Module - 01
Module - 01
2. Data Communications
Definition: Data communication refers to the process of using computing and
communication technologies to transfer data from one place to another.
Characteristics:
• Delivery: Data must be delivered to the correct destination.
• Accuracy: Data must be delivered accurately.
• Timeliness: Data must be delivered in a timely manner.
• Jitter: Variation in packet arrival time should be minimal.
Modes of Transmission:
• Simplex: Data flows in one direction only.
• Half-Duplex: Data flows in both directions, but only one direction at a time.
• Full-Duplex: Data flows in both directions simultaneously.(Imperva)
Diagram:
[Sender] ---> [Transmission Medium] ---> [Receiver]
3. Computer Networking
Definition: Computer networking is the interconnection of multiple devices, generally
termed as Hosts, connected using multiple paths for the purpose of sending/receiving data
or media.
Benefits:
• Resource Sharing: Printers, files, and internet access can be shared.
• Reliability: Data can be replicated across multiple machines.
• Scalability: Networks can grow with the organization.
• Communication: Facilitates communication via email, video conferencing, etc.
Example: A university campus network connecting various departments and providing
internet access to students and staff.
6. Network Topology
Definition: Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements (links, nodes,
etc.) in a computer network.
Types:
1. Bus Topology:
o Structure: All devices share a single communication line.
o Advantage: Easy to implement and extend.
o Disadvantage: A failure in the main cable can bring down the entire network.
2. Star Topology:
o Structure: All devices are connected to a central hub.
o Advantage: Easy to manage and troubleshoot.
o Disadvantage: Failure of the central hub can disable the entire network.
3. Ring Topology:
o Structure: Each device is connected to two other devices, forming a circular
pathway.
o Advantage: Data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet
collisions.
o Disadvantage: Failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take
down the entire network.
4. Mesh Topology:
o Structure: Every device is connected to every other device.
o Advantage: Provides high redundancy and reliability.
o Disadvantage: Expensive and complex to install and maintain.
5. Hybrid Topology:
o Structure: Combination of two or more different topologies.
o Advantage: Flexible and scalable.
o Disadvantage: Complex design and implementation.
Diagram:
[Bus] -- [Device1] -- [Device2] -- [Device3]
|
[Star]
|
[Hub]
/ | \
D1 D2 D3
7. Protocol Hierarchies and Design Issues of Layers
Protocol Hierarchies: In networking, functions are divided into layers, each built upon the
one below it. This layered approach allows for modular engineering, simplifies teaching and
learning, and facilitates troubleshooting.
Design Issues:
• Addressing: Each layer must have a mechanism to identify senders and receivers.
• Error Control: Ensuring data is delivered accurately.
• Flow Control: Managing the rate of data transmission between sender and receiver.
• Multiplexing: Allowing multiple applications to use the network simultaneously.
• Routing: Determining the optimal path for data to travel from source to
destination.(GeeksforGeeks)
Example: In the OSI model, the transport layer is responsible for flow control and error
handling, ensuring complete data transfer.
Definition:
• A service is a set of operations that a lower layer offers to the layer above.
• An interface defines how the upper layer accesses the services of the lower layer.
In networking, each layer in a protocol stack offers services to the layer above through a
well-defined interface.
Types of Services:
1. Connection-Oriented Services:
o Requires establishing a connection before data transfer.
o Ensures reliable and ordered delivery.
o Example: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
2. Connectionless Services:
o No prior connection setup.
o Unreliable but fast.
o Example: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Key Concepts:
Concept Description
- Each layer uses the service of the layer below through interfaces.
Conclusion:
Interfaces and services enable modularity, layer independence, and protocol transparency,
making modern network communication standardized and interoperable.
Definition:
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework developed by
the ISO (International Organization for Standardization) to standardize networking
protocols into seven layers.
Corresponding OSI
Layer Functions
Layers
2. Internet Layer Handles logical addressing and routing (IP). OSI Layer 3
Diagram:
TCP/IP Model OSI Model
---------------- --------------------------
Application ⇄ Application
⇄ Presentation
⇄ Session
Transport ⇄ Transport
Internet ⇄ Network
Network Interface ⇄ Data Link + Physical
Key Protocols:
• Application Layer: HTTP, FTP, DNS, SMTP, SNMP
• Transport Layer: TCP (reliable), UDP (fast, no reliability)
• Internet Layer: IP, ICMP, ARP, IGMP
• Network Interface Layer: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP
Example:
When you visit a website:
• HTTP (Application) sends request
• TCP (Transport) ensures reliable delivery
• IP (Internet) routes the data
• Ethernet/Wi-Fi (Network Interface) delivers frames physically
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force Protocols like TCP, IP, HTTP, SMTP
Organization Full Form Contribution
Examples of Standards:
• IEEE 802.3: Ethernet (wired LAN)
• IEEE 802.11: Wi-Fi (wireless LAN)
• HTTP/HTTPS: Web communication protocols (IETF)
• TCP/IP: Core internet protocol suite (IETF)
• MPEG, JPEG: Media transmission standards (ISO)
Diagram (Example of Standards in a Web Request):
User ↔ Browser ↔ HTTP (IETF) ↔ TCP/IP (IETF) ↔ Ethernet (IEEE) ↔ Router ↔ Internet