DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)

Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

Course Material

COURSE ESSENTIAL MATHEMATICS I-

CS/CV/ME/EE STREAM
COURSE CODE 22MATS11 /22MATC11 /22MATM11
/22MATE11
MODULE I

MODULE NAME DIFFRENTIAL CALCULUS

STAFF INCHARGE Dr. SOWMYA K

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

Objective:

At the end of this Module, student will be able

 To find the angle between radius vector and tangent,angle between two
curves
 Curvature, Radius of curvature (cartesian and polar form)
 Centre and circle of curvature
 Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s series expansions for a function of one variable

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

Polar Curves
Curves in polar co-ordinates:
Polar co-ordinates: In Mathematics the polar co-ordinates system is a two-dimensional co-
ordinates system in which each point on a plane is determined by an angle and distance.

The position of a point M on a plane can be indicated by stating its distance ‘r’ from a fixed
point ‘o’ and inclination ‘θ’ of OM to a fixed straight line through ‘θ’. ‘r’,’ ‘θ’ are called polar co-
ordinates of M. r is called the radius vector and ‘θ’ the vectorial angle ‘r’ is considered to be
positive when measured away from ‘o’ along the line boundary the vectorial angle and ‘θ’ is
considered to be positive when measured in anticlockwise directions.

Angle between the radius vector and the tangent:

Y

L
φ
P(r, θ)
φ
r
ψ
A
O θ T
r = f(θ)

Proof:- Let “  ” be the angle between the radius vector OPL

and the tangent at1the point `P` on the polar
1
1 3
 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

curve r  f   .
From Fig ,   
tan   tan 
  tan     
1  tan  tan 
dy tan   tan 
i.e.  .......... ....... (1)
dx 1  tan  tan 
On the other hand, we have x  r cos ; y  r sin differentiating these, w.r.t  ,
 dr   dr 
 r  sin    cos   &  r cos   sin  
dx dy

d  d  d  d 
 dr 
dy r cos   sin   
dy
 d   d  dividing the Nr & Dr by dr cos
dx dx  dr  d
d r  sin    cos  
 d 
dy

r d
dr
 
 tan 
dx  rd dr  tan   1

dy tan   r dr
d  
i.e. 
dx 1  tan  rd 
dr

………………….(2)

Comparing equations (1) and (2)

we get tan   r d
dr
 1 dr 
Note that cot   
 r d 

Angle between two polar curves

Angle of intersection of two polar curves:- If 1 and 2 are the angles between the
common radius vector and the tangents at the point of intersection of two curves r  f1  
and r  f 2   then the angle intersection of the curves is given by 1  2
Problems:
Example 1. Find ‘Φ’ in terms of ‘θ’ for the curve r 2  a 2 cos 2

sol: r 2  a 2 cos 2
diff w.r.t ‘θ’

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

dr
r  a 2 sin 2
d
dr  a 2 sin 2

d r
d  r2
tan   r  2   cot 2
dr a sin 2

tan   tan(  2 )
2

   2
2
Example 2. Show that for the curve r  ae cot  where α is a constant the radius vector is
inclined at a constant angle to the tangent at every point.
Sol: r  ae cot 
dr
 a cote cot 
d
dr
 r cot
d
dr
tan   r
d
tan   tan 
 
Example 3. Prove that the normal at any point (r,θ) on the curve r n  a n cos n makes an
angle (n+1)θ with intial line.

Sol: r n  a n cos n
dr
r n 1  a n sin n
d
dr  a v cos n

d r n 1

dr
tan   r
d
 rr n 1
tan  
a n sin n

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

 a n cos n
tan     cot n
a n sin n
 
tan   tan   n 
2 
  2  n


The angle between the tangent and the initial line


      n
2
   n  1   2

II. Find the angle of intersection for each of the following pairs of curves.

Example 1.
Sol:
r  sin   cos
diffw.r.t
r  2 sin
dr
diffw.r.t '  cos  sin 
d
dr
 2 cos sin   cos 1  tan 
tan 2  
d cos  sin  1  tan 
r sin  
tan 1    tan  tan 2  tan    
2 cos cos 4 
1   
2  
4

1  2 
4
Example 2. r  a log r a
log
Sol: Diff w.r.t  Diff w.r.t 

  a log  . 1
dr a dr

2

d  d 
d
  d  log   
2
r  a log  r   a
dr a dr  log  a 

tan 1   log .......... (i) tan 2   log .......... (ii)

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

We know that
tan 1  tan  2
tan 1   2  
1  tan 1 tan 2
 log    log 

1   log   log 
2 log
i.e tan 1  2   .......... ..(iii)
1   log 
2

From the data: a log  r  a  log   1 or log  1

2
log
As  is acute, we take by  =1    e
Substituting   e in (iii), we get
 2e 
tan 1   2  
2e log e
 2 
1  e log e  1 e 
2

 c  2 R sin C  c   2 R sin C   2 R  sin C 

 2e 
 1   2  tan 1  2 
1 e 
a b
Example 3. r  r
1  cos 1  cos
Sol:
diff w.r.t θ diff w.r.t θ
dr a sin dr b sin
 
d 1 cos 2 d 1 cos 2
dr dr
tan 1  r tan 1  r
d d
a1  cos   b1  cos 
2 2
tan 1  tan 1 
1  cos a sin 1  cos b sin
1  cos  (1  cos )
tan 1  tan 1 
sin sin
 (1  cos )(1  cos )  (1  cos ) 2
tan 1 tan  2    1
sin 2  sin 2 
Therefore, the angle between the curves is

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

Example 4.
a a
r r
1 1 2
Sol:
1 1 1 1
r

a

a 
1    1   2   a
r
Diff w.r.t  Diff w.r.t 

 2
1 dr 1 1
r d a
 
2
  2   a
dr
r d 2

1 dr r  2r 1 dr
 
r d a 2 a r d
d a 2 d  a
r  i.e r 
dr r dr 2r
a 2 a 1 2 
tan 1  tan 2    
a 2  a 
1   
 tan 1   1    tan 2  
1
2
1 2 

Now, we have
a
 a 1   2   a 1   
a
r
1 1 2

or    3  1     3  1 or   1
 tan 1  2 & tan 2   1
tan 1  tan 2
Consider tan 1  2  
1  tan 1 tan 2 
2   1
   3  3  1  2  tan 1 3
1  2  1
Exercise:
I.Find the angle b/w the radius vector and tangent:

2a 
(a)  1  cos (b) (c) r  a cos ec 2
r 2
II. Find the angle of intersection for each of the following pair curves:

(a) r 2 sin 2  4, r 2  16 sin 2 (b) r  a(1  cos ), r 2  a 2 cos 2

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

Answers:

I.(a) √ (b) (c)

II. (a) (b)

Radius of Curvature:

y 
Q
s
P

+


Consider a curve C in XY-plane and let P, Q be any two neighboring points on it. Let arc AP=s
and arc PQ=s. Let the tangents drawn to the curve at P, Q respectively make angles  and
+ with X-axis i.e., the angle between the tangents at P and Q is . While moving from P to
Q through a distance‘s’, the tangent has turned through the angle ‘’. This is called the
bending of the arc PQ.

Geometrically, a change in  represents the bending of the curve C and the ratio s represents
the ratio of bending of C between the point P & Q and the arc length between them.
Rate of bending of Curve at P is
d 
 Lt
ds Q  P  s

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

This rate of bending is called the curvature of the curve C at the point P and is denoted by 

(kappa). Thus

We note that the curvature of a straight line is zero since there exist no bending i.e. =0, and
that the curvature of a circle is a constant and it is not equal to zero
since a circle bends uniformly at every point on it.
If қ ≠ 0, then is called the radius of curvature and is denoted by .
1 ds
  
 d
Radius of curvature in Cartesian form:
Suppose y = f(x) is the Cartesian equation of the curve considered in figure.

y
c


x
0

we have

2
ds  dy 
But we know that  1  
dx  dx 

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

3
  dy 2  2

1    
d 2 y   dy   d ds   dx  
2 2
 dy 
 2  1       1    
dx   dx   ds  dx  d d2y
dx 2
3

ds 1   y  
 2
 2

  
d y

This is the expression for radius of curvature in Cartesian form.

NOTE: We note that when y’=, we find  using the formula,
3
  dx  
2 2

1    
  dy  
 
d x
2

 2 
 dy 
This is useful when tangent is perpendicular to x-axis.

Radius of Curvature in Polar Curve r=f(θ):

Let P(r,θ) be any point on the curve r=f(θ) and ψ be the angle which

the tangent at P makes with the x-axis. From the figure, we have

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

  
d d d
  
ds ds ds
d d d
   (1)
ds d ds

d
weknowthat, tan   r
dr
r
 tan   ,  r  f ( )
r1
r 
   tan 1  
 r1 

Differentiating with respect to θ, we get

d 1 r1 r1  r r2

d r 
2
r12
1  
 r1 
r12 r12  rr2
 2
r1  r 2 r12
r12  rr2
 2  ( 2)
r1  r 2

ds
 r 2  r12  (3)
We know that, d

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

Substituting the value of (2) and (3) in (1),we get

1 1  r12  rr2 
 1  2 
 r  r1 
2 2 r1  r 2 

1  r12  r 2  r12  rr2 

  
r 2  r12  r12  r 2 
1 
 r  2r1  rr2 
2 2

  
r 2  r12 
 r12  r 2 

r 2  2r12  rr2

r 2

 r12
3/ 2


r 2
r 1
2 3/ 2

r 2  2r  rr 1
2
2

Problems:
Example 1: Find the radius of curvature of the curve x3+y3 = 2a3 at the point (a, a).

Sol: x  y  2a  3x  3 y  y  0
3 3 3 2 2

x2
 y   hence at  a, a  , y  1
y2
 y 2  2 x   x 2  2 y  y   2a 3  2a 3  4
 y    4  , hence at  a , a  , y     4  
 y   a  a
3 3
1   y 2  2
1   12  2

    a a
i.e.,   2 2 
y 4 4 2
a

Example 2. Find the radius of curvature for x  y  a at the point where it meets the line y
= x.
Sol:
a a
i.e., We need to find  at  , 
4 4

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

1 1 y a a
x y a  y  0 i.e y   , hence at  ,  , y  1
2 x 2 y x 4 4

 1 1 
 x 2 y  y  y 2 x 
Also, y    
 x 
 
 
 a 1 a 1 
  (1)  
 4 a 4 a  1 1
2 2 (  )
 a a   
 at  ,  , y    4 4  2 2   (1)  4
 4 4  a  a a a
 
 4  4 4
 

3 3
1   y 2 
1   12  2
2

       a2 2 a
y 4 4 2
a
Example 3. Show that the radius of curvature for the curve y = 4 sinx-sin2x
at x   is 5 5
2 4
Sol: y  4 Sin x - Sin 2x  y  4 Cos x  2 Cos 2 x
 when x   , y  4Cos   2Cos  0  2(1)  2
2 2
Also, y  -4 Sin x  4 Sin 2x and when x   , y  -4 Sin   4 Sin   4
2 2
3
1   y 2  2 3
1  22  2

     5 5
   
y  4 4
Example 4. Find the radius of curvature for at (a,0).
Sol:
3x 2  y 2
 y  and at (a, 0), y  
2 xy
dx 2 xy dx
In such cases we write  and at (a, 0), 0
dy 3x 2  y 2 dy

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Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

 2 2  dx   dx 
  3x  y   2 y  2 x   2 xy  6 x  2 y  
dx 2 xy dx  2
 dy   dy 
Also  2  
dy 3x  y  3x  y  
2 2 2
dy 2 2
 
 
d 2 x   3a  0   0  2a   0  6a 3 2
 2 
 At  a, 0  ,   
dy 2    
2 4

 3a 2
 0 
9 a 3a
3
  dx 2  2

1     3
  dy   1  o 2  2

   2  3a
 or  
d x 2 2 2
dy 3a

Example 5. Find the Radius of Curvature at any point of the curve

Sol: Given,

Diff wrt we get


 (r 2  r1 ) 3 / 2  a 2 (1  cos ) 2  a 2 sin 2 
2
3/ 2

 a 3 {2(1  cos )}3 / 2

r 2  2r12  rr2  a 2 (1  cos ) 2  2a 2 sin 2   a 2 cos (1  cos )

 a 2 {1  2(1)  3 cos }  3a 2 (1  cos )

(r 2  r12 ) 3 / 2 a 3 {2(1  cos )}3 / 2 2

  2   2ar
r  2r1  rr2
2
3a (1  cos )
2
3

Example 6 : Find the Radius of Curvature at point of the curve

Sol: Given,

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(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

Taking Logarithm on both sides, we get

n dr  n sin n

r d cos n
 r1   r tan n

This gives, r2  rn sec2 n  tan n r1

 2
r
 r12 2

3/ 2

r  2r12  rr2

(r 2  r 2 tan 2 n ) 3 / 2
= r  2r tan n  r (rn sec n  tan n r1 )
2 2 2 2

r 3 sec3 n
= r {1  tan n  n sec n }
2 2 2

r sec3 n
=
sec2 n (n  1)

r sec n
= ( n  1)

r r an
  sec n 
(n  1) (n  1) r n
an

(n  1)r n1

Example 7: For the curve , prove that constant being measured from the origin.

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(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

Solution: Given,

Taking log on both sides, we get

Differentiate w.r.t. , we get

1 dr
.  cot
r d
1 dr
But , cot  .
r d
 cot  cot

i.e.,    , which is a constant.

Exercise:
I.Find the Radius of Curvature for the following curves
(a) at any point
(b) where the curve cuts the x-axis.
(c)
(d) ( )
Answers:
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Centre of curvature:
The Centre of Curvature at a point „P‟ of a curvature is the point “C” which lies on the Positive
direction of the normal at „P‟ and is at a distance (in magnitude) from it.

( )

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

Circle of curvature:
The circle of curvature at a point „P‟ of a curve is the circle whose centre is at the centre of
Curvature „C‟ and whose radius is in magnitude.
Problems:
Example 1:Find the coordinates of the centre of curvature at any point of the parabola

Solution: Given curve is

We know that, if are the coordinates of the centre of curvature at any point on
the curve , then

( )

We have i.e

= 3x+2a

Example 2:Find the circle of curvature of the curve at the point

Solution:

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(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

at is -1.

at is -32/3a

The circle of curvature is

Exercise:
1. Find the Centre of curvature of the curve at the point (1,1).
2. Find the Centre of curvature of the curve at ( ).
3. Find the Circle of curvature of the curve at (1,-1).
4. Show that the Circle of curvature at the origin for the curve
is .

Answers:

1. (5/2,5/2) 2. √ 3.

Taylor’s Series and Maclaurin’s Series

Taylor’s Mean Value Theorem:(Generalized Mean Value Theorem):

Statement: Suppose a function f (x) satisfies the following two conditions:

(i) f (x) and it’s first (n-1) derivatives are continuous in a closed interval a, b 

(ii) f (n 1) ( x) is differentiable in the open interval a, b 

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Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

Then there exists at least one point c in the open interval a, b  such that

(b  a)2 (b  a)3
f (b)  f (a)  (b  a) f (a)  f (a)  f (a)  …..
2 3

(b  a)n 1 (n 1) (b  a)n ( n)

.....  f (a )  f (c)  (1)
n 1 n
Taking b  a  h and for 0    1 , the above expression (1) can be rewritten as

h2 h3 hn 1 (n 1) h n ( n)
f (a  h)  f (a)  hf (a)  f (a)  f (a)  ....  f (a)  f (a   h)  (2)
2 3 n 1 n

Taking b=x in (1) we may write

( x  a)2 ( x  a )3 ( x  a)n 1 (n 1)

f ( x)  f (a)  ( x  a) f (a)  f (a)  f (a)  ...  f (a)  Rn  (3)
2 3 n 1

( x  a)n ( n)
Where Rn  f (c)  Re mainder term after n terms
n

When n  , we can show that Rn  0 , thus we can write the Taylor’s series as

( x  a)2 ( x  a) n 1 ( n 1)
f ( x)  f (a)  ( x  a) f (a)  f (a)  ...  f (a)  ....
2 n 1

( x  a)n ( n)
 f (a)   f (a)  (4)
n 1
n

Using (4) we can write a Taylor’s series expansion for the given function f(x) in powers of (x-a)
or about the point ‘a’.
Maclaurin’s series:
When a=0, expression (4) reduces to a Maclaurin’s expansion given by

x2 x n 1 ( n 1)
f ( x)  f (0)  xf (0)  f (0)  ...  f (0)  ....
2 n 1

x n ( n)
 f (0)   f (0)  (5)
n 1
n

Problems:

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(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

Example 1. Obtain a Taylor’s expansion for f ( x)  Sin x in the ascending powers of

  
 x   up to the fourth degree term. The Taylor’s expansion for f (x) about is
 4 4
 2  3 
( x  )4
   (x  4 )  (x  4 )  (4) 
f ( x)  f ( )  ( x  ) f ( )  f ( ) 
4 f ( )  f ( ) ....  (1)
4 4 4 2 4 3 4 4 4

   1    1
f ( x)  Sin x  f    Sin  ; f ( x)  Cos x  f     Cos 
4 4 2 4 4 2
   1
f ( x)   Sin x  f      Sin  
4 4 2
   1
f ( x)   Cos x  f     Cos  
4 4 2
   1
f (4) ( x)  Sin x  f (4)    Sin 
4 4 2
Substituting these in (1) we obtain the required Taylor’s series in the form
  
( x  )2 ( x  )3 ( x  )4
1  1 4 1 4 1 4 1
f ( x)   ( x  )( )  ( ) ( ) ( ) ....
2 4 2 2 2 3 2 4 2

  2   
( x  )3 ( x  ) 4
1   (x  4 ) 4  4  ...
f ( x)  1  ( x  )   
2 4 2 3 4 
 
Example 2. Obtain a Taylor’s expansion for f ( x)  loge x up to the term containing
 x  14 and hence find loge(1.1).
The Taylor’s series for f (x) about the point 1 is
( x  1)2 ( x  1)3 ( x  1)4 (4)
f ( x)  f (1)  ( x  1) f (1)  f (1)  f (1)  f (1) ....  (1)
2 3 4

1
Here f ( x)  loge x  f (1)  log 1  0 ; f ( x)   f (1)  1
x
1 2
f ( x)    f (1)  1; f ( x)   f (1)  2
2
x x3
6
f (4) ( x)    f (4) (1)  6 etc.,
4
x
Using all these values in (1) we get

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Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

( x  1)2 ( x  1)3 ( x  1)4

f ( x)  loge x  0  ( x  1)(1)  (1)  (2)  (6) ....
2 3 4

( x  1)2 ( x  1)3 ( x  1)4

 loge x  ( x  1)    ....
2 3 4

Taking x=1.1 in the above expansion we get

(0.1)2 (0.1)3 (0.1)4
 loge (1.1)  (0.1)    ....  0.0953
2 3 4

Example 3. Obtain a Maclaurin’s series for f ( x)  Sin x up to the term containing x 5 .

The Maclaurin’s series for f(x) is
x2 x3 x 4 (4) x5 (5)
f ( x)  f (0)  x f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0) ....  (1)
2 3 4 5

Here f ( x)  Sin x  f (0)  Sin 0  0 f ( x)  Cos x  f (0)  Cos 0  1

f ( x)   Sin x  f (0)  Sin 0  0 f ( x)   Cos x  f (0)  Cos 0  1
f (4) ( x)  Sin x  f (4) (0)  Sin 0  0 f (5) ( x)  Cos x  f (5) (0)  Cos 0  1
Substituting these values in (1), we get the Maclaurin’s series for f ( x)  Sin x as
x2 x3 x4 x5 x3 x5
f ( x)  Sin x  0  x (1)  (0)  (1)  (0)  (1) ....  Sin x  x   ....
2 3 4 5 3 5

Example 4. Obtain a Maclaurin’s series for up to the term containing x4 Let

ye x cos x
 y (0)  e  1 0

y1  e x cos x (cos x  x sin x)  y (cos x  x sin x)  y1 (0)  1

y2  y1 (cos x  x sin x)  y (2 sin x  x cos x)  y2 (0)  1
y3  y2 (cos x  x sin x)  2 y1 (2 sin x  x cos x)  y (3 cos x  x sin x)
 y3 (0)  2
y4  y3 (cos x  x sin x)  3 y2 (2 sin x  x cos x)  3 y1 (3 cos x  x sin x)  y (4 sin x  x cos x)
 y4 (0)  2  9  11
And so on
Thus for ,we have
y(0)  1, y1 (0)  1, y2 (0)  2, y3 (0)  2, y 4 (0)  11,.......

22
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(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

x2 x3 x4
Hence, Maclaurin’s series expansion gives e
x cos x
 1  x   2.  11.  .......
2! 3! 4!
Note:
As done in the above example, we can find the Maclaurin’s series for various functions, for ex:
x 2 x 4 x6 x 2 x3 x 4 x5 x 6
(i) Cosx  1    ...... (ii) e x  1  x      ......
2 4 6 2 3 4 5 6

m(m  1) 2 m(m  1)(m  2) 3 m(m  1)(m  2)(m  3) 4

(iii) (1  x)m  1  mx  x  x  x ......
2 3 4

Taking m  1 in (iii) we can get (1  x) 1  1  x  x 2  x3  x 4  x5  x 6 ......

Replacing by in this we get (1  x)1  1  x  x 2  x3  x 4  x5  x6 ......

Exercise:
(a) Obtain the Taylor series for about the point =1.
(b) Expand in powers of upto the term containing fourth degree.
(c) Obtain the Maclaurin‟s expansion of upto the term containing

Answeres:

(a)
(b) { }
(c)

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