📘 1.

Database Management System (DBMS)

🔹 Definition:

 A DBMS is software that helps in storing, managing, and retrieving data from a database
efficiently.
 It acts as a bridge between the user and the database, ensuring that data is stored securely and remains
consistent.
 It acts like a digital record keeper for big amounts of information.

Importance of DBMS (Database Management System)

1. Efficient Data Storage and Retrieval

 DBMS stores data in a structured format using tables.

 It allows quick searching, updating, inserting, and deleting of data using SQL queries.

 This saves time and effort, especially when handling large amounts of data.

2. Data Security

 DBMS provides features like user access control and password protection.

 Only authorized users can access or modify data, which helps to keep data safe from misuse or
hacking.

3. Data Consistency and Accuracy

 A DBMS reduces data duplication and errors by storing data in a well-organized manner.

 It ensures that everyone sees the same, updated data, which helps maintain data consistency across
the system.

4. Reduces Data Redundancy

 Redundancy means repetition of the same data.

 DBMS uses normalization to reduce data redundancy, saving storage space and avoiding confusion
caused by duplicate data.

5. Backup and Recovery

 DBMS supports automatic backup of data.

 In case of system failure or power cut, the recovery system can restore the data without loss.

 This ensures data is never permanently lost.

6. Multi-user Access
  Many users can access the database at the same time without problems.

 DBMS manages this using concurrency control, ensuring that data remains correct and no one’s
changes are lost.

7. Data Sharing

 Data can be easily shared among multiple users and applications.

 This is useful in organizations where departments need to collaborate and work with common data.

8. Improved Decision Making

 With clean, accurate, and timely data, businesses can make better and faster decisions.

 DBMS allows generation of reports and summaries, which help managers understand data patterns.

9. Data Independence

 In DBMS, the data and the application are separate.

 So, you can change the structure of data (like add a column) without changing the programs that use
the data.

10. Standardization

 DBMS follows standard rules and structures, making it easier to train people, manage data, and work
across systems.

Types of Databases in DBMS

A Database is a collection of data that is organized so that it can be easily accessed, managed, and updated.
Based on how data is stored, managed, and used, databases in DBMS are classified into several types.

Here are the main types of databases:

1. Hierarchical Database

 Data is organized in a tree-like structure.

 Each record has one parent and can have multiple children (like a family tree).

 Good for applications with one-to-many relationships.

 Example: File system structure, where folders have subfolders.

🟢 Advantages: Fast data retrieval.

🔴 Disadvantages: Not flexible, difficult to modify structure.
2. Network Database

 Similar to hierarchical, but here each record can have multiple parents and multiple children.

 Data is organized using graphs with links between records.

 Useful for complex relationships.

🟢 Advantages: More flexible than hierarchical.

🔴 Disadvantages: Complicated to design and maintain.

3. Relational Database

 Most widely used type.

 Data is stored in tables (rows and columns).

 Tables are related using keys like Primary Key and Foreign Key.

 Uses SQL (Structured Query Language) to manage data.

🟢 Advantages: Easy to use, flexible, and powerful.

🔴 Disadvantages: Can be slow with very large data if not optimized.

✅ Examples: MySQL, Oracle, MS SQL Server, PostgreSQL.

4. Object-Oriented Database

 Data is stored in the form of objects, just like in object-oriented programming (OOP).

 Each object contains data and methods/functions.

 Useful for complex applications like CAD, multimedia, etc.

🟢 Advantages: Handles complex data types well.

🔴 Disadvantages: Not as popular as relational DBs.

5. Distributed Database

 Data is stored across multiple locations or computers, connected through a network.

 Each location has its own database and DBMS, but they work as one logical system.

🟢 Advantages: Faster access for users in different locations, reliable.

🔴 Disadvantages: Expensive and complex to manage.

✅ Example: Used in banking systems, cloud applications.

6. Cloud Database

 A modern type of database that is stored and accessed via the internet using cloud platforms.

 Offers scalability, flexibility, and on-demand access.

🟢 Advantages: Accessible from anywhere, low setup cost.

🔴 Disadvantages: Depends on internet connection, possible security concerns.
✅ Examples: Google Cloud SQL, Amazon RDS, Microsoft Azure SQL.

7. NoSQL Database

 Stands for "Not Only SQL".

 Used for handling large volumes of unstructured or semi-structured data like text, images, videos,
etc.

 Does not use traditional table-based structure.

🟢 Advantages: Fast, flexible, handles big data well.

🔴 Disadvantages: Not suitable for applications needing strict structure or relationships.

✅ Examples: MongoDB, Cassandra, Redis.

✍️Conclusion (for exam answer)

Different types of databases are used depending on the type of data, application needs, and performance
requirements. Among all, the Relational Database is the most commonly used, but modern applications are
now using cloud and NoSQL databases as well.

✅ What is DBMS Language?

In DBMS, Database Languages are special types of commands or instructions used to interact with the
database.

They help us to:

 Create the structure of the database,

 Insert, update, or delete data,

 Get data from the database,

 Control access and permissions.

🧩 Types of DBMS Languages

DBMS languages are mainly divided into 4 types:

1. Data Definition Language (DDL)

👉 Used to define the structure of the database – like tables, columns, and data types.

📌 Common DDL commands:

 CREATE – to create a new table or database

 ALTER – to change the structure (like adding a column)

 DROP – to delete a table or database

 TRUNCATE – to remove all data from a table

2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

👉 Used to insert, update, delete, and retrieve data from the database.

📌 Common DML commands:

 INSERT – to add new data

 UPDATE – to modify existing data

 DELETE – to remove data

 SELECT – to read data from the table

3. Data Control Language (DCL)

👉 Used to control access and permissions in the database.

📌 Common DCL commands:

 GRANT – to give access

 REVOKE – to remove access

4. Transaction Control Language (TCL)

👉 Used to manage transactions in a database and make sure data stays correct.

📌 Common TCL commands:

 COMMIT – saves changes permanently

 ROLLBACK – undo changes

 SAVEPOINT – sets a point to roll back to later

✍️Conclusion (for exam)

So, DBMS languages are used to create, manage, and secure the database. Each type (DDL, DML, DCL, TCL) has
a specific role. Learning these helps in properly interacting with and controlling the database system.

📘 Definition of Data Dictionary

A Data Dictionary is a special file or collection of information in a DBMS that stores details about the
database structure.

It contains metadata, which means data about data — such as:

 Names of tables, columns

 Data types

 Sizes

 Constraints (like Primary Key, Foreign Key)

  Relationships between tables

 Who created or modified it and when

✅ Simple Meaning:

A data dictionary is like a reference book for the database.

It helps DBMS, developers, and users understand how the database is organized and what each part of it
means.

Types of Functions in DBMS :-

In DBMS, functions are built-in operations that help to perform calculations, modify data, or return useful
information from the database. They are mainly used in SQL queries to simplify complex tasks.

Functions in DBMS are mainly divided into two types:

🔹 1. Single Row Functions (Scalar Functions)

These functions work on a single row and return one result per row.

📌 Types of Single Row Functions:

a) String Functions

Used to manipulate text data.

Examples:

 UPPER(), LOWER() – change case

 LENGTH() – returns length of a string

 CONCAT() – joins two strings

b) Number Functions

Used to perform mathematical operations.

Examples:

 ROUND() – rounds off a number

 ABS() – absolute value

 POWER() – raises a number to a power

c) Date Functions

Used to manipulate date and time values.

Examples:

 SYSDATE() – returns current date

 MONTHS_BETWEEN() – difference in months between two dates

 ADD_MONTHS() – add months to a date

d) Conversion Functions
Used to convert data types.
Examples:

 TO_CHAR() – converts number/date to string

 TO_DATE() – converts string to date

🔹 2. Multiple Row Functions (Aggregate Functions)

These functions work on multiple rows and return one result for the group.

📌 Common Aggregate Functions:

Function Description

SUM() Adds values in a column

AVG() Calculates the average

COUNT() Counts number of rows

MAX() Finds the maximum value

MIN() Finds the minimum value

✍️Conclusion (for exam)

DBMS functions make it easier to process and analyze data.

 Single Row Functions help format and transform data one row at a time.

 Aggregate Functions are useful for summarizing data across multiple records.
These functions help in writing powerful and meaningful SQL queries.