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Module - 01

The document provides a comprehensive overview of network and data communications, including definitions, key components, and types of networks. It discusses protocols, standards, and the OSI and TCP/IP models, highlighting their importance in ensuring interoperability and reliable data transfer. Additionally, it covers network topologies, protocol hierarchies, and the significance of interfaces and services in modern networking.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
8 views11 pages

Module - 01

The document provides a comprehensive overview of network and data communications, including definitions, key components, and types of networks. It discusses protocols, standards, and the OSI and TCP/IP models, highlighting their importance in ensuring interoperability and reliable data transfer. Additionally, it covers network topologies, protocol hierarchies, and the significance of interfaces and services in modern networking.

Uploaded by

jkns5kjyvd
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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1.

Overview of Network and Data Communications


Definition: Network and data communications involve the exchange of data between
devices through a transmission medium. This encompasses the hardware, software,
protocols, and infrastructure that enable data transfer.(Wikipedia)
Key Components:
• Sender: Initiates the message.
• Receiver: Intended recipient of the message.
• Message: The actual data being transmitted.
• Medium: The physical path (e.g., cables, air) through which the message travels.
• Protocol: Set of rules governing data communication.
Example: When you send an email, your computer (sender) transmits the message through
the internet (medium) to the recipient's email server (receiver) using protocols like SMTP.

2. Data Communications
Definition: Data communication refers to the process of using computing and
communication technologies to transfer data from one place to another.
Characteristics:
• Delivery: Data must be delivered to the correct destination.
• Accuracy: Data must be delivered accurately.
• Timeliness: Data must be delivered in a timely manner.
• Jitter: Variation in packet arrival time should be minimal.
Modes of Transmission:
• Simplex: Data flows in one direction only.
• Half-Duplex: Data flows in both directions, but only one direction at a time.
• Full-Duplex: Data flows in both directions simultaneously.(Imperva)
Diagram:
[Sender] ---> [Transmission Medium] ---> [Receiver]
3. Computer Networking
Definition: Computer networking is the interconnection of multiple devices, generally
termed as Hosts, connected using multiple paths for the purpose of sending/receiving data
or media.
Benefits:
• Resource Sharing: Printers, files, and internet access can be shared.
• Reliability: Data can be replicated across multiple machines.
• Scalability: Networks can grow with the organization.
• Communication: Facilitates communication via email, video conferencing, etc.
Example: A university campus network connecting various departments and providing
internet access to students and staff.

4. Protocols and Standards


Protocols: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It defines what is
communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated.
Standards: Standards are established rules or guidelines to ensure interoperability and
compatibility between devices and systems.
Common Protocols:
• HTTP: HyperText Transfer Protocol, used for web communication.
• FTP: File Transfer Protocol, used for transferring files.
• SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, used for email transmission.
• TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, foundational protocols for
the internet.(GeeksforGeeks)
Standard Organizations:
• IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
• ISO: International Organization for Standardization.
• IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force.(Wikipedia)
5. Types of Networks
1. LAN (Local Area Network):
• Scope: Covers a small geographical area like a home, office, or building.
• Example: Office network connecting computers and printers.(Plixer)
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
• Scope: Spans a city or a large campus.
• Example: City-wide Wi-Fi network.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network):
• Scope: Covers large geographical areas, often a country or continent.
• Example: The Internet.(Wikipedia)
4. PAN (Personal Area Network):
• Scope: Covers a very small area, typically within a range of a few meters.
• Example: Bluetooth connections between a smartphone and headset.
5. CAN (Campus Area Network):
• Scope: Connects multiple LANs within a limited geographical area.
• Example: University campus network.(GeeksforGeeks)

6. Network Topology
Definition: Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements (links, nodes,
etc.) in a computer network.
Types:
1. Bus Topology:
o Structure: All devices share a single communication line.
o Advantage: Easy to implement and extend.
o Disadvantage: A failure in the main cable can bring down the entire network.
2. Star Topology:
o Structure: All devices are connected to a central hub.
o Advantage: Easy to manage and troubleshoot.
o Disadvantage: Failure of the central hub can disable the entire network.
3. Ring Topology:
o Structure: Each device is connected to two other devices, forming a circular
pathway.
o Advantage: Data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet
collisions.
o Disadvantage: Failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take
down the entire network.
4. Mesh Topology:
o Structure: Every device is connected to every other device.
o Advantage: Provides high redundancy and reliability.
o Disadvantage: Expensive and complex to install and maintain.
5. Hybrid Topology:
o Structure: Combination of two or more different topologies.
o Advantage: Flexible and scalable.
o Disadvantage: Complex design and implementation.
Diagram:
[Bus] -- [Device1] -- [Device2] -- [Device3]
|
[Star]
|
[Hub]
/ | \
D1 D2 D3
7. Protocol Hierarchies and Design Issues of Layers
Protocol Hierarchies: In networking, functions are divided into layers, each built upon the
one below it. This layered approach allows for modular engineering, simplifies teaching and
learning, and facilitates troubleshooting.
Design Issues:
• Addressing: Each layer must have a mechanism to identify senders and receivers.
• Error Control: Ensuring data is delivered accurately.
• Flow Control: Managing the rate of data transmission between sender and receiver.
• Multiplexing: Allowing multiple applications to use the network simultaneously.
• Routing: Determining the optimal path for data to travel from source to
destination.(GeeksforGeeks)
Example: In the OSI model, the transport layer is responsible for flow control and error
handling, ensuring complete data transfer.

8. Interfaces and Services

Definition:
• A service is a set of operations that a lower layer offers to the layer above.
• An interface defines how the upper layer accesses the services of the lower layer.
In networking, each layer in a protocol stack offers services to the layer above through a
well-defined interface.

Types of Services:
1. Connection-Oriented Services:
o Requires establishing a connection before data transfer.
o Ensures reliable and ordered delivery.
o Example: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
2. Connectionless Services:
o No prior connection setup.
o Unreliable but fast.
o Example: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Key Concepts:

Concept Description

Service Access Point


A unique identifier used to access services at a particular layer.
(SAP)

Interface The boundary where two layers communicate.

A set of rules that define communication between peers in the same


Protocol
layer on different machines.

Diagram: Interface and Service Concept


+----------------------------+
| Layer N+1 |
+----------------------------+
↑ Interface
+----------------------------+
| Layer N |
+----------------------------+
↑ Interface
+----------------------------+
| Layer N-1 |
+----------------------------+

- Each layer uses the service of the layer below through interfaces.

Example: Web Browsing (HTTP over TCP/IP)

Layer Protocol Interface Service

Application HTTP Web request/response

Transport TCP Reliable stream service

Network IP Packet delivery


Layer Protocol Interface Service

Data Link Ethernet Frame delivery

Conclusion:
Interfaces and services enable modularity, layer independence, and protocol transparency,
making modern network communication standardized and interoperable.

9. OSI Reference Model

Definition:
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework developed by
the ISO (International Organization for Standardization) to standardize networking
protocols into seven layers.

Purpose of OSI Model:


• Standardize communication functions.
• Ensure interoperability between different systems.
• Help understand and troubleshoot networks.

The 7 Layers of OSI Model:

Layer Layer Name Function

7 Application User interface and application services (e.g., HTTP, FTP)

6 Presentation Data translation, encryption, compression

5 Session Establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions

4 Transport Reliable data transfer (TCP/UDP)

3 Network Routing and addressing (IP)

2 Data Link MAC addressing, error detection (Ethernet)

1 Physical Transmission of bits over physical medium


Diagram: OSI Model
+------------------+ ← Layer 7: Application
| Application |
+------------------+ ← Layer 6: Presentation
| Presentation |
+------------------+ ← Layer 5: Session
| Session |
+------------------+ ← Layer 4: Transport
| Transport |
+------------------+ ← Layer 3: Network
| Network |
+------------------+ ← Layer 2: Data Link
| Data Link |
+------------------+ ← Layer 1: Physical
| Physical |
+------------------+

Layer-Wise Example (Sending an Email):

OSI Layer Example Function

Application Email client (SMTP)

Presentation MIME formatting

Session SMTP session

Transport TCP ensures reliable delivery

Network IP routes data

Data Link Ethernet frame to router

Physical Signal on cable

Advantages of OSI Model:


• Modular design
• Easy troubleshooting and upgrades
• Promotes interoperability
• Independent development for each layer

10. TCP/IP Reference Model


Definition:
The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model is a conceptual
framework that defines how data should be transmitted over the internet. It was developed
by the U.S. Department of Defense and forms the foundation of the modern internet.
Layers of the TCP/IP Model:

Corresponding OSI
Layer Functions
Layers

1. Network Interface Handles hardware addressing and physical


OSI Layer 1 + 2
Layer transmission.

2. Internet Layer Handles logical addressing and routing (IP). OSI Layer 3

3. Transport Layer Ensures reliable data transfer (TCP/UDP). OSI Layer 4

Provides services for user applications


4. Application Layer OSI Layers 5–7
(HTTP, FTP, etc.).

Diagram:
TCP/IP Model OSI Model
---------------- --------------------------
Application ⇄ Application
⇄ Presentation
⇄ Session
Transport ⇄ Transport
Internet ⇄ Network
Network Interface ⇄ Data Link + Physical
Key Protocols:
• Application Layer: HTTP, FTP, DNS, SMTP, SNMP
• Transport Layer: TCP (reliable), UDP (fast, no reliability)
• Internet Layer: IP, ICMP, ARP, IGMP
• Network Interface Layer: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP
Example:
When you visit a website:
• HTTP (Application) sends request
• TCP (Transport) ensures reliable delivery
• IP (Internet) routes the data
• Ethernet/Wi-Fi (Network Interface) delivers frames physically

11. Network Standards


Definition:
Network standards are agreed-upon guidelines and technical specifications that ensure
interoperability, compatibility, and communication between devices and networks across
vendors and platforms.
Importance of Standards:
• Enables global communication
• Ensures compatibility between devices
• Facilitates technology innovation
• Prevents vendor lock-in
• Ensures reliability and security
Major Standard Organizations:

Organization Full Form Contribution

International Organization for


ISO OSI model, general protocols
Standardization

Institute of Electrical and Electronics LAN/MAN standards like IEEE


IEEE
Engineers 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.11 (Wi-Fi)

IETF Internet Engineering Task Force Protocols like TCP, IP, HTTP, SMTP
Organization Full Form Contribution

International Telecommunication Union – Telecommunication and


ITU-T
Telecommunication Standardization Sector broadband standards

Coordinates U.S. standards with


ANSI American National Standards Institute
international ones

Examples of Standards:
• IEEE 802.3: Ethernet (wired LAN)
• IEEE 802.11: Wi-Fi (wireless LAN)
• HTTP/HTTPS: Web communication protocols (IETF)
• TCP/IP: Core internet protocol suite (IETF)
• MPEG, JPEG: Media transmission standards (ISO)
Diagram (Example of Standards in a Web Request):
User ↔ Browser ↔ HTTP (IETF) ↔ TCP/IP (IETF) ↔ Ethernet (IEEE) ↔ Router ↔ Internet

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