl 2=(x+iy)=rc0s 0 + irsin@ =r(cos0+isin®) Seen emailer ws ie., |z=re| Which is polar form of complex number. Also ifwe replace ® by—0 then we cos (-0) + isin (0) or e=cos0-isin® Adding the two equations we get e® + e“ =2 cos Q, get (Ine = cos 0 + isin 6) ae 2 Subtracting the two equations we get : = |cosO= * = 2isin® = |sine == Examples : 1. Find the values of i*, i, (i)! ‘Ans. i =i?" (*)@)! =(1)%i i100 = _ jt = (y= (ys=1. =| cos=+isin 2) =(e" 2 2 2. — Express the following in the form of (x + iy). 1 Li 2-V3i (142i) o Fo(t) oo Gs 1~" 44 r Modem College Physics (Mathematical Physics 2 =y 14i¥ _ (14i)? 147 © (5) ay ce © 7 ) _ 2-2i-V3i+ Vi? (1+i) (1+i)(1 (a) ie. ei 2 B28) 11 )-i(oes8)] * (1+i) 1-(-1) 2 (142i) _ 148i +3(1)(2i)+3(1)(4i7) @ (1+i)(2-i) 2-14 21-7 _ 148i +61-12 _ -11+877i+6i 24i+1 (3+i) _nll-8i+6i _-11-2i G+) G+) _33+11i~61+2i? _-3345i-2 _ -354+5i = 9-7 10 10 35, Si_ 7,1. =- + =--4+5i. 10°10 2 2 3. Find the complex conjugate of following : 244i (a) 3-4i (by =i Ans. (a) 3 +4i 244i)(1+i) ~ (1-i)(1+i) ~ 244i 2461-4 _-2+6i (I-i) 1412 ¢. Complex conjugate is (-1 -3i). ie, =-14+3iComplex Analysis 5 4. Find the modulus of 1 + sin a+ icos on Ans. We know that the polar from ofcomplex number is z= (cos 0+ isin 0) So, (1 +sin ct)+icose=reos0+irsin 0. Equating the Real and Imaginary parts : 1+sina=rcos® cos o=rsin 8. Equating and adding there two equations we get (1+sin a)’ +c0s* a =r? (cos? 0+ sin? 6) => 1+sin? a+2sina+cos? a r = 1+sin? a+cos?+2sina =r =1+1+2sina=1 = 1? =2(I+sina) =r=2(1+sine) 5, _ Find the modulus of the following complex numbers and their principal arguments. a (3+4i)(1-i) @a-) © oa ( Ans. (a) z=-1-i -. |zl= (1 +(-y = V2 tana= |)|-1 >a= 5. The point les in third quadrant. x Y 3 So, x=-1 =reos0 = ¥2 eos(-*#) : 3 =rsin0=V2 sin -2) x’ So, principal argument lo y Wy n-B) =. P(-1 -i) y’16 Modern College Physics (Mathematical Phslesy -. Modulus =|z| ( Principal Argument = § = tan™ (3+4i)(1-i) Cr (7+i)(-5-12i) _ -35-84i-5i-12i (C5+12i)(-5-12i) (-5)' + (12° _ 735-891+12 _ -23-89i oo 23 89. = SS 254144 169 169 169 aan ean ~|2l= (2 eB 89 = 529+ 7921 _ 8450 _ 91.92 _ 9 54 169 169 169 169 169 The point lies in 3rd Quadrant. 89/169 tana = ea => a=tan! a) ~23/169| 23 23 Principal value of Argument = —(—ct) = tan“! (2) -n. a 24 344i)(8-+ 61) or (2) -Matsiezzin2 i? 24450i-24 3-1 64-3617 64+36 te, (244) 2501; “"\3-i) “100-2 Principal Argument is eeComplex Analysis 47 6. Find the values of x, conjugate numbers, Ans. Let z=—3 + ix2y then Y so that —3 +ix’y and x? + y + 4i may represent complex Payal So 2=Z >-3+ixy=x? 4y4qi Equating Real and Imaginary parts on both sides, we get, N+y=-3,.x7y=4 then x?=4 y 4 So, + y=-3 gives yr > 4+y’=-3y 2 YY 4-0 yt dy—y— 4-0 y(y+4)—1(y+4)=0 = Y-D(+4)=0>y=1ory=-4, “Xt y=—3=>x°+1=—3 = x?=— 4 xis Imaginary which is not possible. 2 y=-4 gives x?-4=-3 5 2=44-3=4] => k=], y=—4]. Express the following complex numbers into polar form. 143i (4+5i)(3-2i) ® a ©) (243i)(7+2i) ns. (a) (U3!) _ (143)0+2i) _ 142i 43i467 (I-21) (I= (143i) 1451-6 _-5+5i__ (1-2!) 5 5 Transforming into polar form: x=rcos 0, y=rsin® Very = iy +(0F = V2 |-1 >a =f. As the point lies in 2nd Quadrant, 0 = x3 3. )(1+2i) 1+4 y| tana = 1 oo So in polar form z =—— = r(cos0+isin®) i ' . 3 ie, LIL coe 2 4isin 3). 1-2: 4 4’ 48 Modem College Physics (Mathem: / Physics I (445i)(3-2i) _ 12-814 15 10i? _ 12+7i+10 _ 22471 ®) (2+ (243i)(742i) | ae one Ge “[a25i-6 | 84251 _ (22+ 71)(8= 25i) _176-550i + 561-1751” © (8+25i)(8— 25i) 64 +625 _176+175—494i _ 351-494i 7 689 689 2351 _ 4945 9 509-6.717i 689 689 +, Modulus |z|=1 = ,{(0.509)° +(-0.717)° = /0.259+0.514 => r= 0.773 =0.88 tano=|2/=|7 717 x 0.509 So 9 =—a=~—tan" (1.4). |- 1.4 a =tan™'(1.4) point is in 4th quadrant. 8. Find theminimum positive integer n for which (4 Ans. Given that, (4) =1 =i G+i)0+i)7 | (sil P_ -(¢ ll =I [se] ' =[22) = = (2) =1 3 (i" =1=(i")> (i" =(i)* 141 = n=4. 9. Find the values of x and y so that z, =z, ifz, = 3x + Siy, z, = 2y + 3x+3)i. Ans. Two complex numbers are said to be equal ifthe real parts are equal. Also they must have same imaginary parts. ic., [z, =] if x, =x, and y, = yy => 3x+ Siy=2y+ (3x +3) i only if3x=2y (Equating Real Parts) and Sy=3x +3 (Equating Imaginary Parts) :. Putting 3x = 2y we get Sy=2y +3 => 3y=3 >y=1, then 3x=2y given 3x=2 axn3,Complex Analysis 419 EXERCISE 1. Express each one of following in the standard form (x + iy) : 34i +i) ; oF) of 0 Ted aand i) Ti cos0 + 2isind qi; 13. 51 1,5 Ans. (a) 3~ i () ~F+5i OFF @ 545i 1-cos0 ; 2sin8 © naosare(s aornns) 2. Find the Modulus and the principal Agrument of the following Complex Numbers : 143i i 2 1+i, 4 (a) b) (1 +i a —. at 1-21 ON) = Oey Ore - rere 3x x 1 _3n 2n lin Ans. 2. =o. es ee @ V2.7 O27 OTR OL Op ay 3. Find the Modulus of following Complex Number : (a) 6+i? +(5-i)-(3-47") Ans. /74. (&) (9-i°)- (8? +6) +( Ans. 328. (©) 3=2i1-(3+2i)+(4- Ans. 17. @ (1+if +(-i° Ans. 0. (©) (1 + cos 2c) + i sin 20 Ans. 2cos 0. 4. Express the following Complex Numbers in polar form : (a) -8i ‘Ans. ge"? (b) V3 +i Ans. 2¢ © 18 1+7i Es © Zep Ams. ew @ Qi Ans. J2e*. 143i) tos, ( (33) Ans.e>. 5. Ifz, andz, are any two complex numbers, prove that |, 2P + lz, ~Z,P = lz, P +1 2F) 6. Find the least positive integer ‘n’ for which (& + is a positive integer. Ans. n=8 7. Find the real numbers x and y such that (x — iy)(3 + 5i) is the conjugate of -6 — 24i, Ans. x = 3, y= 3.8. Find the value of = Ans, -1 9. Prove that Z2,2, 10. Ifz,=1+i,z, 3 + Siz, = 2 -3i Evaluate (a) @-z, +2) () 2,2, +2,2, (©) [2z, - 32, + z,| 11. Plot the following in complex plane. (@) 26°% — (b) ge" ()-5 +53 (d) 6(cos 135° + i sin 135°) (©) 47° 319, 12. Find the following operation and show them graphically. (@) 2, = 2-31), 2, =-5 + 4i, perform z, +z, ©) 2,=-3 +4i, 2, =2-31,2,= 3+ 2i, 2,=—I + 2i perform z, +2, +2, +z, (©) Perform z, —z, if, 344i, z,=2-3i, Wee 1S. Show that the Area of the triangle enclosed by vectors % @— ia) and izis (x? +y*), 14. Iflz, +2,=|z,-2,] then prove that Arg(z, ~Arg(z,)=5. 15. es Way scos-tisin, k= 1,2, then prove that 2, z, ..