Datahase Management Systems TECHNICAL | PUBLICATIONS — *4.Puntambekar axe Anil Thsest te Kromiedge =Y¥LLABUS ‘Management Systems - [CS3492] Unit. Relational Databases Panfe of Datahse System - Views faa - Data Mos - Databate Stem Avciectue IntBction 1 reationsldabass- Reletonal Mods} ~ Keys - Relatonl Alpsta ~ SQL {undenals- Advanced SQL fears + Embeded SQL- Dynamic SQL. (Chapter -1) Unit Database Design EnifyiRelationship model - £-R Diagrams - Enhanoes-ER Model ~ ER-o-Releional ‘Moppips - Functiooal Dependencies - Nonloss Decomposition - Fics, Second, Third Normal | Dependency Preservation ~ BoyoeiCodd Normal Foe - Mult-valued Dependeacies Icluch-Normal Form - Join Dependencies and Fih Normal Form. (Chapter ge Transactions 3 etion Concepts «ACID Propartis = Scheles- Sra - Transaction appt in [sed fr Cocamency- Cneomeasy com! Meso - Valdtin and Sepa lon = Mise ramiy cig Deadlock ailing - Recovery Concepts « Ranvery hase’ on deferred and immediate update - Shadow fh ARIES Aigo (Chaps 3) BEes e 5 {IV Implementation Techniques = File Organization + Organization of Recon in Bites - Data dictionary Storage - Oe Stone ning ting - Oe nds Bus nde iB index Fes ~ Stic Hashing - Dynamic Hashing = Query Processing Overvcw ~ pips fr Selection, Sring and join opemtons - Query cptinizatin sing Hepiscs Cos} Eftimaton Chapter 4) Unki¥ Advanced Topics ted Databases: Architecture, Data Storage, Tienacton Procestng, Query procestitg nd ptimizaton ~ NOSQL Databases : Introduction ~ CAP Theorem - Document Based ‘sib - Key vale Stores ~ Cotume Based Stes - Graph Databases, Database Sexaty issues - Access control based on privileges - Role Based access control - SQL i ~ Stastcal Duabase sory - low contral - Encryption and Pubic Key ures - Challenges. (Chapter -5J gs a = ‘Chapter-1 Relational Databases Part: Introduction to DEMS. (= Ito 114) 11 Introduction. 4.2 Purpose of Databese System... 13 Views of Data, 134. Data AbstraCthon nw 4132 Instances and Schemas. 1.33 Databace Languages 14 Data Models oe 15 Databise System Architecture : 7 1.6 Data Independence mun ae ‘ AS A Three Schema Architecture nua wk 1 Part Il: Relational Databases 18 Introcustion to Relational Databases. a ear) 419 Relational Model 1.20 Keys. 1.41 Integrity Constraints : 1.2.2 Entity Integrity Rule. een LALDReferental negety Rule wenn 1.12 Database integrity. 4.13 Relational Algebra 1.13.1 Relational Operations. cue. nein Part Il: Structured Query Language. 1.14 SOU Fundamentals. L141 Data Abstraction, 112422 Basic Schema Definition BE21 C380 enn 1.2422 ineetonsa oe aaace Die se 1026 Deton ve 1142,7 egal Operon sae “2 ratzs overt ouse - 328 oe" - occa an set “s 5 ASB 114 386 Src - vs 22432 varies on Muli Reto 168 1.14.4 Additional Basie Operations 1-86 {LN Domain and Key Constraint be 4.186 Scrng Operations. Le 8.7 52 Opeth ONS nn os ue 6.8 Aggregate Functions va LBL Bote At97¢4808 nnn 118.2 Use of Soup By sad Hein Cl eens 11635 Nested Queries. ee 1.14.20 Macifcation of Databases. Advanced SOL Features: 1135. 1Embedéed Sab . 1.15 Two Marks Questions with Answers (2-1) to 2-74) Chapier -2 Database Design Part: Entity Relationship Model 2.1 Introduction to Entity Relationship Model -2 24.1 Design Phases. at 22 2.12 ERModel 2-3 2.2 Mapping Cardinalty.. 2-6 23 ER Diagrams coco an 2-7 23. Mapping Cardinaty Representation using ER Diagram, 29, 232 Ternary Relationship. 7 See 2.33 Blnary and Ternary Peatlonships. aw 234 Weak Entity Set ae sence 2-H Medel 2-23 2A Specialization and Generaf2tI08 eons 242 Constraints on Specilzation/Generafzetion. 2.43 Aggregation ae 25 Examples based on ER Diagram. 26 ER to Relational Mapping. 2.5. Mapping of Entity Set to Relationship, 7 2.32. Mapping Re'stionship Sersiwithout Consraints) to Tables 283. Mapping Relationship Set With Constraints to Tables. 2.64 Mapping Weak Entity Sets to Relational Mapping 2.55. Mopping of Specialization /Generalzaion(EF8Corstuct), 10 Roational Maping on. : | Part Il: Relational Database Design 27 Concept of Relational Database Deslzn. = vm 2.8 Functional Dependencies. : 28.1, Computing Closure Set of Functional Depend6n6ynunneroe 282 Cenonicel Cover oF Mini COVE ennmnenn 29 Concept of Redundancy and Aromas. 2.10 Decomposition eee 2.40.1 Nowlass Decomposition or as-is Jin i 2.40.2 Dependency Preservation i 2.31. Normal Forms 2.1L. First No-mal Foto 2.11.2 Second Norma form. 2.41.3 Thi Normal Form. 2.12 Boyce / Codd Notrnai Form (BCNF).. : 2.13 Multivalued Dependencies and Fourth Normal Form, 2:14 Join Dependencies and Fifth Normal Form ae mere 2.45 Examples on Normalization so 2.26 Two Marks Questions with Answers. Chapter 5: Transactions B- Hoe! Part |: Introduction to Transactions 3.1 Transaction Concepts3 Transaction tates... a4 Schedutes 4 seriaicatiy.. : ||, 35.4. confieesetaizabity 352 View eriatzaity. 4.6 transaction Suppor in SQL. | Part 4 Concurrerey Contr. 46 Need for Concurrency... T toangroon. : |) 322 wnyoowe reed? [| 292 smplotsc tears No tw Phase Locking. 2301 Teta Two eer || 2302 c.comesion 4:1 Tineranp td Pete 4h mansion concureney ono! 2 valoaon an Srapsot ation. | asza vititen ted rece. ||, 3.13.2 Snapshot isolation, 16 Mae rary Lig 4h wotaton tera {4 bea. onan | Partill: Recovery: 4447 Recover Conceps.. 2474 FalweClenion sn 72 Sree 2173 Reowey wh once aac | 3.17.4 Shadow Copy Technique. f 1 recovery Teclges 3,49 Recovery based on Deferréd and immediate Update | 3.19. Conept of a 3422 NO nd UNDO Oprton wo | 3.19.3 Wite Ahead Losing Rule 3.19.4 Deferred Detabese muincaton 3.19.5 immesiate Database Moifcation 3.20 Shadow. Paging 3.21 ARIES Algorithm . 3.22 TWo Marks Questions with Answers, Chapter -4 “Implementation Techniques @-1)t0 4-68) Part: File Organization and Indexing 4.1 RAD 4.1 FAD Levels 4.2 File Organization i 4.3 Organization of Re:ordsin Files 4.3.1 Sequential Fle Organization, 43.2. Multstable ustrin Fle Organization, 4.4 Data Dictionary Str at 44.1 Active and Passive Data Dictionaries. 4.5 Column Oriented Sco-age. 4.6 Indexing and Hashing, 47 Ordered indices... 4.7.1 Primary and Clisterod ndias.. 47.2 Dense and Sparse indices. 47.3 Single and Mubidevel indices, 474 Secondary Incics.. 48 B+ Tree index Fle... 4.8.1 Insertion Operstion 4.82 Deletion Operaticn.. 4.83 Seaich Oparation.. 4.9 B Tree Index Fie 4.10 Concept of Hashing. an 4.30.1 Basic Terme uzedin Hosking. 4.11 Static Hashing 431.8 Open Mashing.we fi sane AAD 1: Query Processing 3 ver Processing revi ; cs gt ease of Ques ot 2 : s. 4-56 ion Sr rn partons ‘ ion, Srna ~ tse 2 asin fe Sr peat, “7 53st an Oo F set £25 Query Optninnon sn Heist Com Eman ot 4.26.2 Cost Sased Esato oe nnnn nnn S231 Date Repnon 5122 bm mersaon a 5.14 Transaction Processing 5442 Faure Modes. Corp 5.15 Query Processing and Optimization 5.2 NOSQL Databases.. 5.2.4 Introcuetion, oes 5.22 Need 5.23 Features.. se 5.2.4 Comparison berween RDBMS and NoSOL. 53 CAP Theorem ‘Types of NoSOL Database. 5.4 Keys 8 S0"8 reo | | | | | | ok ived Model Question Paper 5.4.2 Document sated Systems S43 Column Based Systems. 544 Graph Databases, 5.5 Database Security 5.6 Security issues, 5.6.1 Typesot Security 562 Threststo Database. 5.63 Control Measures ‘ 5.64 Database Security and DBA 5.7 Access Control Based on Privileges or Discretionary Access Control 5.8 Role Based Access Control 5.9 SQL Injection... 5.10 Statistical Datab Security. 5.21 Flow Control SAL Conver Chan aes 5.42 Encryption and Public Key infrastructures... 5.12.1 Types of Cryptography 5.12.2 Digital nature 5.13 Challenges..j eee 5.14 Two Marks Questions with Answers. @Notes UNIT ] Relational Databases ee aeRO Syllabus | Pupze of Datobase Sytem » Views of dota - Dato Medals - Datahore Siem Archnecnce -| Inricion relational databases © Relaonel Meds = Koy Relational sige 9 | Findanetas- Advanced SOL foures - Embed’ SOL- Donate So. | Contems Part: Introduction to DBMS 14 tnrodcton 12 Popes of Bettas Sy an-o.--utlyO7, 12, De-04, take 8 13 Ven of D0 sennnnninnnnninnnnnnn Maybe Mars 16 44 Date Mette. Decot ey98, Mars 13 18 Doabese Siem Acetic sn May 293.16,607, za De 08,17, 18a Mos 16 16 Data ndopencence 17 Three Schema Architecture Partil: Relational Databases 18 19 110 ut 12 113 -nDee-05, Warts 10 si ay08 04, 05,14,15,16,97,48, - nnn 86-0206, 07,08,19,15,16,47, Mons 16 | Parti: Structured Query Language $44 SOL Fundam e08 co nen D86-14,5,17,19, M99 150651718 aa MES 15 IBY 14,97, Dee48,1697, Marks 8 148 Advenced SOI. Festus. | | | { | | | | | Le ences | =Detanase Management Sytens 4:2 Seiaos! Oetsbenee ii EE inveauction + Definition : A Detebase Management Sysitm (DBMS) ie collecion of interested data and various programs that are used to handle that dat «The primary goal of DEMS isto provide a woy to store and retrieve the required information om the database inconvenient and efficient manner ain the database to important tasks sre conduced Define the siruetute fo storage of information (88) Provide mechanism for manipulation of information. + Inaddition, she databese systems must ensure the safety of information stored Database System Applications of applications that make use of database systems Some of the eations Accounting : Daiabase systems are used in maintaining information employees, salaries, and payroll taxes. ‘Manafacturing : For management of supply chain and tracking production of in factories Gatabese systems are maintained. 3) For maintaining customer, product and purchase information the databases are 4) Banking : In banking sector, for customer information, accounts and loan and for performing barking applications the DBMS is used, 5) For purchase on credit cards and generation of monthly statements database systems are useful 6) Universities: The database systems are used in universities for maintaining student information, course registration, and accounting. 7) Reservation systems : in atline/rallway reservation systems, the database is ueed to _maintain the reservation and schedule information. 8) Telecommunication: In telecommunications for keeping records ofthe calls made, generating monthly bills, maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards, and. storing information about communication networks the databese systems are used. Database tina Systems £3 EE Purpose of Database. System 1) Aéalton afew data 2) Updating the data 53) Deleting the date As per the aon of new need, separate application progsams org feounld to rite Thus ashe ime goes by, the eystem aquires more fies and sor ferion il iene + Tis ferent spre cv opt store Tharheleposeing spon cone cee i) te i + The system the pemment records in les nd it meh ene application programs to extract or add the records, he Bele renga mages Stars le procesg 5a se However, sucha ytem has many drawbacks. Leta cas them Dlsdvsign of Titer! le renting Sean Thetadtonl sytem has lowing dladvaniges: / 1 Data redundancy: Deia redundancy mens duplication of data at te tis Since diferent pogamiers ate een fee ahd tne hee that oe Acvantages = = & 1 Spe: Ie sip to dew ER gram hon weber nes and ei 4) Easy to understand : The design of ER diagram is very logical and hee they ate easy to design and understand, UD Effetive: tis effective communion to io) Integrated The ER model can be en iegpate wth Reloonal model 2 Ty omni: ean leet pe oe Disadvantages I 1) Loss of information: While dewing ER mel sine informaticn can biden ot ae ar 1 x { Elecarical 5 pom sews ft Abate or columas 135 apart of able at contains several rca ctf et Le Get 3 } Gan be broken down nt several smal parts of cts acum sates, For exe he Se 2bove table consis of fur athe such se ROUNo Name Marks nd Phone i TECIBICAL PUBICATIONS? nearer aece TEDINGAL PUBUCATIONS® orient xinope T 11.20 alana! Dtabasss "Rakion schema A ration sehora describes the strctore ofthe relation, with the | und ofthe elation fe: name of table) its attributes and their names and type. | Rélition Instance: It refers to specific instance of relation Lc. containing a specific set Mme] wwe [we] | | Tae De | fama] Tome || mmm | cee oo | sess aout auos Sy en ene se ou Toners (Pi oe Deine ti 59 vine don ie fe fe on a on 9 Secs forcmiplemab Spc ste Phyto | abkcatnses a paoeeh mdpe tan pp cnn | acd picomotapcts hn romee ar eae -Cnr | salaly table that contains NULL he cecimple in above tbl, the domain of tribute Marks is sto all possible + Tmpe | JobNeme | Salay | Commission ‘Ho ‘Seles 5a | 32000 oH Null i 25000" ‘80 or Ses | oD e Bs [Sle i00 Tall pee : It ia nothing but tolal number of columns present in the relational database. Detebsse Management Syetims 1 Cardinality: 1 total amber of rupes pres sven table the cardinality is3 FERED fi ing ei No of Columns DNoofrepes ec trets aa | ‘it) Differ altrinates: = ‘poi oCorinaty 108 2012 ; 2m 2h a ee ee Fea algo Seton: iN of Cotunns=6 i) Noo Tuples=3 i) Different attributes are StafflD, Name, Sex, Designation, Salary, DO} iv) Degrees Total number of eohemns = 6 ¥) Cardinality "Total number ofrows =3 Koys ‘Keys are used to specify the tuples distinctly in the given relation. Various types of Keys used in relational model are ~ Supetiey, Candidate Keys primary keys foreign keys, Let us discuss them with suitable example ‘D Super Key(SKi: It sa set of one or more atributes within a table that can uniquely identify each record within a table. Fer example ~ Consider the Scadant table 2¢ jvlen Student table — follows — Rolo | Name ‘Marks ‘Phone Rego | Phone Nene] Maas Rr | TT aka SS oa [Tap imam | | | Rida } Bazza) BB S } sl 7 = ail a6 see a i ep ae Se nil a Fig, 1104 Student TESnOGaL PIBDCATONS® an pines woalebose Noregemant Systems re elon Databases i E | 2 seperkey oan be represented as follows en Satie Pose mame) Mee elperey a ~ RagNo. Rollo, Phone Name ft Ecos El wr cor | umn) ma i [ommnmn [po a ea om. | wemaan |e / if | mai |} oe || 3 om | sesso | coe / eo wee [Tm ne |e pH | * | Other then the above mentioned primary key, various possible primary ays can be (ollNo), RollNo,Name), (RollNe, Phone) | ‘The relation samong super key, candidat key and primary canbe denoted by (Candidate Key = Super Key - Primary Key Roles for Primary Key Cissy us the (RegNo} and (RoliNo,Phone,Name) we can identify the records uniquely but (Name, Marks) of two students ean be same, hance this combination not ‘recesserily help in idertlying dhe record uniquely 2) Candidate Key(CKQ : The candidate key is a subset of superset. tn other words date key is 2 single attribute or least or minimal combination of attributes that uniquely identify each -eoord in the table. For example - in above given Student ‘bie, the candidate key is RegiNo, (RellNo,Phone]. The cendiciate key can be 4) The primary key may have one or more attributes, (i) There is only one primary key in the relation. (ii The value of primary key atibute can not be NULL. consane oe (iv) The value of primary key atibute does not et changed a si 1 Alert hey: The lity i a and ay which 0 cheb by he wom |] mime [Pee te aa database designer to uniqualy enti the tuples. For example ~ | | ‘ . : penny I wea_[{| or | amo [pam « o Aine 1 [wee [[] ca | same [| ove = — a eat ) | | mame | prone . 7 ios | [foo | sos | ooo = 1 1 ee tl Rot 1 oot ttt 1 i EO pana EE «| wa ||} oe. | maim || oes wy ‘Thus every candidate key is asuperkey but every saperkey is not a candidate Key. a z= sessosees || coe elf 3) Primary Key(PK) : The primary key is 2 candidate key chosen by the database ive oo too al esigner to identify the tuple in the relation uniquely. For exemple ~ Consider the = {following representation of primary key in thie student table 5) Foreign key: Foreign key is single attbate or colton of atufbutes inline table that refers to the primary hey of other table. + Thus foreign keys refer to primary key. "Bo LATO ws ps rn ee A PLBCATIN aDutebsse Manspement Syston |) Detabe nonegeront Systems 04 Relation Databases a Retains! Oombeses that table, they must know the value af the key fr that row. ence it i necessary that primary key should not have the NULL value. 4) The table containing the pritnary key is called parent table and the table containing {foreign key is called child table. [Ld sample FETE neterentialintogsty Rue oo + Referental inegsty refers to the acuraey and consiseney of na a =a] relationship. : (Cae If 7 + In relaticship, datas faked even fo or more table. This is ahieved | ieice= 1 ‘avg the foreign hy in he ascot tble references primacy iets an he Cie T= Primary - or parent - table). Because of this, we need to ensure the: data or both tee i Sides of he relationship remain intact ‘+ The referential integrity mule states that “whenever a foreign key valve is used it wd, atin ‘ust reference a valid, existing primary key inthe patent table mm above example, we can see that two tables are linked. For instance we could casi find out thatthe ‘Staden} CCC has opted for CompaterSci course! * Example : Consider the situation vrhere you have two tables : Employess ane Managers. The Employees table has a foreign key attbute entitled ManagedBy, ‘hich points tothe recore for each employee's manager in the Managers table Referential integrity enforces the following three roles §) You cannot add @ record t Points to a valid record in the Managers table. Referental integ: insertion of incorrect details into 2 table. Any opera | | a |) with suitable example. EBBd itogrty constraints ‘atase integrity means correctness or accucy of data inthe databte. A database ry lave numberof invert contrat For example 5) the primy key fora ctor he Manager lable he Empioye ID and Department TD mus oni of vo digi | records inthe Eamployees table are odie | Every Employee Dust str with eer. AIF a record in the Managers tale is deleted, at comesponding referential integrity rule fils. ‘Tee integrity constraints are classified based on the concept of primary key and Employees table are deleted. || fordign Key. Let us discuss the classification of constraints based on primary key and Advantages of Reforontil ntogtiy | ord key os otows- Referential integrity offers following advantages: 1) Prevents the entry of duplicate data ii) Prevents one table from pointing to a nonexistent field in another table iil) Guaranteed consistency between “partnered” tables, fv) Prevents the deletion ofa record thet contains a value referred to by a foreign key in another table | Entity Integrity Rule i rule states that “ Inthe réiations, the value of attribute of primary key can notbe ~ | rut | the NULL represents a value for an atsbute thats cnrntlyunloown of isnot | ape ble for this tuple. The Null are always to deal wich incomplete of esceptona | eon |) The primy bey ve helping esi eer ow inte table Ts the ‘seb of the database want to retrove any ow from the table or perform any action on ¥) Prevents the addition of a recard to a table that contains 2 foreign key unless sheve fs 2 primary key in the linked table TESRNCAL PIB rs habe TER RUGS wpa oSDrscase Maragecers Stes Le primary key of another able, eo tables. For oample— a ae Se es a Seen | Ca Das | Cior ‘Note thatthe "CustID" eclumm inthe "Order" table points tothe "CustID” column in ‘the "Customer" ble: ‘The “CustiD" column in the "Customer" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the “Custanies" sable ‘The *CustID” column in the "Order" tables a FOREIGN KEY in the "Onder" table. ‘The table containing the foreign key is called the child table, and the table containing the primary key is called the referenced or parent table, * “The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy links between tables. Datebasa Managemen Systane a2 '» The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents invalid date from being, the foreign Key column because it has to be one ofthe values conta points to + There are fo formal ques languages assocaled with relational model ae elasona alge an elation sss ae * Daf Robin ar x psd ey agus ih ile access date ables to end daa in diferent ways . + The queries reentin he relationa ged ce denoted using operators + Every operatorin aon algebra acepsreaona instances aes) 2 ip returns elton! instance act For cample | sare | ‘ewe itn igen i Steencet fom oe Seen | 8 ‘eateraineance apa” 2 = [Seem | s See: ramee a [ewe [8 of sere witage 18 (ovr Fen ‘sees step step eerie compet dsl noes, tone which operators re api inthe query. at +A sequence of relationaalzebe operations forms a relational algebra oxfessen, ‘whose ‘elt wil also be a elation that epreenthe result of a databatl quan ‘he By composing the operons in rational exressans the complex lon ch be defied iH ESC PRM rome TEGO PLRIEA TONS? mp ae1s etna doses Relational Operations Sagat pate 3 Gated rious types f relational operations areas follows | mame | I Relational Operations = | Kem | I 1 Isbecion a) | = ence] anacion c {eearea} [Seine] [oma | i fine] [eaiion pectin: | is opration sued to etch the rows oF tuples rom the abeelaton). Syntax: Thesyntaxis etzeaton) ‘Were o represen the select operation. The predate denotes some logic using | stich the date from the elaton(abe) is selected, | Forexample- Conder the relation sient os flows [Sa ssame [sae | seer] 7) Rem [a] sae | 2 | Sym | 8 | Mee | ree =| me [Fest] [oe |S] ig. 183 Start abe (Query Fete students with age more than 18 ve Wea aeitin retond algebras CfStden) Treoupet vibe. pa] Vie] Loe} J can also specify conditions using and, oF operators, (2) Projection + Project operation is used to project only a certain set of attbutes of 2 relation. That ‘means f you want to see only the names all of the students in the Student table, then you can use Projct operation, ‘+ Thus to display particular column from the relation, the projection operator is used. + He will only project or show the columns or attributes asked for, and will also remove duplicate data from the colurnns, + Syntax: FCT, 2... (9 where Cl, C2 ete are attribute names(column names). + For example - Consider the Student table given in Fig. 1132. (Query : Display thorname and age all the students ‘This canbe written i relational algebra as Flame (Stent) Abuvestatement will show us only che Name and Age columns for 2 the rows of data snSracent table, [ome age | Rm |soyim |e [sea 6 [eee] a g1a32 (Canesten poset: ‘+ This is used to combine data from two different relations(tables) into one and fetch ‘dais from the combined relation. + Syatax :AxBDatabase Warapemen Sywers 2 example: ste | [Ta Tmom [oe] [ [a Teme ed | © Query : Find the names ofall the students who have reserved isbn = 005. To satis this query we need to excract data from two table. Hence the carcesian product operator is used as (cesienit tome, eenetsvena(Student « Reserve) ‘Asan outpal we wil get sid] ane] oe Note: tha although the si columns is sume, its repeated, (©) Set operations : Various 53: operations are - union, intersection and set-difference. ‘Let us understand each of these operations with the help of examples (3 Union ‘© This operation is used to fetch data from two relationsitables) oF temporery relation oasult of another operation). © For this operation to work, the relations(tables) specified should have same ‘umber of attributes(columns) and sane attribute domain, Also the duplicate tuples are automatically eliminated from the result, fo Syntax: AUB © where A and B are relations. there are two tables student and book as fellows © Forexample © Query : We want to display both the snedent name and book name} dhe inlesthen Tlayanu(Student) U Tho, (Book) * 6 imersetion: © This operation i ted to ich daa fom both tables which coms theses 2 Syiiax: AN \ here A and Bare tons © Example — Consider two tables - Student and Worker | Student Worer | Nae | ta =< ABA | Computers ae: EBB [Mechanical | [ahah coc | Ga jad DOD) wi a © Query : If we want to find out the names of the students who ave won Hh cemmpany ten i : a tedert) Ta (Work) -—— rece} a | Fae | poo | | (Gi) SetDitference : The result of set difference operation is tuples, wh resent in one relation bu ae notin the secon relation. Eos ERTS a ga EE TEERMEAL SLEATONS™ pa noeExample : Consider to relations Full Time Employee and Part Time Employee, want to find out all the employee working for Fullime, then the set difference or is used ~ a‘ ‘TeopaneFull Time Employee) - Typane Part Time Employee) ) Join : The join operation is used to combine information from two or more ions. Formally join can be defined as a cross-product followed by selections and tions, joins erise mach more frequently in practice than plain crose-products, The peratr used a8 pe Join ere are three types of joins used in relational sigebra types of j Conditional join : This is an operation in which information from two tables is combined using some condition and this condition is specified along with the join operator. An. Bx ofA xB) Duteosee MonogoentSyaome 20 ete tances Here there are two conditions 2s 5} Gtudentsid = Reservesid) and if) (Reserveisbn = 005) which ate joined by a operator. Now we can use ot instead of above statement and write it as— (Gtudent oapmenuié Romney Rennes 9 Reserve)) ‘The result will be- 18) Equijoin : This i a kind of join in which there is equality condition between two attibutes{columns) of relationsttables). For example - If there are tivo table Book and Reserve table and we want to find she book which is reserved by ‘having isbn 005 and name ofthe book is ‘DBMS, then: Thus» is defined to be a cros-procuctfllowed by a selection Note that the aa j oe | cnt canst ats fb Awa econ Cantey woe [ieee [aaa] area | Ferenc cater or betuand ees hoa [as one |e C= | oe) a | ke | pote i student Reserve | | Le ec) Po» | [a [oone [oe | imate eat] i | . Fam | ° 2 i a {cree DBMS’ (Boo cain «tome iny Reserve) LST eee Ps | ae Gc ‘Then we get 3-1 Sean [6 3 a wine | ee | oe [Se] | | [bas 2 Tea) | | | CaS wz 7 | een} ‘f we want the names of students with sid(Student = sid(Reserve) and isbn ~ 005, ‘we can write itusing Cartesian product as - (Cuseoea stent eee -cy(Student = Reserve)) TESRRAL PUBLICATIONS anon roe ‘Natural Join : When there are common columns and we have to equate these ‘common columns then we use natural jin. The symbol for natura! join is simply ‘without any condition. For example, consider two rbles— TEENA PIRI TON-an aonebess Macarena: Stee $3 Book [Bin] treme | Autor | | es pas Tome | | ee He gereoaa aera ) = Reta | | (ESSEC Now if we want to list the books that are reserved, then thet means we want to match Bosksishn wih Reserveisbn. Hence wl be simply Boos 2 Rsene 5 Duter Join ‘There are three types of outer joins ~ Left outer join, Right outer join and Fall outer win @) Left Outer join + This isp type of join in which all the recoris from left table are returned ancl the ‘ratched records from the right able gets retuned. + The resultis NULL from the right side, if there sno match. + The symbo! uted for left ter join is me phicelly represented 2s follows @) All rows from babe © This canbe eee + Foreximple- Consider ro bles Sade and Course as flows Sinden oe a [Sans] PRIN cone i eae 1 | eempaier 2 | 3B 3 | Beet (er fee] Ts [rea [rte i | | ase eran Sys 1295 ise “The renal of et outer join wi be [eave [Name [emo] fo [aaa | Computer 2 | 3 [coc | tect bee | NULL (2) Right Outer join + This ise type of join in which all the records from right table are ret matched recerds from the left table gets cetumed. ‘+ The result is NULL from the left side, f there is no match. ‘+The symbol used for right outerjoin iso + This can be graphically represented as follows < ‘Altrows rom right be fd only matting rows, from ght ati + For example Consider hwo tables Student aind Course as follows = taent Course Role [Rime] [RAINS [Connetaine a AAA a | Computer 2 | ae 3] Bleewieal 3 | ccc} 5 Cua 6 | Mechanical ‘The result of Right outer join wil be RollNo | CouseName [Name 1 | Computer fF AAA 3. | Becnieat [coc 3 Gat NUE, 6 | Mechanical [NULL |he \(Full Outer join | 2 al oer jon ll tuples from both selatons are induded in he result respective o the matching orion [Mis deoted by > [Graphic iteanbe represented as [Ait rows rom both ‘ables For example - Consider two tables Student and Course as follows ~ Student Course RollNo | Nome RolINe tt ‘CourseName 1. [ AAA 2 | Bae 3 3. [ccc 3 6 Computer Bletical Cea ‘Mechanical result of Right outer join will be RollNe a _{ AAA Name | GourseName Computer Blectical | Gail ‘Mechanical NULL NULL [ats ommonvomy [ana ARIGHT OUTERIONBON ary | Aways | AFULLOUTERJONBON.=y | AmyB TECHIE PISA op Br nan ie zed foie ae ate eon cin se Miehauyneepser ene cco ee ete ee ae | suancniednpsenene | plStudent names, Myzmn(Student)) ( Divide operation ‘The division operator is used when we have lo evaluate queries sshich contain the keyword ALL, Its denoted by A/B whete & and B are instances of sation, Formal Definition of Division Operation : The operation AJB is define ag the set of ai) » values (i the form of untary tuples) such that fr every y vale in (a tuple of B there is atuple cxy>in a. For example - Find ali the customers having accounts in ll the branches, For ‘consider two tables ~ Customer and Account as at Account | Castomer Branch e Nov A/B will give us Name Eanes Here We check all the branches from Account table against all the names fom Customer fable. We can then find that only customer A has all the sccounts in all che branches: Eee ECE CEECECE REECE TEGAIGH PURLCATION Spins eseDutebess Marenorant Stone tae ola Otabaree ESREIRRERE creer parsiig somdars Frito ane it noe ‘hid marine) feo inh a 6 smc f salons oho hoe reserce edb (ip) Fond the mages of sors who hace reseroed ot est ne bet Solutio OO TicaalCasey Reserves) Sailors) @ ©, Boats)» Reserves» Sailors) ‘eal Cason (6 TEC yng SABO") = Thal (Core Basis) Reserves) (9 1T__{Sallrs 2 Reserves) Consider he jllooing erosions hick use. the result of vedas lgebme operation a3 the input in another operon Far cick exjression: exp intwards what.” ‘He cxeesion does : oon 2) eave Pmt) Tp, sue sbi rakes) 2 asians Solution a Soluce each student who takes at least ene course in 2008) display the student information along with the information about What the courses the student took , Select each student who takes at least one course in 2008, display the student Information along with she information about what the courses the student took but the selection must be before jin operation. Display the ID, Name and Course. id ofall the students who took any course in the "EOL PUBLENTIONSS- agp oon Database Managemen Syst ns Solution = 1 Mg ennai OPRMEBD) = Three Pra nner (bortower > Loan] (ub, tle, book 3) imuymann roar atest ater 4 Book) 4) Tes ymca flat author) ~ Tsou (600%) = thor) 1B). (Tamura sae (author x author pub) DARI. Tl ayy P8) be Catala) PAR2, Th Ogg Gr pes POPS) Catalogs) RIOR? A) PARI Hg, pC ataloge) Ty Oey P22) PROT Ty Gesu re) 4 Catalogs) RIURD te ae a ie tu a ot Sage 2SManagement Syetms ) exrs.catoee | px caalog) |G guPtipterasnsavre ROR Consider the relational database ple personae, tet, ty) | vor (nesan-name, company names) |eompany (compamyenam city) maanages (person-name, menegerame) whee primary ays are undetne. Woce nee ae | Ip Find the names, strokes, and cts of siden of al employees oho werk for 1) Bist Bank Corporation and earn more then 200,000 per ean | in the sang cate ind the marnes of ll employes i thi database coho li for which they work eam Ocpupeen Ft Copia Ot) vara {Sy "e Cg yD WOTK BS employe)) oem WOrkS > employe P compny)) RE bc ising retinal 1) Saneenisttoan) 2) Theme Chloe) 3) nmerane(borrower}U Mcunan onl depesitor) 2) son sumef00r 03867} T coer noe eestor) 5) Teaerne Ontramew tye (Stieaerbentaunte(POFFOWEE Soon) 9) Pleemermel Crone rn (Oar ne venbertantancunt(OOCFOSEE Presa depesite) 2) Tcseer amd Soeninaonesterte (arene tanaandrenneambe DOTOW % fan} Uestonreane{depositor)) onside the rltianal datas as gies elon. Give an expression fn anal algebt 20 express each oft following wierigs. ~~ Enplowe oereon nang) Works (personne, company, slay) . amen comping name) Manages (rerton i, vonager ne) © (0) End the namesof ll employees in his tebe wo in he same cily es th comping © for which ey ook, (0) Fd te res, sireet ares eid ce of rsidence oft meployes wt sors for FRCL Corporation anu ars more tre $10,000 per anrum.” =~ ston 1waneand Works Employee Company) 2) evan ee Compensation (Works m Empiofee)) Serer c (Get Salonents by relationDescdase Messgernet Setation : s-sune, blonace>1OO0(Beanch Account = Deposit) 11) branch_name Snneeer(ACCUN) PESEEUNERERT centr te fing celal data, who the pinay hes ré tinderlined. Give an expression inthe relational algebra to express eich ofthe following gure: caplet salery hotly gener) ; pret dea nade etiam) sors. opm} : precip ue eatin gol 1) Lisl pi of employe names andl project nbs they ek 2) Ls it prt me, rent ii and earth 53) ital prot et Rij Yai soy projec ame dhe asf expo toto irae teas Fhanepfempioyee» workson) F gotucnonl department) Rajvedav + Gusta vain employes) Result 11 sum RaiYadav works_on 6 project) Insufficient data Solution: (1) Th acdsee pyisirtes) (2)TT cet ante (Stn) Tent Onemge (ection) (0) Taconite Ours 6 instructor m teaches) (A) dept name Srenininstricior) 1) (RL The Fle Spurene Pats) m4 Cataloge) 9 (R2.The (Ce Snows POPS) 4 Cataloge)) UR, ORL Tl (Thy Sine Pats) > Catalog)) (RE, Tg Orson odecrnet SUPPIiens) P (RU.Cataoge) P (R2Cataloge) Daye Siteopt oto (RL XRD)Yanagament Stans Detabsse Mona Syste os ‘Diente betocn empl. reign hy constants and vere integrity conrad wth ube PSTaIEEES | Eelcn erie operons in relation! lea ith eis | {epein al jan opeations i relationa agra [Brey ex recone ier, ta sme pin ona gn ? Hr sor nse wit rope 5 LURAY Pohgenekae CSSA ORTSRTATAT Siracture Query Language(SQL) "sa database query language used for sting and | ianoging data in Relational DENS. SQL Fundamentals | Various parts of SQL are - | © Data Definition Language(DDIL) = It consisis of a set of commands for defining relation schema, deleting elaiions, and modifying relation schemas. || 9 Data Manipulation LanguageDML) : It consists of set of SQL commands for inserting tuples into relational schema, deleting tuples from or modifying tuples in databases 9 Integrity : The SQL DDL incudes commands for specifying integrity constraints. These constraints must be salistied by the databases. | 0 View definition : The SQL DDI contains the commands for defining views for database, © ‘Transaction control : The SOL also includes the set of commands that indicate beginning and ending ofthe transactions | © Embedded SQL and Dynamic SQL : There 18 a facility of including SQL ‘coximands in the programming languages like C.C++, COBOL or Java © Authorization : The SQL DDL inicludes.the commands for specifying access ‘ights. to relations and views, | HEIERY Data abstraction Petucsat emt snSQh are- ) char(n) : For representing the fixed length character string this datatype is used. | For instance ~ to,represent namnedesignation, coursename, we use this data typa, | Instead of char we can alsoruse character. The nis specified by the user. Teac FOROS OR oar one Reloiona Cattns @ varchanin) : The varchar means charecer varying. Thet means ~ for denoting variable length. character strings this data type is used. The a ie user specifi ‘maximum character length (©) int Fer representing the numeric values without precision, the int dat used. ype is (2) numeric: For representing, a fixed point number with user-specified precision this ata type isused. The number consists of m digits plus sign K digits are tothe night of precision: For instance the numerie(3,2) allows 333.11 but it does st allow 3338.1 (5) smallin: 1 is used to store small integer value It allows machine dependent subset” of integer type (6) real It allows the floating point, double precision mumbers (2) Sloatin): For representing the floating point number wi digits this datatype is used, precision of at least a Basic Schema Definition In this section, we will discuss various SQL. commands for creating the schema definition, ‘There are three categéries of SOL commands eects T Seba | foe] [ Tames] ‘smepe || anges "|| tages! | coy ae? oo | a Definion Langue SiN | Command Papers 7 |W eRtaTe | Risso bac doutow olla ess ES | dsc ccs 2 | abTeR | Randi he ocang en | R “This command deletes complete table, view or any other detabase oyeBolatase Management Systens se elas! Daabssoe Dats Manipulation Language Porpose az Control Language Command Purpose } 1 I daubase, “The evoke ermiand remones uae acces gh orpregsto the | | cee ec, +A database can be considered as a container for tables and a table iS a grid with rows and columns tohold data. + Incrvicual statements in SQL are called queries. : + Wecan execute SOL queries for varius tasks such as creation of tables’ insertion of data into the tables, deletion of recor from table, and so on, ‘nis section we wil discuss how to create a table. ‘Step + Wenormally create 2 database using (ollowing SQL statement. ‘syntax Porson_detalls [aenaave [anime [tatatene [ tevane [atom | We can insert data into the table using INSERT statement Syntax AdhaaNvo | ”FistNome 1 1 by AAA BB | occ MG.Roud | Bsc: + Thess deal eh aa fo be daabie fe ied aa ae as el cal eee sive stake aecene sede oc eet Did ous a ee | DISTINCT cpr en eerste guns ‘TESAGAL PUBLICATIONS? a uptoFh onaperent Sytoms de ee oie PRON — RANA on ae ATR é esl of above query will be i AdhasNo | FustName | Gy mm AAA | Pune ‘we want to select all the records present in the table we make use of* character, Database Manoponent Syaems aseontDetaas If we want records of all those persoxt who live in city Pune then we can write the query usirig WHERE clause as a = a rentin the table can be diepiyod or an be updated o deleted te re ploy pa sbove query will result into. The eslttsbove query willbe ae ‘Aaio| Siatame | MidalNene | [Aaketo| Fiitione | MidaeName | tamneme : ae ae cee [Meret | Pane am | AAA BB ce eH wai) oe P =] i rE [Yhere Clouse : | DAE WHERE command e used to speiy some conton Based on thi condition he HER pn ‘+ For modifying the existing record ofa table, update query is used. TEOCAL PRAT vive ECR RUERRENE® ohare ivinmge {ah | Fass | ities [tans | aaaca [ay fe ocea reece t Person, abo poh | awn [oe coe [second | re in| Fatt | Mane | tate [nase a) 2 | ooo we. | ar | shower | pane ma [ aaa oe co eit ae | abl cco a mt | Chandan cowie | Deki 2 DoD. EE HF | Sinimpr | Pure | 4 ton KKK tut | vimanoager | Mumbai 3 | oGe HHH | Ganda Grow | Deas) ce “lm KKK UL] Vinansiogar | Mania | onluioonal Databases Database Management Sytes Consider following table EEIER oveson ‘We can delete one or more records basad on some condition. The syntax is as fllows = The result willbe TiestName | MiddieName L LastName Address, arf aaa BBS, [ece MG rood mi} oo | He FFF Shivaji nagar a a ‘We can delet all the record fom table. But inthis deletion all the records got deleted without deleting tbl. For that purpose the SQL ctatement vil be Logical Opertors 4 Using WHERE dus we can uae the operators such a8 AND, OR and NOT. © AND operator displays the records if all the conditions that ate separated using AND operator are ime + OR operator displays the records if any one of the condition separated using OR operator is rue + NOT operator displays «record ifthe condition is NOT TRUE. (hateno | Fiiene | Mdditone | Lasone” [ARs an] AAA ‘BEB coc MG. road i DDD EEE FFF Shivaji aeger Saeco] Sie | er a The result willbe— [sehen m { t ma nm TECbiCiL PUBLEATOND cepa rine [oo :conde 3 NOT Ey a Pand esult will be *T IF tne records are anges in increasing order of some column then ii aed | ascending order. | the records ae arranged ir decreasing order of some column then iti calle lescending order. getting the sorted records in the table we use ORDER BY command. «| the ORDER BY kayword sorts the seconds in ascending oder by deal. “The above query wil veultin [setae T Bintane | Midciesane | tsiame | Agdme ay] Laas mM KKK" | ut | Vimannagar | Mumbai | (oss) “ese ee a see | HR __|Svainoger pune 7 (om aaa [| eee [Ged Pome | ‘There are SQL command for alteration of ble. That means we can ad new colume or elete some column from the table using these alteration commands Consider following table [Aananvo | Fintiame | MiddieName | LastName adaress [Cy | am AA 389 cee | Me Red | Pane z= [ bop Ee Fer | Shvanagr | Pune | x3] eco aM [| Granda nk | as wt uw rec [ua | vinannagar | Mena | Exanle Chrbiderfottowing table | [ahve [ niin | sitasine | tame [antes [Gp 3 = AAA Es cee MGred | Pa | sevainaee | DoD EEE FF ‘Shivaji nagar Pune 333, coo | HAH Tom ee Peat ed ue nt | Ghandenéchowk | Dab pot tow Z ieee, | Ut | Vimannagar | Mamba | RL 4 D 13 Ut | Vian nagar | Mantel “| I TEENA PERUEATORS™ aapees organ ys 1st una Duabces Sample [Rawto| Fntane | Middleene] tasttene [Ades [Gy | (ar SANA cette | thee: MGread | Pune za poo | EF | Stiga | Pere (Foreign Key, + Foreign kay used tink two lables + Foreign ky or one tables actualy primary hey of another table + The table centaining foreign Key is called eld table and the fal +The consi canbe eslumn level we can impose constant onthe column ard candidate primary Key scaled parent key. ‘table level i.e we can impose constraint on the entire table. ee Dering Contant + Weean speci 1 When he tables created at that ime we cn define the constants. les for cata in a able. Thee are various types of constraints that can be defined are as fellows - Empioyeo Tablo 4) Primary key: ‘The primary key constraint is defined to uniquely identify the records FapiD | tovttame | _FitName age from the table. Fl ‘Khanna Bich 30 ‘The primary key must contain unique values. Hence database designer should choose 2 Jesh Sharma | ‘primary key very carefully. - 3 ‘Kapoor “Tushar 2 Foroxample Dept Table: Consider that we have to creaie = person details table with AdharNo, FistName, Deptt | DepiNiame | Empl ‘MiddleName, LastName, Addrass and City. 1 | Accounts | 3 Now making Acha:No asa primary key s helpful here as using this field i becomes 2 | Prodecton | 3 e2sy to identify the records comely. 3 Sales 2 © | Parcase 1 TEGHGCAL PLBLEATONSY- na rong TED PALERbj phase varepontSyxone elton Data ae Dotabose Manogemont Notice thatthe "Emp" column in the "Dept tble points to the EmpID” eon | ithe "Eiployee' table | The "EmplD" shana in the "Employee’ ble is the, PRIMARY KEY in he | -amnpoyee tobe | The "EmpID" column in the “Dept” table is a FOREIGN KEY in the “Dept” table. | The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy links | between tables. ‘The FOREIGN KEY constraint ko prevents invalid data fom beng inserted ito the foreign kay eal, becuse tha tobe ene of he ves contained in the ble | kepoinsto The porpee ofthe orig ky consist sto enforce relerental ing bu hve |_ are also performance benefits to be had by including them in your database design follows with fo nieve a oe for example, you might want fo prevent two or more employees from having an ical designation. Then in at ase we must use unique constant unique atthe time of creation of table or ifthe table is ty created and we want to add the unique constraint hen we can use ALTER fa) NOT NULL ++ By default the column con have NULL values. + NULL means unknown values. + We can set the column values as non NULL by using the constraint NOT NULL, Rebtel Deltaces (check ‘The CHECK constrain is used to limit the value range that can 3e placed in a column, ‘The IN operators just similar to OR operator. It allows to specify multiple values in WHERE clause Example ‘Consider following table Employee : empiD | empName Salary | Dep | 1 ‘ABA woo fDi 2 388 mmo | mt 3 ce | am) aes a 00) mo | (ies ee | De2etasese Managemen: Sysiams SSlzcr aM Epigyee ‘REST sip. 9), ‘The result willbe empID | _enpName | Selny | DelD ete AAA | 2000 D101 zt ‘BBS I 2000 it Dio2 | Tee 00 Dies ETRY cues on tiple Rtatons Information, For example consides two ables as Student and Reserve, + Many times it is required to access multiple ration(ables) to operate i i a BEE] basic Structure of S01. Queries he basie form of SOL quenies's SeLSCRFROMveniene, The Syst ie Site SELECT ON vase DDISTINOT) argee et relauars goaicton SELECT : This is one ofthe fundamental query command of SQL. It is similar to the projection operation of relational algebra. it selects the attributes based om the condition described by WHERE clause FROM: This clause takes a relation name as an argument from which attributes are to be selectedliprojected, In case more than one relation names are given, this cause cortesponds to Certesian product, WHERE : This clause defines predicate or conditions, which must match in order to qualify the astbutes 1 be profane. Relation-list: A lis of relation names(tables) largetlist: 4 list of attributes of relations from relation Iis(tables) qualifiction + Comparisons of atrbutes with values or with other attributes ‘combined using AND, OR and NOT, DISTINCT is an optional keyword indicating that the answer should not contain duplicates. Normally if we write the SQL without DISTINCT operator then it does not eliminate thé duplicates, Example of each student is greater than 18 Use of Sa Join The SQL Joins clause is used to combine records from two or more tabi database. A JOIN is a means for combining fields from two tables by using) common to.each, | [Bxample : Consicer two tables for using the joins in SQL. Note that ci is columnin fellowing ables. ‘Student | Reserve = a [ome ans 1 | a0 | Ram 101 Pune 2 [aa [Bm | mee 2 [ae | ee ww | Gem «| Na cow 2D Ianeroin +The mos important and eqn usd ofthe joss he INNER JOIN. also known as an EQUYOIN. ESCA RaRLEATE np ee | | | “EECA PIBLEATER? spa lagefe arogtmon Sets soo Folate! Datsases Database Mansgoneat Syston s61 oso Databases NNER JOIN creates a new rsul table by combining column vals of two bles (abil and Table2) based upon the join-predeate, fe query compares each row of tablel with each sow of Table? to find alt pairs of es which sai the join predate ‘he oinpredicate sisted column valu for each matdied pair f rows of hn B are combined into a result row. Itcan be represented as | i sult willbe | a | 4a [oome] a | came | vj | sam [i | ne i 2 [ior | yam | 1) | Pune | 3 | aoe | Seen | 0 Join: /SOL LEFT JOIN returns all sows fom the lft table, even if these are ho matches. ithe right table This means that if the ON clouse matches 0 jzero} records inthe ‘able; the join will still zelum a row in the result, bat with NULL in each from the'ight table, Hig means that a left join returns all the Values from the left table, plus matched ‘les fom the ight table or NULL in case of no mitcing fin predicate. + Bean be represented as - 98 can apply Lat join It will Reraral records fom the left abe and the matched records rom the "ight abe sing the common column ed. The query wil be sescr “UES FROM Stat Lf Joa Syed de cat = (a [ ea [omame | aa] came | [ia eee | a Rae Tor [sien | 10) Rae | t j————_ 3 [im [sea | ie | Mere) (= [Rav ee [Rar wa 3) Right Join The SQL RIGHT JOIN returns all rows from the right lable, even if there aze no ‘matches in the left table. + This means that if the ON clause matches 0 (zero) records in the left table; the join ‘Will's return » row in the result, but with NULL in each column fren the left table, ‘+ This means that aright join retums all the values from the tight table, plus etched ‘Values from the lft table or NULL in case of ne matching join predicate. + Thean be represented 2s follows: ‘+ 'Syniax: The basic syntax of a RIGHT JOIN iss follow TECNICA PLRENTENS =e ptt aoe ERR BEATIN ta aRessione! Databases above given two tables namely Student and Ci, we can apply Right records from the right table, and the matched records from the Jefe table using the common column cid. The query pia : A 4) Fall Join The SQL FLLLJOIN combines the results of both let and right outer joins, ‘+The joined table will contain all records from both the tables and fil in NULLs for missing marches on either side, ‘© Ieean be represented as “The result will be~ + Example For above given to tables namely Student and City, we ean apply Full join. It will renum returns rows when there isa match in one of the tables using the sommon coluran dd, The query will be- Nowe wut | NULL wan | we | as i BREE] Adcitional Basic Operations ‘D The Rename Operation : The SQL AS is used to assign temporaily anew: table colurin or table(relation} itself. One reason to rename a relation isto long relation name with @ shortened version that is more convenient) elsewhere in the query. Foi example ~ "Find the names of students andi ‘book who niserve the Books”. : ‘Student Reserve lL a” [mm [oe a [ae i 1 | Ran a 1 005 coats [Sym |e 2 [on sl] re oe et ee) in In shove cn we cul shoren The name of oles Sadem and Reseve ae repel ‘Avethe reason eae elton cae where we wish to compar tle same relation, We then need to take the Cartesian product ofa relation vith itp exemple TInt Cn RATIONS a nat aa TEE PUOUEATION? amp Ionejer is Find the ames of tents who eer the book of is 6 Then the tbment willbe = dee caso pot all abuts. For exampe~To ict he reeds ra Stade able we focne oA amc eer ‘ 9 Gitesing the dspay of tapes: For paying the records tn par IF ae order by dause. ) ae vee ‘mame mas | diy ‘AAA @ Pune 8 a ec 30 Pane oD s between eperator canbe used to simplify the where clause which i used to dnote the value be less than or equal to some value and greater than or equel to ‘other value. For example of we want the names ofthe students whose masks between 80 and 90 then SCL statement willbe ste (ShibsoeskLAeaeie bale eaorrenccey, (8) We can use AND, OR and NOT operators in the Where clause. For Sitering the records based on more than one condition, the AND and OR operators can be used ‘The NOT operators used to demonstrate when the condition is not TRUE Consider following sample database - Students database, for applying AND, OR and NOT operators id smme [marke | ty 7 ee ee ean Syntax of AND sone sone Example : Find the student having name "AAA" OR lives in ity “Pune” TECHOEAL PIRATE apeExample: Find the student who do not have Domain and Key Constraint Domain Constraint + A domein is defined as the set ofall unique values permitted for an attribute. For ‘cxample.a domain of date isthe set ofall possible valid dates, a domain of integer ‘sal possible whole numbers, and a domain of day-of-week is Monday, Tuesday Sunday. ‘© This in effect is defining rules for & particular atibute, If tis determined that an atrtbute fsx date then it should be implemented in the database to prevent invalid dates being entered, * Domain constraints aze user defined data type and we can define them like this ‘© Domain constraint» Data type + Consiraints ‘The constrainis ean be specified using NOT NULL / UNIQUE / PRIMARY KEY / FOREIGN KEY J CHECK /DERAULT. = The key constraint can be specified using SOL as follows = + A ay constrait is statement that certain minimal subset ofthe relation unigee identifies fora tuple | * For example - Consider the shidents relation and the conszant sha studenis have the same stent id. This ICis an example ofa Key constrain + The definition of key constrains contin two pars - i © Tw6 distinct topes ina legal instance (an instance that satisfies all Contras ininding the Key constrain’) cunnot have identical values field of axe. re from storing « ‘core! set of tuples. For example, several students may same name, altiough cach student has unique shunt id IF the naa dear to be a key, the DBMS wl not allove the Students elton to con tuples describing fren sracents with th came name Ws * Th acon part ofthe fin means for example at he st fH) Name} not aly for Stents, because this et propery contin the key teING| | ‘The set (RolINo, Namne} is an example of a superkey, which is 2 set of f ha contains key [ ds, 9 i © InSQL, we can declare that subset of the columns ofa obi conse ey by ‘sing the UNIQUE constraint | © At most one ofthese candidate keys canbe dédlaved toe a prisiary kejpsing TEDAICR, PURLGATOW® tal bob SeFRMOARY XE cosinor | ‘TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® =o upteo fermatedge | | i7 CoNSTRADE Rl af [| Ths deftion says that RolNo is a Primary key and. Combination of Name | andageis alo key For sting comparizons, we can use the comparison operates =, 6 >=95) with {he ordering of strings determived alphabetically as usual: 01 ato permis a vay of funtion on character sings sch a8 conetenation ‘ing operator | extracting substings, finding length of suing converting sings {0 vpper caseasing Anetion upper) and lowersse(using funcon lowers, ving spaces atthe en of stringing functon@im(s) and son fatiom matching can ako be performed on sirngs using two types of speci tharscters = bb Percant(9H): It matches zéro, one or maltiple characters > Underscore) The = characte matches any single arate Te premtge andes be edn ntti Jotiems are case sensitive. That means upper case characters do nét match ‘pvercase characters or vice versa. Erie (Dow moths ay sting bp wih “Da, Forint tcl be ith || “Database”, “DataMining”,”DataStructure” {matches any sting of excl thee characters, ‘matches eny string oft east length 3 charactors The LIKE clause can be used in WHERE dause to search for spect pattems, Fhocexample-Consider following Eriployee Database = EmpNeme | Deparient Date oon = Sen Nasicng Tin Da Vonsn Maar an = Sopa Vang Sian a a) i = 1 (6) Find the names of employee whose name begin with S and followed by exactly four characters : ae Set Operations 1) UNION: Touse his UNION claus, eth SELECT sateen ast ve i TECINEA PUBGEA TON cp ee ECHR PaLICATON op a aeButedeseanagarare Systane 1m loon! Detabazes { t0 combine two tables using UNION operator. It replaces the OR ‘operator in the euery. The union operetor eliminates duplicate while the union all query ‘wil retain the duplicates syntax © Peebatesynian setzotcakins oS pro aie: Leaner IEEE condition aTON. SetECTekmet | cokanad) 7 \ ten Mango tne bn ft Example Find the names ofthe studens who have served the DBMS" bok B00 ‘The query can then be written by considering the Staden, Reserve and Book | | BE Smid AND Risin“ ss ANDAD AROS ql "INTERSECT : The comin ens inten the wo tables can be re withthe help [resect operator. replaces the AND operator inthe ind the students who have reserve bath he DBMS’ bok anh __Bagucrjen ene tony corset te See. sr fk sibs oes K EXCEPT The EXCEPT aus is sed to epee theset-difertnc ind ‘This query is used to represent che entries that are present in one tableroe Spates 2 ettona Dstadosoe ple : Find the students who have reserved both the ‘DBMS’ book but not ‘An aggregate function allows you to perform a calculation on a set of values to a single scalar value. 3Q1 offers five builtin aggregate actions : Weecte: 2. Minimum : min ies roaram cou Basie Anaregation agsregte functions that acespt an expression perareter can be modified bythe eywords DISTINCT or ALL Ifmeither i epecied, the reli the sme a if ALL Modifies the expression to inclade nly disting vlan ‘hate not NULL ‘nade allows whore expression not NULL Bh 1 TECHNCAL PURIATOHE omatriee ae eateries emadiecersnanscenniinassintincadennmimanisilinecnsiaainaaniali Dotse Managorent Stone tn Fos: Catobaces ‘+ The avg-functon is used to compute average value. For example ~ To average matks of the stdonts we can use SQL Statement Jt works om both numeric and nom-aumeric data type COUNT (*) is 2 special {implementation of the COUNT function thet returns the count of all the rows in 2 specified table. COUNT £) also considers Nulls and duplicates. For exemple Consider fellowing tabie +The min function is used to got the minis value from the specitied colusnn. Fer example —Consider the above created Test table 100 + "The max faction is used to get the rhaximum valu from the specified cols, For example ~Considerthe above created Test able Se ‘TERNAL PESUCATON at oanfon is used so get total sum value from the specified column. For ‘cxemiple ~Consiter the above crested Test table So Sonsemes : SEECT mya) . Ssiaowne ee OME) Output BREE vse ot cro 2) ans Having Clouse @ Group By: + The GROUP BY clause is @ SQl,command that cused to group rows that have the + The GROUP BY clause is used in the SELECT statement + Optionaly itisu ec in conjunction with aggregate functions stain the GROUP BY clause are called grouped queries "s& single row for every grouped item. © Syntax SSLECT ahora masefe) FsOLE abe nase YRERE emia, (QBO0P BY cot namale), ‘GROUP Y coum, nase(ey ‘ORDER BY cous. sents) | Datease Stns 115 Stn kine output { SUMiznsska) | ety | Le Pane 25. Monta Gi Having : + HAVING filters records thet work on summarized GROUP BY rests. + HAVING applies to summarized group racordss whereas WHERE ep individual reord ‘+ Only the groups that meet the HAVING eriteria will be retumed, + HAVING requires that a GROUP BY clause is present. + WHERE and HAVING can bein the same query Syntax timer masa eate es | + Example : Consider the Student table a follows - a sm | mm [ay 7 mane ne ae | Nba i [xc | Pane r 4 DDD 3 Mumbai ye = ees] (Query : Find the total marks of each student in the city named Pune’ and only