Engineering Physics Unit – 1.

2 Diffraction
Unit 1.2. DIFFRACTION
Q. What is meant by Diffraction and explain the phenomenon of diffraction using Huygen’s
wave theory?
A. Diffraction:
Definition: “The phenomenon of bending of light round the corners of the obstacles and
spreading of light waves into the geometrical shadow of an obstacle placed in the path of light is
called Diffraction.”
For the diffraction to be more effective, “the size of the obstacle must be comparable to
wavelength of light”.
The phenomenon of diffraction was first observed by Grimaldi.
Explanation on the basis of Huygen’s wave Theory:
According to Huygen’s wave theory of light, every point on primary wave front acts as
secondary source of disturbance and secondary waves (wavelets) are generated from those points.
The envelope of these secondary waves forms secondary wave front.

Let primary wave front XY from point source ‘S’ of monochromatic light reach the
aperture MN placed in its path. The light passing through the aperture has to cause brightness
inside AB on the screen and regions beyond A and B i.e., regions of geometrical shadow have to
be dark. But as indicated in the fig(a), every point on the wave front reaching the aperture MN
acts as secondary source of light from those points light waves originate and thus secondary
waves enter into the geometrical shadow region also. The waves from different parts of the
primary wave front travel different distances to reach any point on the geometrical shadow
region and interfere to produce bright and dark fringes. Since the amplitudes of secondary
waves decreases with distance, the intensity gradually falls to zero. Similar explanation can be
given to the observation of diffraction pattern inside geometrical shadow region caused by
opaque obstacle MN as shown in fig(b).

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 Engineering Physics Unit – 1.2 Diffraction
Q. What are the types of diffraction and distinguish between them?
A. Types of Diffraction:
The diffraction phenomenon is divided into two types.
(i) Fresnel diffraction
(ii) Fraunhofer diffraction
S. No Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction

1. Either a point source or an illuminated Extended source at infinite distance is used.

narrow slit is used.
2. The wavefront undergoing diffraction is The wavefront undergoing diffraction is a plane
either spherical or cylindrical. wavefront.
3. The source and the screen are at finite The source and the screen are at infinite
distances from the obstacle producing distances from the obstacle producing
diffraction. diffraction.
4. No lens is used to focus the rays. Two Convex lenses are used to focus parallel rays.
Q. What is the difference between interference and diffraction?
A. Difference between Interference and Diffraction:
Bright and dark fringes both are observed due to interference and diffraction but the fringe
patterns differ. Following are the differences between interference and diffraction phenomena.
S. No Interference Diffraction
1. Superposition is due to two separate wave Superposition is due to secondary waves originating
fronts originating from two coherent sources. from different parts of the same wave front.
2. The fringes have equal widths. The width of the fringes is never equal.
3. All the bright fringes have the same intensity The intensity of bright fringes decreases
4. All the dark fringes have zero intensity The intensity of dark fringes is not zero.

Q. Explain in detail Fraunhofer diffraction due to single slit.

A. Fraunhofer diffraction due to single slit:

Experimental arrangement:
AB is a narrow slit of width ‘a’ perpendicular to plane of the paper. Let a plane wave
front ww1 be incident normally on the slit. λ is the wavelength of the incident light. ‘O’ is the
center of the slit and Po is the center of the screen.

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Engineering Physics Unit – 1.2 Diffraction
Explanation:
According to the Huygens theory, each point on the wave front passing through slit act as
secondary source and emit secondary waves in all directions. All these secondary wavelets
interfere with each other. The diffracted light is focused on a screen by means of convex lens.
The waves from points A, O and B travel straight and focus at Po. Since all these waves have
travelled the same optical distance, there is no path difference between them. Hence they
produce constructive interference and hence point Po is bright with maximum intensity. It is
called central bright maxima.
Letus consider the secondary waves traveling at an angle ‘θ’ with respect to the normal rays. They
meet at the point ‘P1’ on the screen. The path difference between the waves from A & B on
reaching ‘P1’ is given by BC.
BC δ
Let BC = δ, In Δ ACB, Sinθ = ��
=�

δ = a Sinθ ------------------ (1)

Where, δ = path difference and θ = angle of diffraction.
The corresponding phase difference
2π
Ø= λ
a Sinθ ----------------- (2)

Let the width of the slit is divided into ‘n’ equal parts and the amplitude of the wave from each
part is ‘a1’ (width of each part is same). Thus the phase difference between the waves from any
two consecutive parts is,
1 1 2 π a Sinθ
�
(Total phase Ø) = � λ
= d (say)

Using the method of vector addition of amplitudes, the resultant amplitude ‘R’ is given by,

�� ������
��� ���
R=a 1
�
2
= a 1 λ
������
��� ���
2 nλ

������
Let α = λ
------------------- (3)

����
then, R = a1 �
���
�

���� �
= na1 �
( �
is very small,
� �
���
�
=(� ))
����
R =A �
----------------------- (4) Where A = na1

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Engineering Physics Unit – 1.2 Diffraction
Equation (4) represents the resultant amplitude squaring equation (4) gives the intensity (I) of
light.
Thus the resultant intensity at the point P1 on the screen is,
���� 2
I = R2 = A2 �
---------------------- (5)

Principal maximum :
The expression for resultant amplitude R can be written in ascending powers of α as,
���� � �3 �5 �7
R =A �
= �
�−
3!
+
5!
−
7!
+ −−−

�2 �4 �6
Taking α common, ∴R=A 1−
3!
+ 5!
−
7!
+ −−−

R will be maximum when α = 0

������
α = λ
= 0 =>Sinθ = 0

i.e., Sinθ = 0 (or) θ = 0

Now the maximum value of R is A
and Intensity is proportional to A2.
Minimum Intensity Positions:

The intensity will be minimum when Sinα = 0 (but α ≠ 0)

The values of α are α = + π, + 2π, + 3 π, + 4 π, ………….. etc.

������
(or) α = ± m π => λ
= + mπ

=> a Sinθ = +mλ ---------------- (6)

Where m = 1, 2, 3, ……..etc.
m = 0, corresponds to maximum. Eqn(6) gives the directions of first, second, third ……. minima
on both sides of principal maximum.
Secondary maxima:
In addition to principal maximum at α = 0, there are weak secondary maxima between equally
spaced minima
The positions can be obtained by differentiating the intensity of light [eqn(5)] with α and
equating to zero.
���� 2
(5) => I = A2 �

�� � ���� 2
= �2 �
�� ��

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Engineering Physics Unit – 1.2 Diffraction
� ���� 2
=> A2 �� �
=0

���� �Cos� – Sin�.1

=>A2 2 � �2
=0

(or) α Cosα – Sinα = 0

=> α = tanα --------------- (7)

This equation is solved graphically by plotting the curves, y =α , y = tanα on same graph.

The points of intersection of the two curves gives the values of which satisfy eqn (7).
3� 5� �
These values are, α = 0, 2
, 2
, ……..(2n +1) 2.

� ������ �
α = (2n +1)2 => λ
= 2n + 1
2

�
=> a SinѲ = (2n +1) --------------- (8)
2

Substituting above values of α in eqn (5), we get the intensities of various maxima.
For α = 0, Io = A2 (Principal Maxima)
3� 2
3� ���( ) 4 �2
For α = 2 , I1 = A2
3�
2
= 9π2 = 22
(First Subsidiary Maxima)
2

5� 2
5� ���( ) 4 �2
For α = 2 , I2 = A2
5�
2
= 25π2 = 62
(Second Subsidiary Maxima) and so on.
2

4 4 4
Thus, the ratio of relative intensities of successive maxima are, 1: 9π2 : 25π2
: 49π2………

Clearly, most of the incident energy is concentrated in Principal maximum.

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 Engineering Physics Unit – 1.2 Diffraction
Intensity Distribution Graph:
A graph is drawn between intensity of light
verses ‘α’. The diffraction pattern con
sists of a central principal maximum
occurring in the direction of incident rays.
There are subsidiary maxima of decreasing
intensity on either sides of it at positions
α = 3π /2, 5π /2, ……..(2n +1)π/2.
there are minima at positions α = + π, + 2π, + 3 π, ……etc.

Q.Give the theory of Fraunhofer diffraction due to double slit?

A. Fraunhofer Diffraction at a double slit:
Let AB & CD be two rectangular slits of width ‘a’ and let ‘b’ be the separation between the
slits. Consider a plane wave front of wavelength ‘λ’ fall normally on the slit. Let ‘L’ be the
collecting lens and ‘MN’ be the screen. All the secondary waves traveling in a direction parallel
to ‘OPo’ focus at Po. Hence, ‘Po’ is the central bright maximum.

To analyse further, we have to take into account the following two contributions.
(i) Diffraction due to individual slits.
(ii) Interference due to diffracted secondary waves from the two slits.
(i) Diffraction maxima and minima:
Due to diffraction from individual slits, bright and dark fringes are formed on the screen.
The angular separation between two consecutive maxima or minima is given by λ/a.
This means that if the slits become narrower, the fringes widen.
(ii) Interference maxima and minima:
The waves diffracted from two slits interfere to form bright and dark fringes on the screen.
The angular separation between two consecutive maxima or minima is given by λ/(a+b).
∴ If the slits are narrower and closer, angular separation becomes larger and hence fringes widen.

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 Engineering Physics Unit – 1.2 Diffraction
→Missing orders in the double slit diffraction pattern:
In certain directions, interference maxima may coincide with diffraction minima. Thus
the combined effect of interference and diffraction results in missing of certain orders of
interference maxima.
The condition for interference maxima, (a + b) Sinθ = nλ
The condition for diffraction minima, a Sinθ = mλ
Where n and m are integers. If the values of a & b are such that both the conditions are satisfied
for the same values of θ.
�λ �λ
Sinθ = (�+�) = �

Cases : (i) Let a = b

� �
Then 2�
= �
(or) n = 2m

(ii) Let 2a = b then

� �
Then 3�
= �
(or) n = 3m

(iii) Let a + b = a which means that b = 0

� �
Then �
= �
(or) n=m fig: Intensity Distribution due to diffraction at Double slit

Since m = 1, 2, 3, ……. etc. then corresponding ‘n’ values in the three cases are
n = 2, 4, 6, …. etc.
n = 3, 6, 9, …... etc.
n = 1, 2, 3, ……. etc.
This means that in the diffraction pattern, the corresponding nth orders of interference maxima
will be missing. The intensity distribution due to Fraunhofer diffraction at a double slit is shown
in fig. The continuous curve represents equally spaced interference maxima.

Q. Explain with theory the Fraunhofer diffraction due to ‘N’ slits? (or)
Explain the formation of spectra by plane diffraction grating?
A. Plane Diffraction Grating:

Diffraction grating is nothing but closely spaced multiple slits. It consists of very
large number of narrow slits side by side separated by opaque spaces. As the incident light is
transmitted through the slits and blocked by opaque spaces, such a grating is called transmission
grating.
When light passes through the grating, each one of the slits diffracts the waves. All
the diffracted waves reinforce one another producing sharper and intense maxima on the screen.
In practice, a plane transmission grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on

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 Engineering Physics Unit – 1.2 Diffraction
which opaque rulings are made with a diamond point. The spaces between the rulings are equal
and transparent and constitute the parallel slits each of width (a). The rulings are opaque and are
of equal width (b).
The combined width of a ruling and a slit (a+b) is called “grating element”. The points on
successive slits separated by a distance equal to grating element are called “corresponding
points”.
►Fraunhofer diffraction due to ‘N’ – slits :
Theory of plane transmission grating:

Let ‘XY’ be a transmission grating. AB, CD, EF etc represent the slits of width ‘a’ each. BC, DE,
FG etc are the opaque rulings of width ‘b’ each. Now (a + b) is the combined width of a ruling
and a slit is called grating element (i.e., distance between two successive slits). Any two points
on successive slits separated by a distance (a+b) are called corresponding points. Let a plane
wave front be incident normally on the grating. Then, the secondary waves travelling in the
direction of the incident wave are focused at point ‘Po’ as shown in the fig(a) is the central bright
maxima.
Now consider the case of secondary wavelets traveling in a direction that makes an
angle θ with the direction of incident beam. They reach at the point ‘P1’ on the screen as shown
in fig(b).
AMM1 is drawn normal to the diffracted light. Let us consider the waves diffracted at the
corresponding points A and C. The path difference between the waves on reaching P1 is CM
since they travel equal path beyond AM.
�� �
In Δ ACM, Sin θ = ��
= (�+�)

∴ δ = (a + b)Sinθ
The superposition of these waves at P1 causes interference. P1 will be bright when
(a + b)Sinθn =+ nλ ----------------- (4)
n = 0, 1, 2, 3….and θ1, θ2, θ3, ….. Corresponding to first, second, third, etc. principal maxima
respectively.
��
Hence Sin θn = (�+�) = nNλ

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 Engineering Physics Unit – 1.2 Diffraction
Sin θn = nNλ
1
Where (�+�) = N is the number of lines per unit width of the grating.

Q. Explain the formation of multiple spectra with grating and also find the maximum no. of
orders possible for a grating?
A. Grating Spectrum:
The diffraction pattern formed with a grating is known as grating spectrum.
The Principal maxima are obtained in the direction given by,
(a + b)Sinθn = + nλ----------(1)
This eqn (1) is known as grating equation.
where n = 0, 1, 2,................& (a + b) is the grating element.
The θ values for different principal maxima can be determined.
In eqn (1), for n = 1, (a + b) Sinθ1 = λ
1
=> Sinθ1 = N λ ( N= (�+�)
)

i.e., First order bright image is obtained at an angle θ1 to the incident direction.

//ly Second order bright image is obtained when θ = θ2. i.e., n =2, => (a + b) Sinθ2 = 2λ
Thus different order bright images are obtained on both sides of the direct ray as shown in fig(a).
• For fixed values of (a +b) and n, “θ” is different for different wave lengths.
• Clearly angle of diffraction increases with increase in wavelength.
Since, λr > λv , θr > θv
• Angle of diffraction of red color is more than the angle of diffraction of violet color.
• If the number of lines in the grating are very large then the maxima are sharp and bright. Lines
parallel to grating lines are called Spectral lines. Different order bright lines are formed on
both sides of central maximum.

• Instead of monochromatic source of light, if white light is used, in each diffracted order
different colors are diffracted at different angles as shown in fig(b)

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 Engineering Physics Unit – 1.2 Diffraction
• For n = 1 (a + b) Sinθv = λv (for violet ray)
(a + b) Sinθr = λr (for red ray)
• The central image i.e., zero order maxima are bright because for θ = 0, n = 0 for all values of λ.
Therefore all wave lengths are in the same direction that means they coincide with each other.
Most of the light is concentrated in the central maximum. As the order increases, intensity
decreases gradually.
• The first order principal maxima of all wave lengths forms the first order spectrum. Similarly,
the second order principal maxima forms the second order spectrum and so on.
• The conclusion is that the spectrum consists of white principal maximum of zero order having
first order spectra on either side, second order spectra, third order spectra and so on.
• The spectra of each order comprises colors varying from violet to red.
→Maximum no. of orders possible with a grating:
We know that the condition for maximum intensity from eqn (2),
(a+ b) Sinθ
(a+ b) Sinθ = nλ (or) n= λ
Where ‘θ’ is the angle of diffraction.

The maximum angle of diffraction θ is 90o => Sinθ = 1, hence the maximum order of diffraction
nmax is,
(a+ b) Sin900 (a+ b) 1
∴ nmax < < <
λ λ �λ
1
where N = (�+�) = Number of lines per unit distance of grating.

nmax ≤ 1
�λ

This gives maximum no. of orders possible. (n has to be an integer not a decimal).

→Determination of wavelength using plane transmission grating:

The collimator ‘C’ of the Spectrometer is adjusted to produce parallel rays and the telescope ‘T’ is
adjusted to receive the parallel rays. The grating ‘G’ is placed on the grating table such that it is normal
to the axis of collimator ‘C’. The collimator slit is now illuminated by the monochromatic
source whose wavelength is to be determined. The telescope is slowly turned to one side
such that the first order diffracted image coincides with the vertical cross wire of the eye
piece. The reading of the telescope in this position is noted. Now the telescope is turned to
the other side and vertical cross wire is made to coincide with the first order diffracted
image. The reading of the telescope in this position is also noted.
The difference between these two readings gives ‘2θ’, where ‘θ’ is the angle of diffraction.
sin �
The wavelength of light λ = ��
fig: Determination of wavelength using Spectro meter

Where, n is the order of diffraction (or) spectral line & N is the no. of lines per unit width.

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 Engineering Physics Unit – 1.2 Diffraction
Q. Explain Rayleigh’s criterion for resolution?
A. Rayleigh’s criterion for resolving power:
According to him, “Two nearby images are said to be resolved if the position of the central
maximum of one coincides with the first minimum of the other and vice versa”. To understand
this criterion, let us see the following cases,

(a) well resolved (b) just resolved (c) un resolved.

Fig: Pictorial representation of Rayleigh’s criterion of two nearby images

In the first case shown in fig(a), A and B are the central maxima of the diffraction
pattern of two spectral lines of wavelengths λ1 and λ2. The angle of diffraction of central
maximum of the image B is greater than the angle of diffraction of first minimum of A. Hence
both the optical lines appear well resolved.
In the second case shown in fig(b), the position of central maximum of wavelength λ1
(denoted by A) coincides with the position of the first minimum of wavelength λ2 (denoted by B)
and vice versa. In the resultant intensity curve in the middle, a dip is seen at C. According to
Rayleigh, they are said to be just resolved.
In the third case shown in fig(c), the central maxima corresponding to wavelengths λ1 &
λ2 are very close. Thus, the two images overlap and they cannot be distinguished as separate
images. The resultant intensity has a peak at ‘C’ which is higher than the individual intensities
of A and B. Thus, the second case sets the resolution limits as per Rayleigh criteria.

Q. What is meant by resolution and explain the resolving power of a grating?

A. Resolution:
“The method of seeing two close objects as separate using some optical instruments is
called Resolution”.
Resolution Power:
“The capacity of the instrument to produce two separate images of very close objects is
called Resolving Power”.

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Engineering Physics Unit – 1.2 Diffraction
Resolving Power of a Grating:

“The ability to show two neighboring lines in a spectrum as separate is known as the
resolving power of a grating”. (or)
“The resolving power of a diffraction grating may also be defined as the ratio of the
wavelength of any spectral line to its difference of wavelengths between this line and a
neighboring line such that they can be just seen as separate”.
λ
Resolving Power = �λ

Explanation:
Two lines of wavelength λ and λ + dλ are said to be resolved if the
central maxima due to λ + dλ falls on the minima of λ (in any order).
λ
The resolving power of diffraction grating is �λ
.

In the fig, XY is the grating surface, MN is the field of view of

the telescope. Position P1 is the nth principal maximumof spectral
line λ at an angle of diffraction θn. Position ‘P2’ is the nth principal
maximum of spectral line (λ+d λ) at an angle of diffraction (θn+ dθ).
According to Rayleigh, those two spectral lines appear resolved, Fig: Resolving Power of a Grating
if the position of P2 corresponds to the first minimum of P1 and viceversa.
The principal maximum of λ in the direction θn is given by, (a + b) Sinθn = nλ -------------(1)
Similarly, the nth principal maximum of spectral line (λ + dλ) in the direction (θn + dθ) is
given by, (a + b) Sin (θn + dθ) = n (λ + dλ) -------------------- (2)
To satisfy Rayleigh criterion this angle (θn + dθ) must also correspond to the direction of first
minimum of λ.
This is possible if the path difference between the rays corresponding to angles of diffraction θn
λ
and (θn + dθ) is , where N is the total number of lines on the grating surface.
N

From the above two equations the difference introduced is ‘n dλ’.

λ
Hence n dλ =
N
λ
 �λ
= nN ----------------- (4)

Where N is the total no. of lines on the grating surface.

Eqn(4) is the expression for resolving power of a grating.
It is directly proportional to
(i) The order of the spectrum (n) and (ii) The total no. of lines on the grating surface (N).

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 Engineering Physics Unit – 1.2 Diffraction
Q. Explain the dispersive power of grating?
A. Dispersive Power of grating:
“Dispersive power of grating is defined as the variation of angle of diffraction with
wavelength.”
��
Dispersive power = �λ

Condition for principal maxima is (a+b) sinθ = nλ

Differentiating the above equation (a+b) cosθ dθ = n dλ
�� �
=
�λ � + � ����
1.Dispersive power is directly proportional to order of the spectrum. Higher the order, larger is
the dispersion.
2. It is inversely proportional to grating element. Smaller is the grating element, spreadly the
spectrum wider.
3. It is inversely proportional to Cosθ i.e. larger the θ value, smaller is the cos value and
higher the dispersive power.
 Applications of Diffraction:
1. The wavelength of spectral lines can be measured by using diffraction grating.
2. The wavelength of X-rays can be determined by X-ray diffraction.
3. The structure of the crystal can be determined by X-ray diffraction.
4. The velocity of sound in liquids can be determined by using ultrasonic diffraction.
5. The size and shape of tumors, ulcers etc., inside the human body detected by ultrasound
scanning.

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