1. What is a programmable logic controller (PLC)?

CH1
A PLC is an industrial digital computer used for automation of
programmable logic controllers (PLC):basically a digital computer designed for use in machine control.It has been designed to operate electromechanical processes,
in the industrial environmentand is equipped with input/output interface and a control programming language.
such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement
Initially the PLC was used to replace relay logic, but its ever-increasing range of functions includes timing, counting, calculating, comparing, and the processing of analog signals rides, or lighting fixtures.
Functions: timing, counting, calculating, comparing, and the processing of analog signals. // PLC Advantages: reliability , More Flexibility, Lower Cost, Communications Capability. Faster Response Time, Easier to Troubleshoot 2. Identify four tasks in addition to relay switching operations that
The major parts of a PLC system are: the central processing unit (CPU), the input/output (I/O) section, the power supply, the programming device PLCs are capable of performing.
open architecture design allows the system to be connected easily to devices and programs made by other manufacturers. 1. Timing,2. Counting,3. Arithmetic operations,4. Data manipulation
A system closed architecture is one whose design is proprietary, making it more difficult to connect to other systems. 3. List six distinct advantages that PLCs offer over conventional
Fixed I/O is typical of small PLCs that come in one package with no separate, removable units. The processor and I/O are packaged together. // Modular I/O is divided by compartments into which separate modules can be plugged. This feature greatly relay-based control systems.
increases your options and the unit’s flexibility 1. Smaller physical size 2.Faster operation 3. Easier to modify and
CPU: A microprocessor for implementing the logic and controlling the communications among the modules. The processor requires memory for storing the results of the logical operations performed by the microprocessor as well as the operating reprogram
system and the PLC program 4. Requires less wiring 5. Easier to troubleshoot 6. Higher reliability
The PLC program is executed as part of a repetitive process referred to as a scan // Starts with the CPU reading the status of all inputs Concludes with the updating of all outputs. 4. Explain the differences between open and proprietary PLC
read input, execute program diagnose and communicate ,update output architecture.
Input field devices : (pushbuttons, limit switches sensor ) // output: motor starters , solenoid valve , indicator light Open architecture: Compatible with products from different
manufacturers.
A programming device is used to enter the desired program into the memory of the processor. (1- Hand-held programming device , 2-The program is entered using the relay ladder logic programming language)
A personal computer (PC) is the most commonly used programming device The computer monitor is able to display more logic on the screen thus simplifying interpretation of the program Proprietary architecture: Limited to the components of the same
brand or manufacturer.
A program is a series of instructions that directs the PLC to execute actions. // Relay ladder logic, the standard programming language, is based on electromagnetic relay control
5. State two ways in which I/O is incorporated into the PLC.
One of the important features of a PLC is the ease with which the program can be changed.
1.Fixed I/O 2. Modular I/O
1-Unlike PCs, the PLC is designed to operate in the industrial environment with wide ranges of ambient temperature and humidity // 2-Unlike the personal computer, the PLC is programmed in relay ladder logic or other easily learned languages The 6. Describe how the I/O modules connect to the processor in a
PLC comes with its program language built into its memory and has no permanently attached keyboard, CD drive, or monitor modular-type PLC configuration.
3-Computers are complex computing machines capable of executing several programs or tasks simultaneously and in any order ---- - PLCs execute a single program in an orderly and sequential fashion from first to last instruction. The I/O modules are connected to the CPU through a backplane or
rack system, allowing easy communication between components.
4- PLC control systems have been designed to be easily installed and maintained.
7. Explain the main function of each of the following major
Software associated with a PLC but written and run on a personal computer falls into the following two broad categories: • PLC software that allows the user to program and document gives the user the tools to write a PLC program—using ladder logic components of a PLC:
or another programming language—and document or explain the program in as much detail as is necessary 1.Processor module (CPU): Executes the control instructions in the
PLC software that allows the user to monitor and control the process is also called a human machine interface (HMI) program.
2.I/O modules: Interface between field input/output devices and the
Programmable Automation Controllers (PACs) combine PLC ruggedness with PC functionality. Using PACs, you can build advanced systems incorporating software capabilities such as advanced control, communication, data logging, and signal
processor.
processing with rugged hardware performing logic, motion, process control, and vision.
3.Programming device: Used to create, edit, and transfer programs to
The criteria used in categorizing PLCs include 1-functionality, 2-number of inputs and outputs, 3-cost, and 4- physical size the PLC.
The I/O count is the most important size factor. In general, the nano is the smallest size with less than 15 I/O points. This is followed by micro types (15 to 128 I/O points), medium types (128 to 512 I/O points), and large types (over 512 I/O points). 4.Power supply module: Supplies power to the PLC components.
There are three major types of PLC applications: single ended, multitask, and control management // A single ended application involves one PLC controlling one process 8. What are the two most common types of PLC programming
devices?
A multitask PLC application involves one PLC
1.Hand-held programming units
controlling several processes.
2.Personal computers (PCs)
A control management PLC application involves one PLC controlling several others. // Memory is the part of a PLC controller that stores data, instructions, and the control program 9. Explain the terms program and programming language as they apply
ch2 ----------------------------------- to a PLC.
1.Program: A set of instructions that the PLC follows to control a
The input/output (I/O) section of a PLC is the section to which all field devices are connected and provides the interface between them and the CPU. // Rack-based I/O section made up of individual I/O modules
process.
.Input interface modules accept signals from the machine or devices and convert them into signals that can be used by the controller 2.Programming language: The language used to write the program,
.Output interface modules convert controller signals into external signals used to control the machine or process such as ladder diagram or function block.
.The hardware assembly that houses I/O modules, processor modules, and power supplies is referred to as the chassis. // A logical rack is an addressable unit consisting of 128 input points and 128 output points 10. What is the standard programming language used with PLCs?
Ladder Diagram (LD)
.he ability to locate the I/O modules near the field devices minimizes the amount of wiring required
11. Answer the following with reference to the process control relay
The PLC’s memory system stores information about the status of all the inputs and outputs. To keep track of all this information, it uses a system called addressing. // An address is a label or number that indicates where a certain piece of information ladder diagram (Figure 1-18):
is located in a PLC’s memory. // Rack/slot-based addressing schemes are used with Allen-Bradley PLC-5 and SLC 500 controllers, Tag-based addressing is used with Allen-Bradley ControlLogix controllers a. When do the pressure switch contacts close?
.Analog I/O modules use a word addressing format The pressure switch contacts close when the pressure reaches a specific
value.
,PC-based control runs on personal or industrial hardened computers. Also known as soft PLCs, they simulate the functions of a PLC on a PC b. When do the temperature switch contacts close?
.Combination I/O modules can have both input and output connections in the same physical module The temperature switch contacts close when the temperature exceeds a
I/O modules can be 8, 16, 32, or 64 point cards. // The points refer to the number of inputs or outputs available. // A high-density 64-point card provides a greater space saving but with less rated current output per output threshold.
c. How are the pressure and temperature switches connected with
.Each discrete I/O module is powered by some field supplied voltage source. Since these voltages can be of different magnitude or type, I/O modules are available at various AC and DC voltage ratings
respect to each other?
.Backplane power is provided by the PLC module power supply and is used to power the electronics that reside on the I/O module circuit board The pressure and temperature switches are usually connected in series.
.Individual AC outputs are usually limited by the size of the triac to 1 A or 2 A d. Describe the two conditions under which the motor starter coil will
become energized.
For controlling larger loads an interposing relay is connected to the output module. The contacts of the relay can then be used to control a larger load or motor starter
The motor starter coil is energized when both switches are closed.
Discrete output modules are used to turn field output devices either on or off. // Output modules can be purchased with transistor, triac, or relay output e. What is the approximate value of the voltage drop across each of the
.If the module is a current-sourcing module, then the input or output device must be a current-sinking device. ( the opposite is true ) following when their contacts are open?
Typical analog inputs and outputs vary from 0 to 20 milliamps, 4 to 20 milliamps, or 0 to 10 volts. // The analog input interface module accepts an analog signal and converts it to a digital signal. // The analog output module accepts a digital signal and Pressure switch: Approx. full voltage
Temperature switch: Approx. full voltage
.converts it to an analog signal that operates the output. // The two basic types of analog input modules are 1-voltage sensing and 2-current sensing
Manual pushbutton: Approx. full voltage
.The main element of the analog input module is an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter // Unlike voltage input signals, current signals are not as sensitive to noise and typically are not distance limited 12. The programmable controller operates in real time. What does this
.Unipolar input modules can accept an input signal that varies in the positive direction only mean?
It means the PLC responds immediately to changes in inputs and controls
Bipolar input modules can accept signals that swing between a negative and positive value. // Resolution refers to the smallest change in input signal value that can be sensed
outputs without delay.
.The main element of the analog output module is a Digital-to-Analog (D/A) converter // The analog output module receives from the processor digital data, which are converted into a proportional voltage or current to control an analog field device 13. Answer the following based on the process control PLC ladder
.The analog output signal is varied under the control of the PLC program and can be used for control of an analog control valve logic diagram (Figure 1-21):
The TTL module allows the transmitting and receiving of TTL (Transistor -Transistor-Logic) signals. This module allows devices that produce TTL-level signals to communicate with the PLC’s processor a. What do the individual symbols represent?
Symbols represent input/output devices and logic operations.
An encoder-counter module allows the user to read the signal from an encoder on a real-time basis and stores this information so it can be read later by the processor.( could work at 0 to 100khz which 100k pulse per second)
b. What do the numbers represent?
The stepper-motor module provides pulse trains to a stepper-motor translator, which enables control of a stepper motor Numbers refer to addresses of input/output points.
.Motion and position control modules are used in applications involving accurate high-speed machining and packaging operations c. What fi eld device is the number I/2 identifi ed with?
I/2 means input device 2.
.Serial communications modules are used to establish point-to-point connections with other intelligent devices for the exchange of data
d. What fi eld device is the number O/1 identifi ed with?
O/1 means output device 1.
Discrete I/O Module Specifications: 1- Nominal Input Voltage - Specifies the magnitude (e.g., 5 V, 24 V, 230 V) and type (AC or DC) of user-supplied voltage that a module is designed to accept. // 2- Input Threshold Voltages - Specifies the minimum ON e. What two conditions will provide a continuous path from left to
state voltage at which logic 1 is recognized and the maximum OFF-state voltage at which logic 0 is recognized. 3- Nominal Current Per Input - Specifies the minimum input current that the discrete input devices must be capable of driving to operate the right across the rung?
input circuit // 4-Leakage Current amount of current still conducting through an output circuit even after the output has been turned off. // 5- Electrical Isolation - The specification for electrical isolation, typically 1500 or 2500 volts AC, 6 Points Per A continuous path is provided when all conditions (contacts) are logically
TRUE.
.Module – define number of input and output can connect to one module 7- Backplane Current Draw - indicates the amount of current the module requires from the backplane
f. Describe the sequence of operation of the controller for one scan of
Analog I/O Module Specifications. : 1-Channels Per Module 2-Input Current/Voltage Range(s) 3-Output Current/Voltage Range(s) 4-Input Protection 5-Resolution 6-Input Impedance and Capacitance 7-Common-Mode Rejection the program.
.The central processing unit (CPU) is built into fixed PLCs while modular types typically use a plug-in module Sequence: PLC scans inputs → Executes logic → Updates outputs
.A processor module can be divided into two sections: the CPU section and the memory section 1- The CPU executes the program. 2- the memory stores the program along with other retrievable data 14. Compare the method by which the process control operation is
changed in a relay-based system to a PLC-based system.
The CPU of a PLC system may contain more than one processor redundant (two) processors // Many electronicin processo, PLC modules are sensitive to electrostatic voltages. When not in use, store modules in a static-shield bag
Relay-based system: Requires physical rewiring.
The program is stored in the memory as 1s and 0s, which are typically assembled in the form of 16-bit words. e complexity of the program determines the amount of memory required PLC-based system: Only software/program modification is needed.
.Sections of memory used to store the status of inputs are called input status files or tables 15. Compare the PLC and PC with regard to:
Physical hardware: PLCs are rugged and built for industrial
Memory types can be placed into two general categories: volatile and nonvolatile // Nonvolatile memory has the ability to retain stored information when power is removed accidentally or intentionally // Volatile memory will lose its stored information
environments; PCs are general-purpose.
PLCs have programmable memory that allows users to develop and modify control programs. This memory is made nonvolatile so that if power is lost, the PLC holds it // if all operating power is lost or removed
Operating environment: PLCs handle heat, vibration, and dust; PCs
// Nonvolatile Read Only Memory (ROM) stores programs, and data that cannot be changed ROM is used by the PLC for the operating system and controls the system software that the user uses to program the PLC cannot.
Random Access Memory (RAM) is designed so that information can be written into or read from the memory. PLCs use RAM as a temporary storage area of data that may need to be quickly changed . RAM IS VOLATILE Method of programming: PLCs use ladder logic; PCs use high-level
languages.
Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory The EEPROM can be electrically overwritten with new data instead of being erased with ultraviolet light. IT’S NONVOLATILE
Execution of program: PLCs use scan cycles; PCs execute programs
Flash memory is extremely fast at saving and retrieving files. Flash memory is also sometimes built into the processor module, where it automatically backs up parts of RAM sequentially.
The hand-held proprietary programming terminal has a connecting cable so that it can be plugged into a PLC’s programming port. Hand-held programmers are compact and inexpensive but have limited display capabilities 16. What two categories of software written and run on PCs are used
in conjunction with PLCs?
.Printers are used to provide hard-copy printouts of the processor’s memory in ladder program format. A printout can show programs of any length and analyze the complete program
SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)
.The cartridge can be used to copy a program from one PLC to another similar type PLC HMI (Human Machine Interface)
// A human machine interface (HMI) can be connected to communicate with a PLC and to replace pushbuttons, selector switches, pilot lights, thumbwheels, and other operator control panel devices 17. What is a programmable automation controller (PAC)?
Human machine interfaces allow you to view the operation in real time A PAC is a high-performance controller that combines the features of a
PLC and a PC, offering advanced control, communication, and data
handling.
5. How does the processor identify the location of a specific input or output 16. Explain the function of the backplane of a PLC rack. 26. Explain the function of the analog-to-digital (A/D) converter circuit used in analog
18. List four criteria by which PLCs are categorized:
device? It distributes power and data between the modules installed in the rack. input modules. It converts analog signals into a digital form for processing by the PLC.
a. Physical hardware differences: Number of input/output (I/O) points
By using rack/slot/group/bit addressing format (e.g., I:1/3/2). 17. What is the function of the optical isolator circuit used in discrete 27. Explain the function of the digital-to-analog (D/A) converter circuit used in analog
b. Operating environment: Memory size
6. List the three basic elements of rack/slot-based addressing. I/O module circuits? output modules.
c. Method of programming: Instruction set
1.Rack number 2. Slot number 3. Bit number It provides electrical isolation between the logic circuit and high-voltage It converts digital values from the PLC into analog signals to operate output devices.
d. Execution of program: Communication capabilities
7. Compare bit level and word level addressing. field signals. 28. Name the two general sensing classifications for analog input modules.
19. Compare the single-ended, multitask, and control management
1.Bit-level: handles individual ON/OFF (0 or 1) signals. 18. Name the two distinct sections of an I/O module. 1.Voltage sensing 2. Current sensing
types of PLC applications:
2.Word-level: handles grouped data (typically 16 bits) for processing. 1. Logic section 2.Power section 29. List five common physical quantities measured by a PLC analog input module.
Single-ended: Runs one control task
8. In what way does tag-based addressing differ from rack/slot-based 19. List four tasks performed by a discrete input module. 1.Temperature 2. Pressure 3. Flow 4. Level 5. Speed
Multitask: Handles multiple tasks at once
addressing? 1.Detect input signal 30. What type of cable is used when connecting a thermocouple to a voltage sensing
Control management: Can perform sequential, batch, or continuous
Tag-based uses names (tags), while rack/slot-based uses numerical formats. 2.Electrically isolate signals analog input module? Why?
control
9. What do PC-based control systems use to interface with field devices? 3.Condition input signals Shielded twisted pair cable – minimizes electrical noise and maintains signal integrity.
20. What is the memory capacity, expressed in bits, for a PLC that
They use I/O interface cards and tag-based addressing formats. 4.Indicate input status (LEDs) 31. Explain the difference between a unipolar and bipolar analog input module.
uses 16-bit words and has an 8K word capacity? Its 16 × 8,192 words =
10. What type of I/O modules have both inputs and outputs connected to 20. What electronic element can be used as the switching device for a Unipolar: accepts only positive voltage signals.
131,072 bits
them? 120 VAC discrete output interface module? Triac. Bipolar: accepts both positive and negative voltage signals.
21. List five factors affecting the memory size needed for a particular
Combination I/O modules. 21. With reference to discrete output module current ratings: 32. The resolution of an analog input channel is specified as 0.3 mV. What does this
PLC installation: 1. Number of I/Os
11. In addition to field devices, what other connections are made to a PLC a. What is the maximum current rating for a typical 120 VAC output tell you? It means the smallest detectable change in signal is 0.3 millivolts, indicating high
2.Program complexity 3. Number of timers and counters 4. Size of data
module? module?About 1 to 2 Amps. measurement precision.
storage 5.data requirements
Power supply, communication cables, and programming devices. b. Explain one method of handling outputs with larger current 33. In what two ways can the loop power for current sensing input modules be
22.What does the instruction set for a particular PLC refer to?
12. Most PLC modules use plug-in wiring terminal strips. Why? requirements.Use an interposing relay to control high-current loads. supplied?
It refers to all the commands that the PLC can execute, such as logic
For easier module replacement and reduced downtime. 22. What electronic element can be used as the switching device for DC 1.From the field sensor itself 2.From the analog input module
operations, timers, counters, and math functions.
13. What are the advantages and the disadvantages of using high-density discrete output modules? Transistor. 34. List three field devices that are commonly controlled by a PLC analog output
1. What is the function of a PLC input interface module?
modules? 23. A discrete relay type output module can be used to switch either AC module.1. Control valves 2. Variable speed drives 3. Heaters
It receives signals from field input devices and converts them into signals
Advantage: Space-saving. or DC load devices. Why? Because relays are mechanical switches, they 35. State one application for each of the following special I/O modules:
the CPU can process.
Disadvantage: Lower current rating per output. can operate regardless of signal type. a. High-speed counter module:Used to count pulses from fast-acting devices like
2. What is the function of a PLC output interface module?
14. With reference to PLC discrete input modules: 24. With reference to sourcing and sinking I/O modules: encoders in motion control systems.
It converts control signals from the CPU into signals that operate output
a. What types of field input devices are suitable for use with them? a. What current relationship are the terms sourcing and sinking used to b. Thumbwheel module:Used to manually input numeric values, such as a setpoint for
field devices.
ON/OFF (discrete) input devices. describe? temperature or speed.
3. Define the term logical rack.
b. List three examples of discrete input devices. Sourcing: provides current. c. TTL module:Used to interface low-voltage logic devices like microcontrollers or sensors
A logical rack is an addressable unit consisting of 128 input and 128
Pushbuttons, limit switches, proximity sensors. Sinking: receives current. operating at 5V logic levels.
output points.
15. With reference to PLC discrete output modules: b. If an I/O module is specified as a current-sinking type, then which d. Encoder-counter module:Used in position tracking systems, such as tracking the shaft
4. With reference to a PLC rack:
a. What types of field output devices are suitable for use with them? type of field device is it electrically compatible with? rotation of a motor or conveyor.
a. What is a remote rack?
Devices that require ON/OFF control. It is compatible with sourcing field devices. e. BASIC or ASCII module:Used to communicate with serial devices like barcode
A remote rack is located away from the processor and connected via
b. List three examples of discrete output devices. 25. Compare discrete and analog I/O modules with respect to the type of scanners, printers, or displays via RS-232/422.
communication modules.
Lamps, solenoids, relay coils. input or output devices with which they can be used. f. Stepper-motor module:Used to control stepper motors in applications requiring
b. Why are remote racks used?
1.Discrete I/O: used for ON/OFF devices. precise motion, like CNC machines or robotic arms.
To reduce wiring by placing I/O modules closer to field devices.
2.Analog I/O: used for continuous variable signals like voltage or current. g. BCD-output module:Used to drive devices that require Binary-Coded Decimal signals,
such as seven-segment displays for showing
36. List one application for each of the following intelligent I/O modules:
a. PID module: Used in process control to maintain variables like temperature
or flow.
b. Motion and position control module: Used in servo and stepper motor
positioning systems.
c. Communication module: Used for networking PLCs with other devices or
systems.
37. Short explanation for each of the following discrete I/O module
specifications:
a. Nominal input voltage: Expected input voltage level (e.g., 24V DC or 120V
AC).
b. Input threshold voltages: Min/max voltage levels recognized as ON or OFF.
c. Nominal current per input: Minimum current required for the PLC to detect
input.
d. Ambient temperature rating: Operating temperature range for reliable
performance.
e. Input ON/OFF delay: Time delay to detect changes in input status.
f. Output voltage: Rated output voltage delivered to field device.
g. Output current: Maximum current the module can supply to output loads.
h. Inrush current: Temporary high current during switching of loads.
i. Short circuit protection: Protection mechanism against output short
circuits.
j. Leakage current: Residual current flow when output is OFF.
k. Electrical isolation: Prevents voltage spikes from affecting logic circuits.
l. Points per module: Number of input/output terminals on a module.
m. Backplane current draw: Current consumed from the rack’s power supply.
38. Short explanation for each of the following analog I/O module
specifications:
a.Channels per module: Number of analog input/output circuits.
b.Input current/voltage range(s): Acceptable signal range (e.g., 4–20mA, 0–
10V).
c.Output current/voltage range(s): Range for analog output signals.
d.Input protection: Protection against high voltage or polarity reversal.
e.Resolution: Smallest detectable signal change (e.g., 0.3 mV).
f.Input impedance and capacitance: Affects signal accuracy and response.
g.Common-mode rejection: Ability to reject electrical noise on signal lines.
39. Compare the function of the CPU and memory sections of a PLC
processor:
CPU: Executes logic and manages operations.
Memory: Stores program code, data, and operating parameters.
40. PLC chassis power supply:
a. What conversion of power takes place within the power supply circuit?
Converts incoming AC to regulated DC for use by the PLC modules.

A
b. Explain the term hold-up time as it applies to the power supply.
It’s the time the power supply continues operating after input power is lost.
41. Explain the purpose of a redundant PLC processor:
To provide system reliability by switching to a backup processor if the main one
fails.
42. Describe three typical modes of operation that can be selected by the
keyswitch of a processor:
1.RUN – Executes the program.
2.PROGRAM – Allows editing.
3.REMOTE – Enables switching between run/program via software.
43. State five other functions, in addition to simple logic processing, that
PLC processors are capable of performing:
Data logging
Communication
Motion control
Analog processing
Arithmetic operations
44. List five important procedures to follow when handling static-sensitive
PLC components:
1.Use anti-static wrist straps.
2.Store in anti-static bags.
3.Avoid touching connector pins.
4.Work on grounded surfaces.
5.Handle modules by the edges.
45. Define each of the following as they apply to the memory element of a
PLC:
a. Writing: Storing new data into memory.
b. Reading: Retrieving data from memory.
c. Bits: Smallest data unit (0 or 1).
d. Location: Address where data is stored.
e. Utilization: Percentage of memory used.
46. With reference to the I/O image tables:
a. What information is stored in PLC input and output tables? Status of all
inputs and outputs.
b. Status of a closed switch? Stored as 1 (ON).
c. Status of an open switch? Stored as 0 (OFF).
d. Status of an output that is ON? Stored as 1 (ON).
e. Status of an output that is OFF? Stored as 0 (OFF).
47. Why do PLCs execute memory-checking routines?
To detect corruption or errors in memory and ensure safe operation.
48. Compare the memory storage characteristics of volatile and
nonvolatile memory elements:
Volatile: Loses data when power is off (e.g., RAM).
Nonvolatile: Retains data without power (e.g., ROM, EEPROM).
49. What information is normally stored in the ROM memory of a PLC?
The operating system and fixed firmware.
50. What information is normally stored in the RAM memory of a PLC?
The user program and variable data during operation.
51. What information is normally stored in an EEPROM memory module?
User programs and settings that must be retained after power loss.
52. What are the advantages of a processor that utilizes a flash memory
card?
1.Easy program backup and restore
2.Portable
3.No need for continuous battery backup
53. List three functions of a PLC programming terminal device:
1.Enter and modify programs
2.Monitor real-time operation
3.Upload/download programs
54. Give one advantage and one limitation to the use of hand-held
programming devices:
Advantage: Compact and easy to carry
Limitation: Limited screen and functionality
55. What is required for a personal computer to be used as a PLC
programming terminal?PLC programming software and appropriate
communication cable.
56. List four important capabilities of PLC programming software:
1.Program editing 2. Simulation and testing 3. Online monitoring
4.Diagnostics and troubleshooting
57. How many programs can a PLC have stored in memory at any one time?
Typically one active program, but some advanced PLCs allow multiple
program blocks.
58. Outline four functions that an HMI interface screen can be configured
to perform:
1.Monitor real-time data 2. Input setpoints or control variables 3. Display
alarms and notifications 4. Visualize process graphics
CH 3

NUMBER SYSTEMS Decimal (base 10) , Binary (base 2) , Octal (base 8) , Hexadecimal (base 16)
Each word (16 bit) is capable of storing data in the form of bits. A group of 8 bits is a byte. // The least significant bit (LSB) represents the smallest value and the most significant bit (MSB) represents the largest value.
If the memory size is 1 K word, it can store 1024 words
Output status file made up of single bits grouped into 16 bit words. <> One 16-bit output file word is reserved for each slot in the chassis <> Each bit represents the ON or OFF state of one output point.
In signed binary numbers, the left-most bit is the equivalent of a +/- sign. "0" indicates that the number is positive, "1" indicates negative.
To complement a binary number, change all the 1s to 0s and all the 0s to 1s. This is known as the 1’s complement form of a binary number.
2’s complement is the binary number that results when 1 is added to the 1’s complement.
Conversion is accomplished by writing the 4-bit binary equivalent of the hex digit for each position. // for octal we use 3- bit .
The binary coded decimal (BCD) system uses 4 bits to represent each decimal digit. The 4 bits used are the binary equivalents of the numbers from 0 to 9.
To distinguish the BCD numbering system from a binary system, a BCD designation is placed to the right of the units digit.
A thumbwheel switch is an input device that makes use of the BCD numbering system. The input module attached to the thumbwheel has one connection for each bit’s weighted value. Selected digit of decimal 8 →1000
Each position does not have a definite weight. This can be quite confusing for counting circuits, but it is ideal for encoder circuits(accurate control of the motion of robots, machine tools, and servomechanisms).
Since only one bit changes at a time, the Gray code is considered to be an error-minimizing code
ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. // ASCII input modules convert ASCII code input information from an external device to alphanumeric information that the PLC can process.
When data are transferred between PLCs, one of the binary digits may be accidentally changed from a 1 to a 0. // A parity bit is used to detect errors that may occur while a word is moved.
The parity bit may be a 0 or 1. Odd parity means that the total number of binary 1 bits in the character, including the parity bit, is odd. Even parity means that the number of binary 1 bits in the character, including the parity bit, is even.

PLC data comparison instructions are used to compare the data stored in two words. At times, devices may need to be controlled when they are less than, equal to, or greater than other data values or set points.

Operation Rule Example

Binary Use borrow if needed or apply 2’s complement to Example:

Subtraction the number being subtracted: 1011 (11)
1. Take 2’s complement of subtrahend. - 0101 (5)
2. Add to minuend. → 2’s complement of 0101 = 1011
3. Ignore final carry if present. 1011 + 1011 = 10110 → remove carry = 0110 (6)
Binary Similar to decimal multiplication: Example:
Multiplication 1. Multiply each bit of second number by the full 101 (5)
first number. × 011 (3)
2. Shift left for each new row. = 101 (×1)
3. Add all results. +1010 (×1 and shift)
= 1111 (15)
Binary Perform long division: Example:
Division 1. Compare divisor with bits of dividend from left. 1100 ÷ 0010
2. Subtract if possible (write 1), else write 0. = 12 ÷ 2
3. Shift and repeat. = 6 → Binary result = 0110

CH 4

The 1 and 0 can represent: ON or OFF Open or Closed True or False High or Low
A logic gate is a circuit with several inputs but only one output that is activated by particular combinations of input conditions.
The AND logic gate operates similarly to control devices connected in series // The OR logic gate operates similarly to control devices connected in parallel.
The exclusive-OR gate is commonly used for the comparison of two binary numbers. // NOT function used in conjunction with an AND gate on a low pressure indicator circuit.
hardwired logic refers to logic control functions that are determined by the way devices are electrically interconnected. // Hardwired logic is fixed and changeable only by altering the way devices are electrically interconnected
A ladder logic program consists of several rungs, each of which controls an output. // Each rung is a combination of input conditions (symbols) connected from left to right, with the symbol that represents the output at the far right.

Logic Implementation Styles Hardwired – 1- Relay, Electrical Ladder Logic 2 – Graphical, Programmed Word Logic 3– Bitwise Word Operations

EXTRA