Civils Front

Comparative
Politics
Political Science and International Relations

(PSIR Paper 2 Section A)

Updated
Edition for
UPSC CSE
2024 & www.CivilsFront.com
2025

9354245132 Vivek Waghmare

 pg. 1

Table of Content
1. Comparative Politics ........................................................................................................................ 2

2. State in Comparative Politics ......................................................................................................... 30

3. Politics of Representation and Participation ................................................................................. 43

4. Globalization .................................................................................................................................. 65

5. Approaches to study International Relations ................................................................................ 83

6. Key Concepts in International Relations ...................................................................................... 106

7. Changing International Political Order ........................................................................................ 125

8. Evolution of the International Economic System ........................................................................ 148

9. United Nations ............................................................................................................................. 166

10. Regionalization of world politics: EU, ASEAN, APEC, SAARC, NAFTA ......................................... 177

11. Contemporary Global Concerns................................................................................................... 197

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Chapter - 1 pg. 2

Comparative Politics
Nature and Major Approaches Key contributors
• Aristotle: Often considered one of the earliest
Analysis of important dimensions from PYQ political scientists, Aristotle's work "Politics"
involved a comparative examination of
1. Discuss the Political Economy approach
different forms of government in ancient city-
to the comparative analysis of politics
states.
(10M, 2021)
• Alexis de Tocqueville: His work "Democracy in
2. “Marxist approach to the study of
America" (1835) laid the groundwork for
international relations has lost its
comparative analysis by comparing the
relevance in the post-cold war era.”
political systems of the United States and
Comment (10M, 2021)
France.
3. Discuss the subject matter of comparative
• Max Weber emphasized the importance of
politics. Outline the limitations of
understanding institutions in different
comparative political analysis. (10M,
countries in his work "Economy and Society."
2020)
4. Examine the significance of Comparative • Woodrow Wilson: Wilson's book "The State"
method in political analysis. Discuss its contributed to the establishment of
limitations. (20M, 2019) comparative politics in the United States.
5. Describe the changing nature of • Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Founders of
Comparative Politics. Briefly explain the Marxism, they conducted comparative
Political Economy approach to the study analyses of political and economic systems,
of comparative politics. (10M, 2018) contributing to the understanding of class
6. Explain the Political Sociological approach struggles and the role of the state.
in the field of comparative politics and • Egon Orowan advocated for the application of
discuss its limitations. (10M, 2017) scientific methods in comparative politics.
7. Critically Examine the Marxist aspect of Before we study comparative politics in further
political economy approach to the study detail, lets first try to understand why we need to
of comparative politics. (10M, 2016) study this discipline?
• Understanding Political Systems: It helps us
understand the diversity of political systems.
Introduction
For instance, studying both the direct
Comparative politics emerged in the late 19th and democracy in Switzerland and the
early 20th centuries to systematically study parliamentary system in the United Kingdom
political systems across different countries. It reveals how different systems function.
originated due to factors like colonialism,
• Policy Analysis: Comparing healthcare policies
industrialization, and the need for academic
in the United States and Canada allows us to
exploration. Influential thinkers, methodological
analyze the effectiveness of public vs. private
advancements, and key political events all
healthcare systems and their outcomes.
contributed to its development. Today, it's a crucial
• Cultural Insights: A comparison of India's
subfield in political science, examining political
diverse cultural regions and their impact on
systems and behaviors worldwide, offering insights
political behavior highlights how cultural
into common global challenges.
factors influence voting patterns and political
representation.

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• Conflict Resolution: A study of conflict • Lucian Pye provides a broader perspective,

management in Northern Ireland and the saying, "Comparative politics is a search for
Basque Country provides lessons in peace- patterns and regularities in political life, a
building, showing how different approaches search for what is general and what is
led to varying outcomes. distinctive in the configurations of different
• Global Perspective: Comparing the climate societies."
policies of different countries, such as Nature of Comparative Politics
Sweden's green initiatives and the challenges • Cross-National Analysis: Comparative politics
faced by oil-dependent nations, offers insights involves the systematic study of political
into global environmental issues. systems across different countries. Scholars
• Academic Research: Scholars in comparative analyze political structures, institutions,
politics may explore topics like electoral behaviors, and policies to identify patterns and
systems, studying how different systems variations.
impact representation, using data from various • Empirical Approach: It is an empirical
countries. discipline, meaning it relies on data, evidence,
• Informed Citizenship: In the U.S., citizens can and observations. Researchers use a wide
critically assess their own electoral system by range of qualitative and quantitative methods
comparing it to those in other democracies, to gather and analyze information.
understanding the role of the Electoral College, • Interdisciplinary: It draws insights from
for example. history, sociology, economics, and other fields
to provide a holistic understanding of political
Comparative Politics
systems.
As the term itself points out, comparative politics • Contextual Analysis: Comparative politics
is about comparing political phenomena. The emphasizes the importance of considering the
emphasis is on both the method of inquiry i.e., unique historical, cultural, and social contexts
comparative, and the substance into which inquiry of each country when conducting analyses.
is directed i.e., political phenomena. Context matters in understanding political
• Arend Lijphart defines comparative politics as dynamics.
"the empirical, scientific study of countries and • Focus on Institutions and Behaviors:
of the world as a whole in their mutual Researchers study political institutions (e.g.,
relations, by means of cross-national governments, legislatures) and behaviors (e.g.,
comparisons." voting, protests) to assess their impact on
• David Apter describes comparative politics as governance and public policies.
"the search for patterns, regularities, and Significance of Comparative method in political
systematic relationships in the analysis of analysis
political systems." • Identification of Patterns and Trends: The
• Robert Dahl offers the definition, comparative method reveals recurring
"Comparative politics is the search for patterns patterns and trends across political contexts,
in political life and the search for regularities in aiding in the development of broad theoretical
political systems." frameworks applicable to multiple cases.
• Almond and Powell state, "Comparative o Comparative analyses of elections in the
politics is the search for theoretically United States, India, and Brazil have
significant patterns and regularities in the revealed patterns of the role of social
political behavior of the states making up the media in influencing voter behavior,
world community."

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contributing to the development of institutional contexts on political phenomena,

theories on the impact of digital platforms promoting accurate interpretations.
on democratic processes. o Comparative analysis of the responses to
• Theory Development and Testing: the refugee crisis in European countries,
Comparative politics contributes to theory including Germany and Greece, takes into
development and testing by analyzing political account historical, cultural, and
phenomena across diverse settings, generating institutional contexts, providing a
empirical evidence to assess the validity and nuanced understanding of the challenges
generalizability of theories. faced by different nations.
o Researchers studying the response to the • Institutional Design and Functionality:
COVID-19 pandemic in countries with Valuable for studying political institutions,
different governance structures, such as comparative politics evaluates strengths and
New Zealand, Germany, and the United weaknesses of different systems, informing
States, have contributed to the discussions about institutional reforms or
development and testing of theories on innovations.
crisis management and public health. o Comparative studies of healthcare
• Policy Implications: Comparative analyses systems in countries like Canada, the
offer insights into policy effectiveness and United Kingdom, and Germany have
governance structures. Policymakers learn informed discussions about the strengths
from other countries' experiences, informing and weaknesses of different institutional
evidence-based policymaking and reducing the designs, contributing to debates on
risk of untested strategies. healthcare reform.
o Comparative analyses of climate change • Prediction and Forecasting: Contributes to
policies in Scandinavian countries, like prediction and forecasting by leveraging
Denmark and Sweden, have offered historical and cross-national patterns,
insights into the effectiveness of enhancing the ability to anticipate potential
renewable energy strategies, informing political outcomes.
policy implications for other nations o Comparative studies of populist
seeking sustainable energy solutions. movements in Europe, such as those in
• Understanding Political Change: Instrumental Hungary and Italy, have contributed to
in understanding political change, comparative predictions about the potential spread of
politics analyzes transitions from populist ideologies and their impact on
authoritarianism to democracy or the impact the political landscape.
of globalization, uncovering factors driving • Policy Transfer and Lesson Drawing:
transformations and assessing implications. Facilitates policy transfer as policymakers draw
o Comparative politics scholars examining lessons from other countries, offering insights
political changes in post-Arab Spring into successful and failed policies, fostering
countries, such as Tunisia, have cross-national learning.
contributed to understanding the factors o Policymakers in education reform might
influencing transitions to democracy and draw lessons from the success of the
the challenges of political change in the Finnish education system, which has been
region. a subject of comparative analysis and is
• Contextual Understanding: Emphasizing often considered a model for its emphasis
context, comparative analysis acknowledges on teacher training and student well-
the influence of historical, cultural, and being.

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• Cross-Cultural Understanding: Fosters cross- • Contextual Differences: Comparative politics

cultural understanding by encouraging acknowledges the importance of context, but
exploration and appreciation of diverse it's challenging to fully capture the unique
political systems, essential for diplomats, historical, cultural, and social contexts of each
international relations specialists, and country in a single analysis. Scholars like Lucian
policymakers in a globalized world. Pye have emphasized the importance of
o Comparative analysis of political political culture within unique societal
responses to the Rohingya crisis involves contexts.
studying the approaches of neighboring • Changing Dynamics: Political systems and
countries like Bangladesh and Myanmar, behaviors are not static; they evolve over time.
fostering cross-cultural understanding Comparative politics may struggle to keep up
and influencing international discussions with rapidly changing political dynamics.
on refugee rights. Scholars like Karl Deutsch's work on social
• Holistic Analysis: Encourages a holistic analysis communication and political change
of political phenomena, prompting scholars to emphasizes the importance of understanding
consider multiple factors, contexts, and evolving political systems.
perspectives for a comprehensive • Ethical Challenges: Comparative politics
understanding of political dynamics. sometimes involves ethical dilemmas when
o Comparative studies of economic dealing with sensitive issues, such as human
development policies in Southeast Asian rights violations. Ethical considerations are
countries, such as Singapore and emphasized by scholars like Michael Walzer in
Malaysia, encourage a holistic analysis discussions of just war theory and
considering historical, cultural, and international ethics.
institutional factors to understand the • National Specificity: Some political
varying degrees of success in economic phenomena are so deeply tied to the specific
growth. history and culture of a nation that they resist
cross-country comparisons. Scholars like
Limitations
Benedict Anderson's work on "imagined
• Cultural Bias: Comparative politics can be communities" underscore the unique and
influenced by cultural biases, as researchers often nation-specific nature of political
may unconsciously favor their own cultural or identity.
political perspectives, potentially leading to
Changing nature of Comparative Politics
inaccuracies in cross-country analyses.
• Simplification: To make comparisons The nature of comparative politics has evolved
manageable, researchers often simplify over time due to various factors.
complex political systems and issues. This • Increased Interconnectedness: Globalization
simplification may lead to an has led to increased interconnectedness
oversimplification of realities in different among nations, affecting political dynamics.
countries. Comparative politics now often considers how
• Data Availability: Comparative politics heavily global forces, such as economic
relies on data. However, data quality and interdependence and transnational issues,
availability can vary significantly between influence domestic politics.
countries, making accurate comparisons o The global response to the COVID-19
challenging. Robert Dahl have underscored the pandemic showcases the
importance of reliable data. interconnectedness of nations. Countries

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had to collaborate on issues such as influences voting patterns in certain

vaccine distribution, travel restrictions, countries, such as the role of evangelical
and economic recovery, highlighting how Christians in shaping political outcomes in
a global event can have widespread the United States.
political implications. • Transition Studies: The study of transitions to
• Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches: and from democracy has been a significant
There has been a shift from predominantly focus. Comparative politics examines the
qualitative methods to a more balanced use of factors that contribute to democratic
qualitative and quantitative approaches. consolidation or breakdown, as well as the
Advances in data collection and analysis characteristics of authoritarian regimes and
techniques, including the use of statistical their resilience or collapse.
methods, have allowed for more rigorous and o The ongoing examination of political
nuanced comparative studies. transitions in the Middle East and North
o Researchers studying the impact of social Africa, especially in countries like Tunisia
media on elections may combine and Egypt, provides insights into the
qualitative analysis of political discourse challenges and outcomes associated with
on platforms like Twitter with movements toward democracy or the
quantitative data on the spread of persistence of authoritarianism.
information to understand how online • Regional Dynamics: Comparative politics has
communication influences voter increasingly adopted a regional approach,
behavior. examining political trends and developments
• Institutional Analysis: Comparative politics within specific geographic areas. Regional
has placed a greater emphasis on the study of studies allow for a deeper understanding of
political institutions and governance context-specific factors that influence political
structures. Researchers explore how different systems.
institutional designs impact political stability, o Comparative politics scholars focusing on
representation, and policy outcomes. the European Union may analyze the
o The examination of the impact of impact of regional integration on the
different electoral systems on political political dynamics of member states,
representation, such as proportional considering factors such as the rise of
representation versus first-past-the-post, Eurosceptic movements and the
is a current focus in comparative politics. management of common challenges like
Researchers analyze how these migration.
institutional designs affect the diversity • Impact of Technology: The advent of digital
and inclusivity of political systems. technologies has transformed political
• Cultural Factors: There is an increased communication, participation, and activism.
recognition of the importance of culture and Comparative politics now explores the role of
identity in shaping political behavior. technology in shaping political landscapes and
Comparative politics now considers how influencing citizen engagement.
cultural factors, including religion, ethnicity, o Studies on the role of social media in
and language, influence political processes and shaping political activism, as seen in
outcomes. movements like the Arab Spring or the
o The study of how cultural factors shape Black Lives Matter protests, highlight how
political behavior can be observed in the technology influences political
analysis of how religious identity

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mobilization and the dissemination of accused of human rights abuses, like

information. Myanmar.
• Environmental Considerations: As
Approaches of Comparative Politics
environmental issues gain prominence
globally, comparative politics has started to Characteristic Traditional Modern
incorporate the study of how different political Comparativ Comparative
systems address environmental challenges and e Politics Politics
the role of environmental policies in shaping Focus Individual Global
political agendas. countries or perspective,
o Comparative politics researchers may specific often
analyze how different countries approach regions considering
environmental policies, such as their international
commitment to international climate factors
agreements or the development of Historical Strong Historical
renewable energy strategies, reflecting a Emphasis emphasis on insights
growing awareness of the global historical integrated
environmental agenda. context with
• Post-Colonial and Post-Socialist Studies: contemporary
Comparative politics increasingly considers the analysis
legacies of colonialism and socialism, Analysis Qualitative: Qualitative
examining how these historical experiences Methods Case and
continue to influence political structures, studies, quantitative:
identities, and power dynamics. descriptive Surveys,
o The study of post-colonial dynamics is analysis experiments,
evident in the analysis of how former statistical
colonial powers grapple with issues of analysis
identity, migration, and historical Interdisciplinar Limited Often
injustice. Similarly, post-socialist studies y Approach integration integrates
may focus on the political with other insights from
transformations in countries like those in social economics,
Eastern Europe after the end of the Cold sciences sociology,
War. psychology,
• Human Rights: Comparative politics has and other
expanded its focus on human rights, exploring fields
how countries adhere to or violate Generalization Context- Seeks cross-
international norms. The examination of global specific country
human rights standards is an integral part of analysis patterns and
comparative analyses. general
o Comparative politics scholars may conclusions
examine the human rights records of Policy and Descriptive Policy analysis
different countries, such as the scrutiny of Normative analysis and
China's treatment of Uighur Muslims or Focus normative
the assessment of the impact of consideration
international pressure on countries s

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The field of Comparative Politics is divided into two democracy, authoritarianism, or other
segments governance models.
• Traditional Comparative Politics o Example: COVID-19 responses showcase
• Modern Comparative Politics normative foundations: New Zealand and
South Korea balance individual freedoms
Traditional Approaches
with collective responsibility, contrasting
The emergence of the traditional approach in with China's authoritarian prioritization of
comparative politics responded to the historicism state control.
of the 19th century. This approach prioritized the • Ethical Considerations: A philosophical
historical examination of Western political approach involves analyzing the ethical
institutions, spanning from ancient to modern implications of political decisions and policies.
times. This may include evaluating the morality of
Traditionalists engaged in either theoretical actions such as war, economic policies, or
philosophizing, particularly about systems like human rights practices in a comparative
democracy, or conducted a formal and legal study context.
of governmental institutions—exemplified by o Example: Vaccine distribution raises
Machiavelli's influential work, "The Prince." ethical questions about prioritizing
Characterized by configurative analysis, each wealthier nations. The global debate
political system was treated as a unique entity. The reflects moral implications, emphasizing
approach primarily involved descriptive methods, social justice and responsibility amid the
lacking problem-solving or analytical elements. The pandemic.
focus remained limited to forms of government • Political Philosophy Traditions: Comparative
and foreign political systems, offering incomplete politics from a philosophical perspective may
insights. draw on different political philosophy
Following are the major approaches included in traditions, such as liberalism, conservatism,
Traditional approaches to comparative Politics socialism, or communitarianism, to
understand how these ideologies manifest in
Philosophical approach diverse political systems.
The philosophical approach to comparative politics o Example: Nordic countries' social welfare
is a traditional approach that examines the policies, particularly Sweden's COVID-19
fundamental principles and values that underlie response, embody political philosophy
political systems and institutions. It is concerned traditions. Sweden's approach reflects
with questions such as the nature of justice, liberty, the influence of social democratic
equality, and the good life. The philosophical principles, balancing individual freedoms
approach is based on the assumption that politics with a robust social safety net.
is not simply a matter of power and interests, but • Justice and Equality: Philosophical analysis in
also a matter of moral values and principles. comparative politics often centers on concepts
• Normative Foundations: Philosophical inquiry of justice and equality. Examining how
delves into the normative foundations of different societies conceptualize and
political systems, asking questions about what implement justice, fairness, and the
is considered morally right or just in the distribution of resources provides insights into
organization of societies. For example, their political structures.
examining the philosophical underpinnings of o Example: Philosophical analysis in racial
and social justice movements, like Black
Lives Matter, highlights differing

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approaches globally. Protests and policy perceptions of political legitimacy contributes

discussions underscore the ongoing to a deeper understanding of diverse political
struggle for justice and equality. systems.
• Moral Foundations of Political Institutions: o Example: Cross-cultural ethics is evident
Understanding the moral foundations of in the international response to the
political institutions is a key aspect. For Rohingya crisis. Debates and actions
instance, assessing the legitimacy of reflect the complexities of applying
governmental authority, the role of the state, ethical principles across diverse cultural
and the protection of individual rights from a contexts in addressing the humanitarian
philosophical standpoint. situation in Myanmar.
o Example: Debates on government
Historical approach
surveillance, such as the U.S. Patriot Act,
question the moral foundations of • Historical Context: This involves studying
political institutions. Balancing individual historical events, transitions, and influences
privacy rights and national security that have shaped a nation's political
highlights ethical considerations. institutions, providing insights into
• Human Nature and Politics: Philosophical contemporary political systems.
perspectives in comparative politics explore o Example: The historical context of South
ideas about human nature and its implications Africa's political institutions is deeply
for political organization. This might involve rooted in its apartheid era. Studying the
considering whether political systems are transition from apartheid to the post-
designed with an optimistic or pessimistic view apartheid era provides insights into
of human behavior. contemporary political systems and the
o Example: Discussions on regulating AI and challenges of reconciliation.
autonomous weapons reveal • Political Evolution: Tracing a country's political
philosophical perspectives on human evolution, from monarchy to democracy,
nature. Ethical considerations involve colonialism to independence, and the
accountability and the potential impact development of political ideologies, to
on political structures. understand its current political state.
• Critical Theory: Critical theory, rooted in o Example: Examining India's transition
philosophical traditions, is often applied in from British colonial rule to an
comparative politics. This involves a critical independent democratic nation reveals
examination of power structures, ideologies, its political evolution. The adoption of a
and social institutions to uncover underlying democratic framework, despite its
assumptions and sources of inequality. diverse cultural and linguistic landscape,
o Example: Critical theory analyzes social showcases India's unique political
media algorithms' impact on political journey.
discourse. Platforms like Facebook and • Impact of Key Historical Events: Analyzing
Twitter shape information dissemination, significant historical events like revolutions
reflecting critical perspectives on power and conflicts, which have restructured political
and influence. institutions, ideologies, and power dynamics.
• Cross-Cultural Ethics: Examining ethics in a o Example: The Russian Revolution of 1917
cross-cultural context is crucial in a dramatically restructured political
philosophical approach. Understanding how institutions, ideologies, and power
cultural differences shape moral values and dynamics. The Bolshevik seizure of power

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and the establishment of the Soviet Union and the functioning of the federal
exemplify how historical events can government.
reshape the entire political landscape. • Structural Analysis: Scholars in this realm
• Comparative Historical Analysis: Drawing explore the structural aspects of political
parallels and distinctions between different institutions, such as the executive, legislative,
countries' historical experiences to understand and judicial bodies.
how similar historical events can lead to o Example: A comparative analysis of the
varying political outcomes. Comparative stability of the U.S. presidential system
analysis of the French and American and the adaptability of the UK
Revolutions, with Alexis de Tocqueville's parliamentary system.
"Democracy in America" offering insights into • Power Prevention Mechanisms: This aspect
these distinctions. involves studying mechanisms within political
• Cultural and Social Dimensions: Exploring the systems that prevent the concentration of
influence of culture and societal elements, like power. Arend Lijphart's research on
religion, values, and traditions, on political consociational democracies, where power is
behavior and institutions throughout history. distributed among different ethnic or political
Samuel P. Huntington's "Political Order in groups.
Changing Societies" delves into the role of o Example: Research may delve into
culture in shaping political systems. Belgium's consociational system, which
• Long-Term Impact: Identifying the enduring aims to ensure power-sharing among
consequences of historical developments in linguistic communities.
contemporary politics, such as colonial legacies • Judicial Independence and Adherence: The
and revolutions. Historian Eric Hobsbawm's role of the judiciary and its independence,
work on the "Age of Revolution" explores how along with the adherence to legal principles, is
historical events have far-reaching effects. a crucial facet.
o Example: Evaluation of Canada's judicial
Legal-institutional approach
system, where judges are appointed
The Legal-Institutional Approach in comparative based on merit to ensure independence.
politics involves a detailed examination of legal • Policy-Making Processes: This aspect studies
frameworks, political institutions, and their how political institutions are involved in the
interactions within different countries. This policy-making process and the mechanisms for
approach delves into the impact of laws, policy implementation.
constitutions, and institutional structures on the o Example: Analysis of Sweden's consensus-
political systems of nations. oriented policy-making, involving
• Examination of Legal Instruments: This aspect collaboration among diverse political
involves a meticulous analysis of a country's parties.
legal instruments, including its constitution, • Comparative Analysis: Comparative politics
regulations, and legal traditions. S.P. involves contrasting legal and institutional
Huntington, a prominent scholar in this field, systems across different countries to identify
emphasized the pivotal role of constitutions in patterns and variations. Lucian Pye has
shaping political life. emphasized the importance of cross-national
o Example: Researchers may scrutinize the comparisons.
U.S. Constitution to understand its o Example: Contrasting the centralized
influence on the separation of powers governance in China with the federal
structure in India.

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• Impact on Political Stability: This aspect include the replacement of the institutional mode
explores how legal and institutional factors of analysis with the process mode under the
contribute to political stability or instability. influence of behavioral reform.
Samuel P. Huntington's work includes insights
into the relationship between institutional Behaviorists prioritize the study of behaviors over
strength and political stability. structures, institutions, ideologies, or events,
o Example: Examination of Switzerland's introducing a dynamic dimension that captures the
direct democracy and decentralized fluid nature of political life. The state is no longer
governance as factors contributing to the central organizing concept, and the focus shifts
stability. to the empirical investigation of human relations.
• Changes and Political Landscape: Scholars in
this realm investigate how changes in legal and Moreover, institutions are redefined as systems of
institutional structures influence the broader related individual behavior or social action. For
political landscape. Theda Skocpol's work on instance, instead of viewing India's Parliament and
the role of state structures in driving Judiciary in isolation, behaviorists explore the
transformative shifts. behavior patterns of legislators in gaining votes
o Example: Analysis of post-apartheid (e.g., Milan Vaishnav's Market Theory of Elections)
South Africa, where institutional changes or the role of factors like caste in shaping
shaped the political trajectory. Parliament as a political system of legislation (e.g.,
The Legal-Institutional Approach provides a Christophe Jaffrelot’s work on Caste in India).
comprehensive understanding of how legal
frameworks and institutional structures play a Another transformative phenomenon in modern
pivotal role in shaping the political dynamics and comparative politics is the Behavioral Movement,
trajectories of different nations. emphasizing the study of behaviors to comprehend
political phenomena more accurately. This
Modern Approaches
movement signifies a departure from static
In the evolution of the study of comparative structural analysis, embracing a dynamic
governments and politics, modern approaches aim perspective crucial for capturing the ever-changing
to overcome the limitations of traditional dynamics of political life.
methods. This paradigm shift involves a
comprehensive examination of major paradigms,
conceptual frameworks, and competing models to
Behaviouralism
enhance understanding. Sidney Verba The Behavioralism Approach in comparative
encapsulates the essence of this revolution, politics is a perspective that focuses on the
emphasizing the need to move beyond mere systematic and scientific analysis of political
description and focus on theoretically relevant behavior, rather than merely describing political
problems, extend analysis beyond formal institutions and structures.
government institutions, and extend the scope • Empirical Study: Behavioralism emphasizes
beyond Western Europe to include the new empirical research and data-driven analysis to
nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. understand political behavior. It aims to apply
scientific methods to the study of politics.
According to Almond and Powell, this o "The essence of politics is the study of
transformation signifies a quest for a more influence and the influential." - David
comprehensive scope, realism, precision, and Easton
theoretical order. The key changes in this process

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o Example: Analyzing voter turnout o Example: Integrating psychological

patterns across elections to understand insights to understand the motivations
the impact of campaign strategies. behind political decisions.
• Quantitative Methods: Scholars using this • Comparative Analysis: Scholars using
approach often employ quantitative research behavioralism may engage in comparative
methods such as surveys, experiments, and studies of political behavior across different
statistical analysis to collect and analyze data. countries. By analyzing political behaviors
This data-driven approach helps identify across diverse contexts, they aim to identify
patterns and correlations in political behavior. commonalities and differences.
o "The social scientist must take great care o "The behavior of a political system reveals
not to let his tools control his questions." how it maintains itself." - Gabriel Almond
- V.O. Key Jr. o Example: Comparing voting behavior in
o Example: Conducting surveys and using democracies and autocracies to identify
statistical analysis to identify correlations commonalities and differences.
in voting behavior. • Practical Application: Insights from
• Focus on Individuals: Behavioralism centers on behavioralism can inform practical political
the actions and decisions of individual actors, decisions, such as campaign strategies, policy
such as voters, politicians, or interest groups. It designs, and governance approaches.
seeks to uncover the rationality and o Example: Applying insights into voter
motivations behind political choices. behavior to design effective political
o "Voters are primarily interested in how campaign strategies.
well candidates and parties can serve The Behavioralism Approach in comparative
their interests." - Anthony Downs politics is characterized by its empirical and data-
o Example: Studying the decision-making driven focus on understanding political behavior. It
process of individual voters in choosing emphasizes the use of quantitative methods, the
political candidates. study of individual actors, and the development of
• Predictive Power: One of the goals of predictive models. This approach contributes to a
behavioralism is to develop theories and more scientific understanding of politics and its
models that can predict and explain political practical applications.
outcomes. By understanding the behavior of
political actors, researchers can anticipate how Issues with the Behavioural approach:
policies and elections may unfold. • Over-reliance on quantitative methods may
o Example: Developing models to predict exclude insights from qualitative data like
election outcomes based on the rational historical context and interviews.
choices of voters and candidates. • It assumes rational, self-interested political
• Interdisciplinary Approach: It often adopts an actors, neglecting emotions and social norms.
interdisciplinary approach, drawing on insights • It downplays the influence of culture and
from psychology, sociology, and other fields to context on political behavior.
provide a holistic understanding of political • This approach overlook diversity within groups
behavior. like political parties.
o "Political science is concerned with • Conducting behavioral research, especially
decision-making, and decision-making is online, raises privacy and ethical issues.
not confined to politics." - Herbert A. • Predicting political behavior is challenged by
Simon unpredictable factors like political events.

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• Generalizing findings across different contexts These outputs, in turn, affect the system's
can be problematic. functioning.
• While it informs policy, it may not always o Example: Imagine the political system as
provide actionable recommendations. a parliamentary system, with inputs
We will now understand the major Modern coming from political parties and
Approaches one by one: representatives, resulting in legislative
outputs. The public's feedback, such as
election participation and social audits, is
Systems Approach
part of the feedback mechanism.
The systems approach in comparative politics is a
• Function of Political Systems: The
methodological framework rooted in general
fundamental function of political systems,
systems theory and has been significantly
according to this approach, is the authoritative
developed by scholars like David Easton. It views
allocation of values. This allocation is based on
political systems, such as governments or nations,
the Input-Output mechanism.
as integrated and interconnected entities with
o Example: The political system allocates
various components that interact to influence the
values, including wealth, power, and
system's behavior and outcomes.
status, by formulating and implementing
Historical Context: The systems approach in
policies and decisions that shape society.
comparative politics finds its origins in the general
• Comparative politics often conduct cross-
systems theory, particularly influenced by scholars
country studies to identify patterns and
like Ludwig von Bertalanffy. This theory's core idea
variations in how different political systems
is that objects or elements within a group have
function.
relationships and interact based on certain
Critics
identifiable processes.
• Abandonment: David Easton voiced concerns
Key Scholar: David Easton is a major proponent of
about the practicality of the systems approach.
the systems approach in comparative politics. His
He observed, "While systems thinking was a
work, including "The Political System" (1953), has
valuable theoretical framework, its application
played a pivotal role in shaping this approach.
to real-world politics proved elusive."
Core Concepts:
• Marxist Critique: Marxist scholars perceived it
• Political System: In this approach, the political
as a tool that maintained the status quo,
system is viewed as a set of regularized,
especially in capitalist states. They contended
persistent patterns of relationships among
that it failed to address fundamental issues
people and institutions. It functions similarly to
related to class struggle and the persistence of
natural systems, maintaining self-regulating
social inequalities.
processes that adapt and adjust.
• Disconnect between its theoretical complexity
o Example: Consider the political system of
and its applicability to the pragmatic realm of
a country as a whole, comprising
politics. (S.P. Verma,)
institutions like the executive, legislative,
• Ethnocentric Critique: Critics argued that the
and judicial branches, which interact to
systems approach exhibited ethnocentrism in
govern the nation.
its orientation. Its foundation in European and
• Input and Output Functions: Inputs to the
Western state processes failed to account for
political system include demands and support
the diversity of political systems worldwide.
from various sources, while outputs represent
(Edward Said, Orientalism)
decisions and actions generated by the system.
• Traditionalist View: Traditionalists accused
this approach of relying heavily on abstract

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systems thinking without sufficient grounding or the judiciary serve specific functions in a
in empirical political analysis. (Lucian Pye) society.
• Data Collection Over Substance: Detractors o Example: Examining how political parties
contended that the systems approach in India play a crucial role in the
sometimes prioritized data collection over the functioning of the democratic system.
development of substantive insights. This • Equilibrium and Stability: The structural-
emphasis on collecting vast amounts of data functional perspective assumes that political
led to an overemphasis on complexity and systems strive for equilibrium and stability. It
jargon, which hindered practical applicability. suggests that changes or disruptions in one
(Arend Lijphart) part of the political system can have
• Lack of Consensus in the Post-Cold War Era: consequences for the entire system, and that
Samuel P. Huntington highlighted, "The post- the system will adapt to restore balance.
Cold War era disrupted existing paradigms, o Example: Changes or disruptions in the
and the systems approach faced difficulties in Middle East affecting the entire political
adapting to the new realities of global politics." system; subsequent adaptations restore
balance.
Structural Functional Approach
• Norms and Values: This approach often
The structural-functional approach is a theoretical examines the norms, values, and shared beliefs
perspective used in the field of comparative in a society and how they influence the
politics to analyze and understand political systems functioning of political institutions. It considers
and institutions. This approach is derived from how political institutions reflect and reinforce
structural-functionalism, a sociological theory that the prevailing norms and values of the society
examines how different parts of a society function they operate in.
together to maintain stability and order. In o Example: Analyzing how Scandinavian
comparative politics, the structural-functional political institutions reflect and reinforce
approach focuses on studying political structures, the prevailing social norms of equality
institutions, and their roles in maintaining social and social welfare.
and political equilibrium. • Analysis of Dysfunctions: While the structural-
• System Analysis: The structural-functional functional approach typically focuses on the
approach treats political systems as complex positive functions of political institutions, it
entities with various interrelated components, also considers dysfunctions or problems that
such as institutions, norms, and roles. It seeks may arise within a system. Dysfunctions can
to understand how these components function lead to instability and conflict, and the analysis
together to ensure the stability and continuity aims to understand how they can be resolved.
of a political system. o Example: Studying corruption within
o Example: Analyzing how the U.S. political political institutions as a dysfunction and
system, with its separation of powers, proposing reforms to address it.
functions to maintain stability. • Cross-Cultural Comparison: Comparative
• Emphasis on Functionality: The approach politics, as the name suggests, involves
emphasizes the functional roles that different comparing political systems and institutions
political institutions and structures play in a across different countries and regions. The
society. It looks at how these structures structural-functional approach is well-suited
contribute to the functioning of the political for this purpose, as it allows researchers to
system as a whole. For example, it might assess how different systems adapt to various
examine how a constitution, political parties, cultural, historical, and social contexts.

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o Example: Contrasting the parliamentary up a political system. Examples of structures

system in the UK with the presidential include government institutions (legislature,
system in the United States to understand executive, judiciary), political parties, interest
how different systems adapt to cultural groups, and social movements.
contexts. • Functions are the tasks that a political system
• Macro-Level Analysis: The structural- must perform in order to survive and thrive.
functional approach tends to focus on the Almond and Powell identified seven key
macro-level analysis of political systems and functions of political systems:
institutions. It examines the broader structures o Political socialization and recruitment:
and institutions within a society rather than This function involves transmitting the
individual behaviors or micro-level values and norms of the political system
interactions. to its members and recruiting new
o Example: Analyzing the overall societal members into the system.
impact of China's political system, o Interest articulation and aggregation:
considering its macro-level structures and This function involves identifying and
institutions. aggregating the interests of different
• Evolution and Change: This approach also groups in society.
looks at how political systems evolve and o Political communication: This function
change over time in response to internal and involves transmitting information
external pressures. It considers how between the political system and its
adaptations occur to maintain stability or members.
adjust to new circumstances. o Lawmaking: This function involves
o Example: Examining the evolution of creating and enforcing laws.
South Africa's political system post- o Rule adjudication: This function involves
apartheid, considering how it adapted to resolving disputes and enforcing laws.
new circumstances for stability. o Rule application: This function involves
It's important to note that the structural-functional implementing and enforcing laws and
approach has been criticized for its tendency to policies.
prioritize stability and equilibrium over social o Political development: This function
change and for its potential to oversimplify involves adapting the political system to
complex political realities. However, it remains a changing internal and external
valuable tool for understanding the functioning of conditions.
political systems, particularly when used in • Almond and Powell argued that all political
conjunction with other theoretical perspectives systems, regardless of their type or level of
and methodologies in comparative politics. development, must perform these seven
functions in order to survive and thrive.
Almond's Structural Functional Approach
However, the way in which these functions are
Gabriel Almond and Bingham Powell's structural performed can vary greatly from system to
functional approach is a theoretical perspective in system.
political science that examines socio-political o For example, in a democratic system,
systems by analyzing their structures (the political socialization and recruitment
institutions that form them) and functions (the may occur through a variety of channels,
roles that these institutions play). such as the family, schools, the media,
• Structures are the formal and informal and political parties. In contrast, in a
organizations, rules, and procedures that make totalitarian system, political socialization

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and recruitment may be more tightly focuses on the everyday resistance of peasants
controlled by the state. to the state and other powerful actors.
• Similarly, in a democratic system, interest
Political Development Approach
articulation and aggregation may occur
through a variety of mechanisms, such as The Political Development approach emerged as a
elections, interest groups, and social response to the limitations and criticisms of earlier
movements. In contrast, in a totalitarian approaches in the field of comparative politics.
system, interest articulation and aggregation • Earlier Approaches Critiqued: Traditional
may be more tightly controlled by the state. institutionalism and structural functionalism,
Significance pre-Political Development, faced criticism for
• First, it offers a comprehensive framework for ethnocentrism and Western bias, neglecting
understanding the structure and function of diverse non-Western political systems.
political systems, detailing how key elements • Geopolitical Shift Post-WWII: Post-World War
interact to produce political outcomes. II, geopolitical changes like decolonization
• Second, it is comparative, asserting that all emphasized the necessity for an inclusive
political systems must perform the same seven approach, considering the emergence of new
functions, enabling the comparison of different nation-states.
systems. • Rise of Modernization Theory: Modernization
• Third, it is dynamic, acknowledging the theory, notably by Almond and Pye, influenced
constant evolution of political systems and Political Development, proposing stages of
their changing functions over time. political development akin to economic
• Fourth, it is holistic, considering interactions progress, dominating in the early 1960s.
between political systems and other social • Focus on Developing Nations: Political
components. Development uniquely focused on developing
Criticism nations, moving beyond Eurocentric views
• Theda Skocpol: Skocpol (1979) argued that prevalent in earlier comparative politics.
Almond and Powell's approach was too static • Democratization and Social Change: Political
and did not adequately account for change and Development linked closely with
conflict. She proposed a "state-centered" democratization, exploring how political
approach to political analysis that focuses on institutions adapt to societal changes amid
the role of the state in promoting or inhibiting economic development.
change. • Response to Dependency Theory: The 1970s
• Peter Evans: Evans (1995) argued that Almond saw a shift from modernization theory to
and Powell's approach was too ethnocentric dependency theory, challenging optimistic
and assumed that all political systems should assumptions and emphasizing external factors'
aspire to be like Western democracies. He impact on national development.
proposed a "developmental state" approach to Lucian Pye and Political Development
political analysis that focuses on the role of the Lucian W. Pye, contributed significantly to the
state in promoting economic development in understanding of political development through
developing countries. his influential work, 'Aspects of Political
• James Scott: Scott (1998) argued that Almond Development.'
and Powell's approach neglected the role of • Nation-State Evolution: Pye asserts that
conflict and dissent in promoting political political development begins with the
change and progress. He proposed a "peasant establishment of a stable nation-state system,
studies" approach to political analysis that

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forming the basis for subsequent political • Samuel P. Huntington, a notable American
evolution. political scientist, posited that political
o The formation of stable nation-states in development and decay are interconnected
post-colonial Africa, like Ghana in 1957, processes. Modernization, encompassing
marked the initiation of political economic growth and urbanization, can lead to
development as envisioned by Pye. both the development and decay of political
• Equality Parameter: Pye underscores equality systems.
beyond mere participation, emphasizing active o Example: China's economic growth led to
mass involvement and universalistic laws, new political institutions, but it also saw a
applicable impartially. rise in corruption, illustrating the dual
o The Civil Rights Movement in the United impact of modernization.
States exemplifies the pursuit of equality, • Huntington emphasized that the
showcasing active mass involvement and institutionalization of political power is pivotal
the demand for universalistic laws. for political development. Institutionalization,
• Capacity Element: Capacity, in Pye's theory, where political roles and procedures become
relates to the government's performance, established, reduces the likelihood of abuse
demanding both magnitude and efficiency in and promotes the common good.
executing public policy for political • Political decay arises when institutions weaken
development. or de-institutionalize, driven by factors like
o Singapore's efficient public policies and economic crises or external aggression. Weak
rapid economic development under Lee institutions increase the risk of power abuse
Kuan Yew exemplify the capacity element for personal gain.
in Pye's theory. • Huntington's framework is crucial for
• Differentiation Concept: Pye introduces understanding challenges in developing
differentiation as specialization without countries, with contemporary issues like
fragmentation, emphasizing diverse economic inequality and political corruption
components' integrated functions within the posing threats to political stability.
political system. o Example: Many developing nations
o The European Union illustrates grapple with challenges such as economic
differentiation with specialized inequality and corruption, which, if
institutions like the European Central unaddressed, can lead to political decay
Bank and the European Parliament, and instability.
contributing to integrated governance.
• Tradition and Modernity Integration: Pye F.W. Riggs view of Political Development as
highlights the need for balancing tradition and Development Trap as a criticism of Lucian Pye’s
modernity in political development, merging approach:
old societal patterns with adaptive capacities Fred W. Riggs was an American political scientist
for successful evolution. who developed the concept of the "development
o Japan's successful political development trap." He argued that some developing countries
showcases the integration of tradition can become trapped in a cycle of
and modernity, preserving cultural values underdevelopment due to a number of factors,
while adapting to contemporary including:
demands. • Fragmented political elites: Developing
Huntington’s View of Political Development in the countries often have fragmented political
context of Political Decay elites who are more interested in pursuing

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their own personal interests than in promoting modernization and its impact on political
the common good. This can lead to corruption, structures, institutions, and behaviors.
nepotism, and other forms of political The central idea behind political modernization is
dysfunction. that societies evolve through a set of stages,
• Weak political institutions: Developing moving from traditional forms of governance to
countries often have weak political more modern and advanced political systems.
institutions, such as a weak judiciary, an • Evolutionary Perspective: Walt Rostow,
ineffective bureaucracy, and a fragmented outline the stages of development that
political party system. This can make it difficult societies are expected to go through, including
to implement government policies and to hold traditional, preconditions for take-off, take-off,
the government accountable. drive to maturity, and age of high mass
• Uneven economic development: Developing consumption i.e. traditional, transitional, and
countries often experience uneven economic modern phases.
development, with a small elite benefiting o For instance, countries like South Korea
from economic growth while the majority of and Singapore are often cited as having
the population remains poor. This can lead to successfully transitioned through
social unrest and political instability. Rostow's stages from traditional agrarian
• Riggs argued that Lucian Pye's approach to societies to modern industrialized
political development was too optimistic and nations.
did not adequately account for the challenges • Structural Changes: Barrington Moore Jr.'s
of the development trap. "Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy"
• He argued that Pye's focus on political culture examines how different social structures
was not enough to promote political contribute to the emergence of different
development. Rather, Riggs argued that political systems. He argues that the nature of
developing countries need to address the social relations influences the type of political
structural problems that contribute to the institutions that develop.
development trap, such as fragmented o In the context of the Arab Spring,
political elites, weak political institutions, and Barrington Moore Jr.'s ideas can be
uneven economic development. applied to understand how different
social structures in countries like Tunisia,
Characteristic Pye Riggs Egypt, and Libya influenced the
Focus Political Structural emergence of diverse political systems in
culture problems the aftermath of popular uprisings. The
View of political Linear and Complex and varying outcomes highlight the impact of
development optimistic uneven social relations on political development.
Approach to Promote Address • Economic Development: Rostow's stages of
political democratic structural economic growth model suggests that
development culture problems economic development is a prerequisite for
political modernization. The model implies
that increased industrialization and economic
Political Modernization Approach
growth contribute to the establishment of
The Political Modernization Approach seeks to modern political institutions.
understand political development and change in o China's rapid economic development and
societies by examining the process of industrialization over the past few
decades can be seen as an illustration of

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Rostow's stages of economic growth. This includes shifts in political culture, with an
China's economic reforms have coincided emphasis on individual rights, civic
with significant changes in its political participation, and the rule of law. Lucian Pye
landscape, challenging the traditional emphasizes the role of culture in shaping
assumptions about the link between political behavior and institutions.
economic development and political o The global push for human rights and the
change. rule of law reflects a contemporary
• Social Change: Social changes, including shifts cultural shift toward an emphasis on
in values, education, and societal attitudes, are individual rights and civic participation.
seen as integral to the modernization process. Lucian Pye's ideas resonate with efforts to
Increased education and urbanization are promote democratic values globally,
often cited as indicators of societal progress. recognizing the role of culture in shaping
Seymour Martin Lipset argues that certain political behavior.
social conditions are conducive to democracy. • Democratic Governance: The end goal of
o The Arab Spring movements also political modernization, according to many
demonstrate the role of social changes in theorists, is the establishment of democratic
political transformation. The demand for governance. Democracy is viewed as the most
political participation in countries like advanced and desirable form of political
Tunisia was accompanied by a desire for organization.
societal progress, including increased o The ongoing discussions and efforts to
education and improved living standards, promote democracy in countries like
reflecting Lipset's idea that certain social Myanmar and Afghanistan highlight the
conditions are conducive to democracy. contemporary relevance of the idea that
• Political Institutions: The transformation of democratic governance is viewed as the
political institutions is a key aspect of political most advanced and desirable form of
modernization. Traditional forms of political organization. International
governance, such as authoritarian rule or organizations and actors often advocate
feudal systems, are expected to give way to for democratic principles in these
more democratic and participatory political contexts.
structures. Samuel P. Huntington argues that Two Streams of Modernization Theory
institutional development is crucial for political • Marxist Description: The Marxist perspective
stability. posits that economy, politics, and culture are
o The transition of several Eastern intimately associated. Economic development
European countries, such as Poland and is considered a determinant of a society’s
Hungary, from authoritarian regimes to political and cultural characteristics. This
democratic systems after the end of the perspective emphasizes the role of economic
Cold War aligns with the expectation that factors in shaping political development.
political institutions will transform. • Weberian Version: Contrarily, the Weberian
Samuel P. Huntington's emphasis on version suggests that culture shapes the
institutional development is evident in economy and political life. Culture is viewed as
these cases, where the establishment of a significant factor influencing economic and
democratic structures became crucial for political structures. This perspective
political stability. recognizes the reciprocal relationship between
• Cultural Shifts: Political modernization also cultural dynamics and political and economic
considers cultural changes as societies evolve. development.

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Political Modernization in Action: Stages and importance of individual freedoms and

Perspectives capabilities.
• Almond’s Classification: Political scientists like • Ignored Social Inequalities: Critics argue the
Almond classified measures of political approach tends to overlook social inequalities
modernization into traditional, transitional, within societies, as economic growth doesn't
and modern categories. This classification always lead to equitable resource distribution,
provides a framework for assessing the creating winners and losers.
evolving political landscape in societies o Karl Marx's critique of capitalism and
undergoing change. focus on class struggle is relevant,
• Four Stages of Modernization (David Apter): emphasizing the importance of
Apter delineates four stages of modernization, addressing economic disparities.
starting with contact between colonial and • Lack of Consideration for Historical Context:
local populations, followed by consolidation of The approach often neglects historical context,
empires, demands for independence, and, failing to consider the impact of legacies,
finally, political rather than economic colonial histories, and unique trajectories on a
modernization. Each stage represents a phase nation's political development.
in the evolution of political systems. • Failure to Predict Authoritarian Resilience:
• Interrelationship with Social Factors: Political Critics argue the approach fails to predict
change and modernization are examined in the persistent authoritarian regimes, challenging
context of interrelationships with the assumption that economic growth leads
industrialization, urbanization, education, inevitably to democratic governance.
commerce, and sociological development. o Samuel Huntington acknowledged the
Coleman identifies characteristics of modern complexities of democratization and the
society as indicators of the modernization persistence of authoritarianism in some
process. contexts.
Criticism: • Inadequate Attention to Global Power
• Eurocentrism: Political Modernization Dynamics: Critics argue the approach doesn't
Approach is Eurocentric, assuming a linear sufficiently address global power dynamics'
Western path and overlooking diverse impact, with dependency theorists highlighting
historical, cultural, and social contexts in non- how the global economic system can
Western societies. scholars like Edward Said perpetuate underdevelopment.
and Gayatri Spivak, have questioned • Overemphasis on Formal Institutions: Some
Eurocentric perspectives in various disciplines. argue the approach overemphasizes formal
• Cultural Determinism: This approach democratic institutions, neglecting the
oversimplifies culture's role in political importance of their quality and the need for a
development, risking cultural determinism by supportive political culture and civil society.
treating cultural factors as static and • Dynamic Nature of Culture and Values: Critics
overstating their influence. note cultural shifts are dynamic and not easily
• Homogenization of Development: The predictable. Assuming certain cultural values
assumption that all societies will progress will lead inevitably to democracy
toward democracy is criticized for oversimplifies the complexities of cultural
homogenizing development, neglecting norm evolution.
diverse paths and forms of governance. o Benedict Anderson's concept of
Amartya Sen, has argued for a more inclusive "imagined communities" challenges static
approach to development, emphasizing the

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views of culture, emphasizing its dynamic • Shift in Attention: The collapse of Marxist
and constructed nature. regimes and the rise of nationalism redirected
• Gender Blindness: The approach is criticized attention to how regimes legitimize
for a gender-blind perspective, overlooking the themselves and citizens identify with them.
gender dimensions of political modernization This highlighted the mediating role of culture
and women's experiences in the development in political processes.
process. Modernization and Development Theories:
o Feminist scholars like Cynthia Enloe and Political culture's emergence aligns with
bell hooks have highlighted the need to modernization and development theories.
incorporate gender perspectives into Scholars like Almond, Verba, and Pye pioneered
political analysis and development this approach, borrowing concepts from sociology
studies. and anthropology. Almond, particularly, developed
a comparative methodology for studying political
Political Culture Approach cultures, viewing political systems as empirically
The Political Culture Approach is a theoretical observable and scientifically understandable sets
perspective that investigates the shared beliefs, of roles.
values, attitudes, and symbols that shape the
political behavior and institutions within a society. Almond and Verba's Typology:
It explores the deep-seated cultural foundations In their 1963 study, Almond and Verba identified
influencing political systems and how these three types of political culture:
cultural elements impact political processes. • Parochial Political Culture (e.g., Mexico):
• Political Culture Approach in Comparative Citizens are uninformed, unaware, and
Politics: Political culture, often overlooked in disinterested in the political process.
political science, gained prominence with • Subject Political Culture (e.g., Germany and
Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba's 1963 Italy): Citizens are somewhat informed,
publication "Civic Culture." This approach occasionally participate, but lack active
emerged in response to challenges posed by engagement.
Marxist materialism and structural- • Participant Political Culture (e.g., UK and US):
functionalism, which treated culture as Informed citizens actively participate in the
subservient to material forces or systemic political process.
requirements. Theories on Political Culture Formation:
• Intellectual Roots: The dismissive attitude • Seymour Martin Lipset's Formative Events
toward political culture finds its roots in Theory: Examines the enduring effects of key
Marxism and functionalism, which events during a country's founding.
downplayed the significance of culture in • Louis Hartz's Fragment Theory: Explores the
political analysis, considering it subordinate to lasting impact of European colonization on
material forces or systemic needs. countries and societies.
• Galvanizing Publication - "Civic Culture": In • Roger Inglehart's Post-Materialism Theory:
1963, Almond and Verba's "Civic Culture" Investigates the enduring effects of childhood
sparked a debate on the explanatory power of economic and social conditions.
political culture. It questioned Marxist Contemporary Examples:
materialism and structural-functionalism, • Nationalism and Regime Legitimization:
offering a focus on culture that clashed with Recent global events, including the collapse of
emerging doubts about positivism. Marxist regimes and the rise of nationalism,
underscore the role of political culture in

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legitimizing regimes and shaping citizen factors. Critics emphasize the need to avoid
identification. deterministic assumptions and recognize the
Criticism evolving nature of political cultures within complex
• Overemphasis on Consensus: scholars like societies.
David Easton and Seymour Martin Lipset,
Political economy perspective
argue that the political culture approach tends
to overly emphasize consensus, neglecting The Political Economy perspective is a
societal conflicts and diverse opinions. This multidisciplinary approach that explores the
oversimplification may hinder a nuanced relationship between political and economic
understanding of political behavior. structures within a society. It seeks to understand
• Cultural Determinism: Scholars like Harold D. how political institutions, ideologies, and power
Lasswell and Robert Dahl critique the dynamics influence economic policies and
approach for cultural determinism, attributing outcomes, and vice versa.
political behaviors solely to cultural factors. Political Economy Perspective:
This perspective may downplay the influence • Interconnectedness of Politics and
of structural and economic factors in shaping Economics: At its core, the Political Economy
political dynamics. perspective recognizes the inherent
• Static Nature: Viewing political cultures as interconnectedness of politics and economics.
enduring over time might not adequately It contends that political and economic factors
capture the dynamic nature of societies and influence each other and are inseparable in
their potential for cultural change in response shaping societal structures and outcomes.
to external influences. o Example: During economic recessions,
• Homogenization of Cultures: Scholars like governments may use fiscal policies like
Clifford Geertz and Benedict Anderson tax cuts or increased public spending to
highlight the risk of homogenizing diverse stimulate growth. This political choice in
societies. The political culture approach, if not resource allocation significantly
applied with caution, may oversimplify the influences economic outcomes.
multicultural and pluralistic nature of modern • Distribution of Resources and Power: Political
societies, overlooking the complexities of Economy examines how resources, wealth,
diverse political landscapes. and power are distributed within a society. It
• Neglect of Institutional Factors: Noted by analyzes the impact of political decisions and
scholars such as Theda Skocpol, the political policies on economic inequalities and assesses
culture approach is criticized for neglecting how economic structures, in turn, shape
institutional factors. While culture is political power dynamics.
influential, institutional structures, including o Example: In societies with unequal land
laws and political systems, are equally crucial distribution, political decisions on land
in shaping political outcomes. Ignoring this reform have economic consequences.
aspect limits the approach's explanatory Land redistribution can reshape wealth
power. distribution, altering power dynamics
within society.
While the Political Culture Approach offers • Role of Institutions: Institutions, both political
valuable insights into understanding the values and economic, play a crucial role in the Political
shaping political behaviors, its application requires Economy perspective. This includes
a nuanced understanding of the dynamic interplay government structures, legal frameworks, and
between cultural, structural, and institutional economic institutions. The perspective

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assesses how these institutions interact to and David Ricardo, emphasizes the role of
shape economic policies and outcomes. markets in allocating resources efficiently. It
• Ideological Influences: Political Economy supports limited government intervention and
considers the role of ideologies in shaping focuses on the self-regulating nature of
economic policies. Different political markets.
ideologies, such as liberalism, socialism, or • Marxist Political Economy: The Marxist school,
conservatism, have distinct views on the role rooted in the works of Karl Marx, criticizes
of the state in the economy, the distribution of capitalism for fostering inequality and
wealth, and the regulation of markets. exploitation. It advocates for a socialist or
o Example: Governments influenced by communist system where the means of
socialist ideology may prioritize policies production are collectively owned, eliminating
like progressive taxation to reduce class distinctions.
income inequality. Conversely, • Neoclassical Political Economy: Neoclassical
conservative governments may economics, influenced by Alfred Marshall and
emphasize free-market principles, Leon Walras, builds on classical principles but
reflecting ideological underpinnings in introduces mathematical models and a focus
economic decisions. on individual utility maximization. It
Scholar Views on Political Economy: emphasizes market equilibrium and the
• Karl Marx: Marxist political economy, efficiency of competitive markets.
developed by Karl Marx, is a foundational • Keynesian Political Economy: Developed by
component of this perspective. Marx's analysis John Maynard Keynes, this school emerged in
focuses on the role of capitalism in shaping response to the Great Depression. It supports
political structures. He argues that economic government intervention in the economy,
relations fundamentally influence power particularly through fiscal and monetary
dynamics and class struggles in society. policies, to address unemployment and
• Adam Smith: In contrast, classical liberal stabilize economic cycles.
economist Adam Smith's work on the invisible • Institutionalist Political Economy: Institutional
hand of the market is also integral to the economics, represented by Thorstein Veblen
Political Economy perspective. Smith and John R. Commons, emphasizes the role of
emphasizes the importance of free markets institutions in shaping economic behavior. It
and limited government intervention in explores how institutions, such as laws and
economic affairs, suggesting that self-interest social norms, influence economic outcomes.
and competition drive economic prosperity. Criticism
• Kautilya’s Arthashastra: Kautilya, an ancient • Reductionism and Oversimplification: Critics
Indian philosopher and economist, articulated argue that some political economists may
political-economic principles in his work, the oversimplify complex political and economic
Arthashastra. He emphasized the importance interactions, reducing them to deterministic
of a strong state in ensuring economic relationships. This reductionist approach might
prosperity. Kautilya advocated for state not capture the full complexity of societal
intervention in economic affairs, including dynamics.
regulation of trade and commerce, taxation, • Neglect of Cultural and Social Factors: Political
and the promotion of agriculture and industry. Economy, in some instances, may neglect the
Schools of Political Economy Approach: influence of cultural and social factors on
• Classical Political Economy: This school, economic and political outcomes. The focus on
represented by economists like Adam Smith institutions and structures might not fully

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 pg. 24

account for the impact of societal norms and Core countries then use these raw materials
values. and agricultural products to produce
• Challenges in Predictive Power: Predicting manufactured goods, which are then sold back
specific outcomes based on political economic to underdeveloped countries at high prices.
analysis can be challenging due to the dynamic • This unequal trade relationship results in a net
nature of political and economic systems. transfer of wealth from underdeveloped
Unexpected events or external shocks may countries to core countries. Frank argued that
significantly alter expected outcomes. this transfer of wealth prevents
The Political Economy perspective offers a valuable underdeveloped countries from developing
lens for understanding the intricate interplay their own economies.
between politics and economics. By examining • Frank also argued that foreign investment in
how political structures influence economic underdeveloped countries is often used to
policies and vice versa, this perspective enriches exploit natural resources and labor, rather
our understanding of societal development and than to promote economic development.
dynamics. However, scholars and practitioners Foreign investors often repatriate their profits
must navigate the complexities and avoid back to their home countries, which further
deterministic assumptions in applying this drains the economies of underdeveloped
perspective countries.
• Frank's dependency theory has been
Dependency Theory (Development as influential in the development of a number of
Underdevelopment) other theories of development, such as world-
• Dependency theory is a political economy systems theory and neo-colonialism theory.
theory that argues that the development of Criticisms of Dependency Theory
underdeveloped countries is the result of their • Some critics argue that the theory is too
dependency on developed countries. Frank simplistic and that it does not adequately
argued that underdeveloped countries are not account for the diversity of experiences of
underdeveloped because they are inherently underdeveloped countries. They argue that
inferior, but rather because they are exploited some underdeveloped countries have been
by developed countries. able to achieve economic development,
• Frank's theory is based on the following key despite their dependency on developed
ideas: countries.
o The world economy is divided into a core • The theory is too deterministic and that it
of developed countries and a periphery of does not allow for the possibility of change.
underdeveloped countries. They argue that underdeveloped countries can
o The core countries exploit the periphery break free from their dependency on
countries through unequal trade relations developed countries and achieve economic
and foreign investment. development through their own efforts.
o This exploitation leads to the development • Others argue that the theory is too
of the core countries and the Eurocentric and that it does not adequately
underdevelopment of the periphery account for the role of non-Western countries
countries. in the global economy i.e. non-Western
• Frank argued that underdeveloped countries countries have played an active role in shaping
are forced to specialize in the production of the global economy, and that they cannot be
raw materials and agricultural products, which simply reduced to victims of Western
are then sold to core countries at low prices. exploitation.

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 pg. 25

World System Theory of Wallerstein Core Concepts in World-System Theory

• World-systems theory (WST) was developed by • World-Economy vs. World-System:
sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein in the 1970s Wallerstein distinguishes between a world-
to explain the emergence of capitalism and the economy, characterized by economic
global system of inequality. Wallerstein argued interconnections, and a world-system, which
that the world economy is a single system, involves both economic and political
divided into three zones: the core, the semi- relationships. The world-system incorporates
periphery, and the periphery. power dynamics and hierarchies beyond just
o Core Countries: Most developed nations economic transactions.
with robust economies, high • Structural Differentiation: The world-system is
industrialization, and urbanization. High marked by structural differentiation, where
standard of living and relatively equal nations assume distinct roles and positions
wealth distribution. based on their economic activities. Core
o Semi-Peripheral Countries: Developing nations typically specialize in advanced
nations positioned between core and industrial production, while periphery nations
peripheral. Exhibit traits of both core often provide raw materials and cheap labor.
(industrialization) and peripheral • Dependency and Underdevelopment:
(poverty) countries. Often play a Dependency, as per Wallerstein's theory, is an
mediating role between the core and the inherent feature of the world-system. Core
periphery. nations depend on the periphery for resources
o Peripheral Countries: Least developed and labor, while the periphery is dependent on
nations with low industrialization, the core for technology, capital, and market
urbanization, and high poverty. access. This interdependence contributes to
Characterized by inequality and reliance underdevelopment in the periphery.
on exporting raw materials to core Criticisms of World-Systems Theory
nations, importing manufactured goods. • Oversimplification:
• Wallerstein argued that the world-system is o Global Diversity: Immanuel Wallerstein,
capitalist and that capitalism is inherently argue that the theory oversimplifies
exploitative. He argued that core countries global dynamics, neglecting diverse
exploit the semi-periphery and the periphery interactions among nations and
in order to maintain their position at the top of homogenizing complexities.
the system. This exploitation can take many o Linear Progression: Critics contend that
forms, such as unequal trade relations, foreign the linear progression implied by core,
investment, and military intervention. semi-periphery, and periphery
• Wallerstein's world-systems theory has been classifications may not capture nuanced
influential in the development of a number of trajectories.
other theories of development, such as • Neglect of Agency:
dependency theory and world-ecology theory. o Limited Role: Some critics, including
It has also been used to study a wide range of Arjun Appadurai, assert the theory
topics, such as the global food system, the downplays the agency of nations,
global financial system, and the global overlooking strategic decisions and
environmental crisis. adaptive strategies.
o Success Stories: Scholars such as Manuel
Castells argue that success stories of
nations navigating the world-system may

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 pg. 26

be overshadowed by a focus on structural relationships, seen in the exploitation of cheap

constraints. labor in peripheral countries by core-country
• Neglect of Cultural Factors and Internal corporations, align with the world-system
Dynamics: perspective.
o Cultural Determinants: Critics, including • Unequal Access to Technology: Ongoing
Anthony Giddens, argue the theory dominance of core nations in technological
underplays the influence of cultural advancements reinforces the digital divide,
factors on a nation's development. highlighting persistent global inequalities in
o Internal Dynamics: The theory may technology access.
neglect the role of internal power • Environmental Exploitation: Core nations
structures and political agency within significantly contribute to ecological
nations, as pointed out by scholars like degradation, disproportionately impacting
Theda Skocpol. peripheral nations.
• Examples:
Significance of Political Economy approach:
o China's Development: Critics suggest the
theory oversimplifies China's rise by • Understanding Policy Choices: Political
categorizing it as semi-peripheral, not economy elucidates how political and
fully capturing its unique blend of state- economic factors influence policy choices
led capitalism and cultural factors. across nations, contributing to varied
o India's Trajectory: India's distinct outcomes.
development path showcases the • Exploring Development Disparities:
importance of internal dynamics, Comparative political economy examines
challenging the theory's applicability to development gaps, revealing how political
diverse national experiences. institutions and economic structures shape
Relevance of World-Systems Theory Today differing levels of economic growth and
• Global Economic Inequality: Economic power underdevelopment.
concentration in core nations starkly manifests • Insights into Political Systems: This
in disparities, illustrated by the sharp contrast perspective provides insights into the
between affluent Western countries and functioning of political systems by analyzing
economically struggling regions like sub- the interaction between political institutions
Saharan Africa. and economic factors, uncovering governance
• Globalization Dynamics: The world-system dynamics and decision-making processes.
perspective elucidates how globalization • Trade and Globalization Dynamics: Crucial for
sustains core-periphery dynamics. understanding international engagement,
Multinational corporations from core nations comparative political economy shows how
exploit resources in peripheral regions, domestic political factors influence trade
perpetuating this global imbalance. policies, economic openness, and responses to
• Dependency Relationships: Modern global challenges.
dependency relationships, like the extraction Limitations of Political Economy approach:
of raw materials from peripheral nations by
• Cultural and Historical Variability: Political
core nations, find apt explanation in the world-
economy models may struggle to incorporate
system perspective. These situations fuel
cultural and historical nuances, impacting their
ongoing debates on economic dependency.
ability to explain diverse political and
• Structural Exploitation: Persistent exploitative
economic outcomes.
labor practices and unequal trade

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 pg. 27

• Methodological Challenges: Comparative dependency, and neoliberalism, emphasizes

political economy faces challenges in data the intricate link between politics and
comparability and isolating variables, limiting economics. These frameworks offer valuable
the precision of cross-national comparisons. insights into development, global hierarchies,
• Diverse Policy Outcomes: Political economy and the interplay of economic forces with
perspectives may not comprehensively explain political structures, highlighting the need for a
diverse policy outcomes, with non-economic holistic understanding of their symbiotic
factors like social movements and geopolitical relationship.
considerations playing significant roles.
Political sociology perspective
• Dynamic Nature of Politics: Comparative
political economy models may oversimplify the Political sociology, within the context of
dynamic political landscape, necessitating a comparative politics, provides a lens through
more nuanced and adaptive approach as which scholars examine the dynamic interplay
political systems evolve over time. between political institutions, structures, and
• Neglect of Constitutional and Political societal elements. It seeks to understand how
Institutions: The approach may neglect the social factors, power relations, and cultural
understanding of constitutions and political dynamics influence political processes and
institutions by overly focusing on economic outcomes across different nations.
aspects of the polity. • Social Structures and Inequality: Political
• Biased Nomenclature: The use of terms like sociologists analyze how social structures, such
North-South countries, Developing-Developed as class, race, gender, and ethnicity, influence
countries, and Third World countries in political power and decision-making. They
political economy studies may introduce bias explore how social hierarchies and inequalities
into the approach. manifest in political systems and policies.
• Normative Focus and Specialized Knowledge: • Institutions and Power: Comparative politics
Political economy studies may lean towards from a political sociology perspective
normative perspectives, and their reliance on investigates the role of political institutions in
quantitative techniques demands specialized shaping and maintaining power dynamics. This
knowledge, potentially excluding broader includes studying the impact of formal
understanding. institutions (e.g., government structures) and
• Costly and Limited Comprehensive informal institutions (e.g., cultural norms) on
Understanding: The sophistication of political political behavior.
economy studies makes them costly, and the • Cultural Dynamics: Political sociologists
presence of numerous fault lines may hinder explore the cultural dimensions of politics,
the attainment of a comprehensive including shared values, beliefs, and symbols
understanding of the subject. that influence political attitudes and behavior.
• Challenges in Reconciliation: As noted by Cultural factors can have a profound impact on
Samuel Huntington, there remains a challenge political systems and may explain variations in
in reconciling economic determinism with political outcomes across different societies.
political determinism within the political o Example: Cultural dynamics influence
economy approach. politics in Saudi Arabia, where Islamic
Conclusion principles shape policies and social
• The political economy approach, norms. In contrast, secular societies like
encompassing frameworks like modernization, France are influenced more by principles
of secularism.

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 pg. 28

• Social Movements and Activism: The study of o Example: Japan's political culture, marked
social movements and activism is central to by civic duty and respect for authority,
political sociology in comparative politics. This influences political participation and
involves analyzing how collective action, decision-making, contrasting with the
protest movements, and social mobilization more individualistic culture in the United
contribute to political change and influence States.
state policies. • Social Change and Development: Political
o Example: The Arab Spring demonstrates sociology in comparative politics considers the
how social movements, fueled by social role of social change and development in
media and discontent, can lead to political transformations. This involves
political change, challenging existing examining how economic development,
structures across the Arab world. technological advancements, and social shifts
• Globalization and Transnationalism: Political impact political structures and processes.
sociology takes into account the impact of o Example: China's rapid economic
globalization on political processes. development and technological
Researchers examine how global forces, such advancements have transformed its
as economic interdependence and political landscape, shifting from an
transnational actors, shape domestic politics agrarian society to an industrial and
and policies. technological powerhouse, impacting
o Example: The European Union (EU) political structures and governance.
exemplifies globalization's impact on By adopting a political sociology perspective in
political processes, with member states comparative politics, scholars aim to go beyond the
experiencing transnational governance, formal structures of political systems and
where decisions at the supranational level understand the underlying social dynamics that
influence domestic policies and vice shape political phenomena. This interdisciplinary
versa. approach helps to uncover the complexities of
• Identity Politics: Identity is a significant focus political life in diverse societies and provides
within political sociology. Comparative politics insights into the factors influencing political
from this perspective investigates how political outcomes across different contexts.
identities, including national identity, ethnic
identity, and religious identity, influence Criticism
political behavior and conflicts. • Concerns raised by critics regarding the
o Example: In India, identity politics shapes potential loss of political science's
the political landscape, with parties independent identity due to the focus on
mobilizing support based on religious, society reflect the ongoing debate within the
caste, or regional identities, leading to discipline.
competition and conflicts. • Samuel P Huntington's critique of sociological
• Political Culture: Political sociologists study reductionism emphasizes the necessity for a
the political culture of societies, examining the balanced approach, considering not just social
shared values, beliefs, and attitudes that factors but also institutional and cultural
influence political participation and decision- elements in understanding political events.
making. Variations in political culture can help
Neo-institutionalism
explain differences in political systems and
practices. In response to the inherent weaknesses in the
overtly sociological approach of Political Sociology,

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 pg. 29

political scientists began to diminish their reliance comprehending how different political
on understanding the state. This shift prompted systems functioned.
critics, including Theda Skopol, to call for a revival • "Reinventing Government" and Analytical
in the study of the state to ensure an unbiased Shift: Scholars like March and Olsen advocated
approach in Political Sociology. for "Reinventing Government," suggesting a
• Neo-Institutionalism as a Revival: Neo- shift in analytical focus in the study of the
Institutionalism emerged as a revival of the state. This involved de-emphasizing micro-
institutional approach, addressing concerns processes and methodological individualism.
that political sociology was sidelining the role Instead, the focus turned towards
of the state. Particularly in developing understanding how institutions, rules, and
countries, it was argued that the state not only procedures constrained the behavior of actors
responded to socio-cultural factors but actively while acknowledging the reciprocal
shaped them. relationship between these structures and the
o The example of the Indian state, initially actors themselves.
moving towards modernity under Pt. • Comprehensive Analysis by Neo-
Nehru's leadership but later reverting due Institutionalists: Neo-institutionalists explored
to electoral politics post-1967, illustrates various facets of institutions, including how
this point. they governed themselves, recruited
• Rejuvenating Interest in Institutions: Neo- members, and protected their interests. This
Institutionalism marked a resurgence of comprehensive analysis aimed to capture the
interest in the study of institutions, which had intricate ways in which institutions functioned
waned during the 1960s Behavioral within political systems.
movement. Critics, like Easton, lamented the o An example is the examination of how
decline of Political Theory and called for a international organizations establish and
renewed focus on political behavior studies. follow their internal rules, reflecting on the
• Theda Skopol's Call: Theda Skopol's influential impact of these rules on their behavior in
call to "Bring the State back in" in 1985 the global political arena.
underscored the significance of state The comparative methods within Political Science,
institutions as central actors with autonomy such as the Systems approach or the Political
and the capacity to shape relations. This development approach, played a crucial role in
highlighted the need to refocus on revitalizing the field. These approaches brought
understanding the dynamics within and awareness of forthcoming challenges, societal
around state institutions. developments, problems, and other political
o For example, in comparative politics, realities. They provided a framework for political
understanding the autonomous role of scientists to understand and theorize complex
state institutions became essential in political dynamics, making the field more relevant
and responsive to the evolving political landscape.

Student Notes ✍

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Chapter - 2 pg. 30

State in Comparative Politics

What is state
Analysis of important dimensions from PYQ
• In political science, the term "state" has a more
1. A minimal State ensures maximum of specific and nuanced meaning. It refers to a
Individual Liberty.' Examine the concept sovereign political entity with defined
of Minimal State. (2013) geographical boundaries, a stable population,
2. ‘The struggle for democracy has been a system of governance, and the ability to
marked by bitter strife and tribulations.’ enter into relations with other states. The state
Examine the statement, illustrating the is characterized by a set of institutions and
cases of Pakistan, Nepal and Myanmar. structures that exercise authority and control
(2015) within its territory.
3. Do you subscribe to the view that the Key components of the state in political science
modern constructs of the State and include:
politics are pre-eminently Eurocentric • Territory: The state has defined borders,
and not indigenous and appropriate for establishing the space it governs.
the analysis of non-western societies ?
• Population: A stable population resides within
(2015) the state's boundaries, contributing to its
4. "A combination of internal pressures
dynamics.
(ethnic and regional forces) and external
• Sovereignty: The state holds supreme
threats (EU, UN, TNC, global market, etc.)
authority and independence, enforcing laws
has produced what is commonly referred
without external interference.
to as a 'crisis of the nation-state'."
• Government: Political authorities manage
Elaborate. (2016)
public affairs, enforce laws, and make
5. Describe the changing nature of the State
decisions on behalf of the population.
in the developing societies in the context
• Legitimacy: The state's authority is legitimized
of inclusive growth in the 21st century.
by the population through legal and political
(2018)
acceptance.
6. “The post-colonial state was thought of
• Monopoly on Force: The state has a legitimate
an entity that stood outside and above
monopoly on the use of force to maintain
society as an autonomous agency.”
order and security.
Explain. (2021)
• International Recognition: States are
recognized as sovereign entities by other
State in comparative perspective: states and international organizations
Characteristics and changing nature of the The concept of the state is central to the study of
State in capitalist and socialist economies, political science, providing a framework for
and, advanced industrial and developing analyzing political power, governance structures,
societies. and the dynamics of political systems. Different
theories, such as the social contract theory or the
realist perspective, offer varying perspectives on
the nature and role of the state in political science.

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 pg. 31

Scholarly Views
• Social Contract Theory (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau): Scholars like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-
Jacques Rousseau contributed to the social contract theory, which explores the origin of the state.
According to this perspective, individuals voluntarily come together to form a political entity,
surrendering some of their natural rights in exchange for protection and governance by the state.
• Weberian Perspective (Max Weber): Max Weber's concept of the state emphasizes the legitimate use
of force as a defining characteristic. He argues that the state holds a monopoly on the legitimate use of
coercion within a given territory. Additionally, Weber distinguishes between traditional, charismatic,
and legal-rational authority in the functioning of the state.
• Pluralist Theory: Pluralist scholars, such as Robert Dahl, view the state as a neutral arena where
different interest groups compete for influence and power. In this perspective, the state is seen as a
mediator between various societal groups rather than an entity with its own interests.
• Marxist Perspective (Karl Marx): From a Marxist standpoint, the state is seen as an instrument of class
domination. Karl Marx argued that the state serves the interests of the ruling class and functions to
maintain the existing social order. The state, according to Marx, is a reflection of the underlying
economic structure.
• Neo-Institutionalism: Neo-institutionalists, such as Theda Skocpol, focus on the role of institutions
within the state. They analyze how institutions shape political behavior, policy outcomes, and the
overall stability of the state. This perspective emphasizes the importance of formal and informal rules
in understanding state behavior.
• Post-Colonial Perspective: Scholars from a post-colonial perspective, like Frantz Fanon or Edward Said,
critique the state as a product of colonial histories and argue that the modern state often perpetuates
colonial power structures. They explore how colonial legacies influence state-building processes and
governance in post-colonial societies.
• Globalization and the Erosion of State Sovereignty: In contemporary scholarship, globalization has led
to discussions about the erosion of state sovereignty. Scholars like Joseph Nye and Robert Keohane
explore how global forces and institutions influence state behavior, challenging traditional notions of
state autonomy.

What is the meaning of capitalist economy? What is the nature of state in Capitalist economy?
Capitalism is an economic system in which private • The relationship between the state and the
individuals or businesses own capital goods. The economy has been a subject of intense debate
production of goods and services is based on for centuries, with varying perspectives on the
supply and demand in the general market—known appropriate extent of state intervention in a
as a market economy—rather than through capitalist system. While the concept of a pure
central planning—known as a planned economy or free market economy, devoid of any
command economy. The purest form of capitalism government involvement, remains a
is free market or laissez-faire capitalism. Here, theoretical construct, the reality is that all
private individuals are unrestrained. They may economies operate within a framework
determine where to invest, what to produce or sell, shaped by state policies and actions.
and at which prices to exchange goods and • Traditionally, the state has been seen as
services. The laissez-faire marketplace operates playing four primary roles in a capitalist
without checks or controls. economy:

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 pg. 32

o Providing a Legal Framework: The state interests, contributing to the stability of the
establishes and enforces the legal capitalist system.
framework that governs economic • Adam Smith: Smith, a proponent of laissez-
activities. This includes defining property faire economics, emphasized the state's role
rights, establishing contractual in enforcing property rights, providing a
obligations, and regulating competition. A legal framework, and ensuring defense. His
stable and predictable legal framework is ideas laid the foundation for minimal
essential for fostering economic growth government intervention, advocating for
and investor confidence. the efficiency of free markets.
o Protecting Property Rights: Private • John Maynard Keynes: Keynes proposed
property rights, the cornerstone of state intervention in the economy to
capitalism, are safeguarded by the state. manage aggregate demand during
This ensures that individuals and economic downturns. Contrary to laissez-
businesses have the secure ownership faire principles, Keynesian economics
and control of their assets, providing argued for government policies to stabilize
incentives for investment and innovation. the economy and address unemployment.
o Ensuring Competition: The state • Milton Friedman: Friedman, a proponent of
promotes a competitive marketplace by classical liberal economics, advocated for
preventing monopolies and cartels from limited state intervention. He believed in
stifling competition. This helps to keep free markets, criticizing extensive
prices in check, promotes innovation, and government involvement and emphasizing
provides consumers with a wider range of the importance of individual freedoms for
choices. economic prosperity.
o Providing Public Goods: The state • Joseph Schumpeter: Schumpeter
provides certain goods and services, introduced the concept of "creative
known as public goods, that are essential destruction," recognizing the dynamic
for a functioning society but are not nature of capitalism. While acknowledging
adequately supplied by the private sector. the state's role in creating conditions for
Examples include national defense, innovation, he also cautioned against
infrastructure, and education. excessive regulation that could stifle
entrepreneurship
Scholarly Views
• Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Marx and The Changing Dynamics of State Intervention
Engels, critical of capitalism, viewed the • The traditional roles of the state in a capitalist
state as a tool of the bourgeoisie, serving to economy have undergone significant
maintain class structures and protect transformations over time, driven by
capitalist interests. They argued that the technological advancements, globalization,
state perpetuates the existing economic and evolving social and economic conditions.
order, suppressing dissent for the benefit of • Technological Change: The rapid pace of
the ruling class. technological change has challenged
• Vilfredo Pareto: Pareto acknowledged the traditional economic models and created new
state's role in maintaining social equilibrium, industries. The state has had to adapt its
emphasizing its function in preventing social policies to promote innovation, address the
unrest. However, he recognized that the social and economic impacts of technological
state's actions might be influenced by elite

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 pg. 33

disruptions, and ensure that the benefits of • In some places, there is also the growth of
technological progress are shared widely. rightist groups e.g. In USA, Britain, France,
o The growth of the digital economy has Netherlands and Sweden.
created new challenges for taxation, data • There is a fear of the rise of neo-fascism group
privacy, and intellectual property rights. in the capitalist countries of the world under
The state has had to respond to these the pressure of eventually rising financial crisis.
challenges by developing new tax
policies, data protection laws, and
copyright frameworks. Shift from Lasseiz fare to welfare states
• Globalization: The increasing • John Locke's Perspective: According to John
interconnectedness of the global economy has Locke, in his work "Two Treatises of
necessitated international cooperation and Government," argued that individuals in the
coordination of economic policies. The state state of nature lacked a common authority to
has played a crucial role in negotiating trade resolve disputes and enforce laws. Hence the
agreements, establishing global regulatory establishment of the state is a conscious social
frameworks, and addressing cross-border contract entered into by individuals to
issues such as environmental protection and overcome the inconveniences and challenges
labor standards. of the state of nature. Locke envisions the state
o The state has played a key role in as a neutral entity, functioning as an impartial
negotiating trade agreements, such as the arbiter to mediate conflicts and protect the
North American Free Trade Agreement natural rights of individuals. In his view, the
(NAFTA) and the World Trade state serves the common good by ensuring
Organization (WTO). These agreements order, enforcing laws, and safeguarding
have helped to reduce trade barriers and private property.
increase the flow of goods and services • Marxist Critique of State Neutrality: Marxist
between countries. scholars, notably Karl Marx, challenge the idea
• Addressing Market Failures: The state has of state neutrality, especially in societies
increasingly recognized the need to intervene characterized by class divisions. Marx contends
in markets to address market failures, such as that the capitalist state acts as an instrument
externalities, information asymmetries, and of the bourgeoisie, serving to perpetuate and
natural monopolies. Environmental protect the interests of the ruling class. From a
regulations, consumer protection laws, and Marxist perspective, the state is not a neutral
anti-trust measures are examples of state arbiter but rather an executive committee
interventions aimed at correcting market working in favor of the bourgeoisie class.
failures and promoting societal well-being. • Evolution from Laissez-Faire to Welfare
States: In liberal countries, there was a
Changing nature of state in Capitalist
historical concept of the laissez-faire state,
economies often referred to as the night watchman state.
• When the capitalism comes into crisis, we have This minimalist state intervention approach
seen the emergence of two trends- either the aimed to allow free-market forces to operate
rise of right or left. without substantial government interference.
• In some countries there is a trend of rise of left, However, the paradigm shifted following the
just like the France, Greece and Britain. 2008 financial crisis, which triggered a global
economic depression. The laissez-faire model
gave way to the emergence of welfare states

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 pg. 34

as governments recognized the need for Amazon and Zoom thrived during the
proactive intervention to address economic pandemic.
disparities and social challenges. • Remote work became prevalent, prompting a
• Transition to Welfare States: The 2008 reevaluation of traditional workplace models,
financial crisis prompted a re-evaluation of the e.g., Facebook and Twitter adopted long-term
role of the state in the economy. Welfare remote work options.
states emerged, emphasizing government • Global supply chains faced disruptions, leading
intervention to mitigate the adverse impacts of to a reconsideration of supply chain strategies,
economic downturns, provide social safety e.g., automakers reevaluated supply chain
nets, and address the needs of vulnerable resilience.
sections of society. This shift challenged the • The pandemic sparked debates on the value of
classical liberal notion of minimal state essential workers and fair compensation, e.g.,
involvement and marked a departure towards the UK's Clap for Carers initiative highlighted
more active state participation in economic the societal value of essential workers.
and social affairs. • Healthcare systems were reevaluated for
• Liberal Scholars' Perspective on Positive State resilience and accessibility, e.g., Italy's strained
Interventions: Liberal scholars adapted their healthcare system prompted discussions on
views in response to the changing economic infrastructure investment.
landscape. The shift from laissez-faire to • The pandemic prompted a reassessment of
welfare states led to the acknowledgment that globalization, with concerns about
positive state interventions were essential to overreliance on global supply chains, e.g.,
address the challenges faced by marginalized Japan incentivized companies to relocate
sections of society. The state, according to this production from China.
perspective, plays a constructive role in • Environmental awareness and sustainability
promoting social justice, reducing inequality, gained prominence in post-pandemic recovery
and ensuring the well-being of its citizens. discussions, e.g., the EU's NextGenerationEU
Impact of COVID on capitalism plan prioritized green investments.
• Pandemic-induced economic disruptions led to • Extensive fiscal measures increased public
recessions, job losses, and GDP contractions debt in many countries, leading to debates on
worldwide, e.g., the U.S. experienced long-term consequences and potential
economic downturn with lockdowns affecting austerity, e.g., Argentina restructured its debt.
various sectors. • The pandemic contributed to shifts in
• The pandemic exacerbated existing geopolitical dynamics, affecting international
inequalities, disproportionately affecting cooperation and tensions, e.g., increased U.S.-
vulnerable populations, e.g., India saw China tensions and competition for global
widening inequalities among economically influence.
disadvantaged groups.
• Governments implemented substantial Scholars View
intervention measures and stimulus packages, • Naomi Klein - "Shock Doctrine" Revisited:
departing from neoliberal principles, e.g., Naomi Klein, known for her work on disaster
Germany introduced fiscal measures to capitalism, has observed that moments of
support businesses and healthcare. crisis often lead to the implementation of
• The pandemic accelerated digital neoliberal policies. The pandemic, according
transformation in industries like remote work, to Klein, creates opportunities for powerful
e-commerce, and online education, e.g.,

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interests to exploit shocks for political and global crises. The pandemic, with its
economic gain. She urges vigilance against the transnational impact, highlights the continued
potential misuse of crises to advance agendas significance of state engagement in
that may not prioritize public welfare. international affairs.
• Francis Fukuyama - State Capacity and • António Guterres - Global Cooperation and
Governance: Political theorist Francis Multilateralism: António Guterres, the
Fukuyama highlights the importance of state Secretary-General of the United Nations,
capacity in responding to the pandemic. He emphasizes the need for global cooperation
argues that effective governance and the and multilateralism in addressing the
ability of states to manage the crisis are pandemic. His views underscore the political
crucial factors in determining the outcomes dimension of international relations,
for both public health and economic recovery. advocating for coordinated efforts and
The pandemic, Fukuyama suggests, has solidarity among nations to overcome shared
underscored the need for strong and capable challenges.
states. • Yanis Varoufakis - Austerity and Debt Issues:
• Thomas Piketty - Inequality and Yanis Varoufakis, former Greek Finance
Redistribution: Thomas Piketty, renowned for Minister, raises concerns about the potential
his work on economic inequality, contends imposition of austerity measures in the
that the pandemic has accentuated existing aftermath of the pandemic. He argues that
disparities. He emphasizes the role of political austerity policies, often driven by political
decisions in shaping economic outcomes, decisions, could exacerbate economic
advocating for policies that prioritize hardships. Varoufakis' perspective adds a
redistribution and address social inequalities. political dimension to discussions on
Piketty's perspective highlights the managing public debt and the potential
intersection of political choices and economic consequences for citizens.
structures during crises. • Joseph Nye - Soft Power and Global
• Dani Rodrik - Balancing Globalization and Leadership: Political scientist Joseph Nye's
National Autonomy: Political economist Dani concept of soft power becomes relevant in
Rodrik argues that the pandemic has revealed understanding the diplomatic and geopolitical
the tensions between globalization and aspects of the pandemic. The crisis has
national autonomy. He suggests that implications for global leadership, with
policymakers face a delicate balancing act, countries exercising soft power through
reevaluating the benefits and risks of global effective crisis management, international
interdependence while safeguarding national collaboration, and public diplomacy.
interests. Rodrik's views contribute to the
ongoing debate on the future of globalization
Changing Nature of state in Socialist countries
in a post-pandemic world.
• Susan Strange - State's Role in Global • Transition from Classical Socialism to Market
Governance: Susan Strange's insights on the Socialism: Many socialist countries,
role of the state in global governance become particularly in Eastern Europe, have undergone
relevant in the context of the pandemic. Her a transition from classical socialism
work challenges notions of a retreat of the characterized by central planning and state
state in the face of globalization, emphasizing ownership of the means of production,
that states remain crucial actors in managing towards market socialism. This involves
introducing market mechanisms, private

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 pg. 36

enterprises, and elements of capitalism while is a common strategy to attract foreign

retaining state control over key sectors. investment and promote economic growth.
• Economic Reforms and Opening Up: Socialist • Social Welfare Reforms: Some countries have
countries like China and Vietnam have shifted from comprehensive welfare
implemented economic reforms to open up provisions to targeted social programs, seeking
their economies. This includes welcoming to balance social equity with economic
foreign investment, encouraging private efficiency.
entrepreneurship, and allowing market forces • Global Integration and Diplomacy: Socialist
to play a more significant role. countries are increasingly engaging in global
• Privatization and Diversification of economic and diplomatic networks. China's
Ownership: In response to economic Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is a notable
challenges associated with state ownership, example, showcasing increased involvement in
some socialist countries have initiated international trade and infrastructure
privatization programs. This involves development.
transferring state-owned enterprises to • Technological Advancements and Innovation:
private ownership, thereby promoting a more Embracing technological advancements and
diverse economic landscape with a mix of innovation is a notable aspect of the changing
state, private, and cooperative ownership. nature of the state in socialist countries. Efforts
• Political Pluralism and Limited Political to develop high-tech industries, invest in
Reforms: While many socialist countries research and development, and participate in
traditionally featured single-party rule, some the global tech landscape mark a departure
have experienced limited political reforms. from earlier models of socialism.
These reforms aim to introduce greater
political pluralism, sometimes allowing for Scholars View
multi-party systems, although the degree of • Samuel P. Huntington: Huntington, in his
political openness can vary and often remains work "The Third Wave: Democratization in
tightly controlled by the ruling party. the Late Twentieth Century," argued that
• Social and Cultural Liberalization: There is the changing nature of the state in socialist
increased cultural exchanges, exposure to countries is part of a broader global trend
global trends, and a relaxation of strict cultural toward democratization. He emphasized the
controls that characterized earlier periods of idea that political systems evolve over time,
socialism. and socialist countries may transition
• Decentralization and Regional Autonomy: towards more democratic forms of
Some socialist countries have adopted governance.
decentralization policies, granting more • Karl Marx: Marx's perspective on the state
autonomy to regional and local authorities. in socialist countries is foundational to
This shift aims to address economic disparities, socialist and communist thought. Marx
encourage local innovation, and respond to argued that the state, in its essence,
diverse regional needs. represents the interests of the ruling class.
• Incorporation of Capitalist Elements: Socialist In socialist societies, Marx envisioned the
countries have incorporated capitalist "withering away of the state" as class
elements into their economic systems while distinctions diminish, leading to a stateless
maintaining socialist principles. For example, communist society. Marx's views suggest
the establishment of special economic zones that the state in socialist countries should
(SEZs) where market-oriented policies prevail

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 pg. 37

gradually lose its significance as socialism the economic reforms that transformed the
progresses. country from a centrally planned economy
• Vladimir Lenin: Building upon Marx's ideas, to a socialist market economy. His pragmatic
Lenin introduced the concept of the approach focused on opening up China to
"dictatorship of the proletariat." Lenin foreign investment, encouraging private
argued that, in the transitional period to entrepreneurship, and embracing market-
socialism, a strong state would be necessary oriented policies.
to suppress the remnants of the capitalist
class and ensure the construction of a
socialist society. Lenin's views influenced
Changing nature of State in Advanced
the establishment of one-party socialist Industrial States
states, particularly in the early Soviet Union. • Welfare State and Social Policies: Advanced
• Antonio Gramsci: Gramsci, in his concept of industrial states are often characterized by the
"cultural hegemony," explored how ruling development of comprehensive welfare
elites maintain power through controlling states. The state plays a crucial role in
cultural institutions and ideologies. In providing social safety nets, healthcare,
socialist countries, Gramsci's ideas can be education, and unemployment benefits to
applied to understand how the state ensure the well-being of citizens. Over time,
influences and shapes the prevailing the nature and scope of welfare programs may
ideology, legitimizing the socialist system evolve in response to changing demographics
and ensuring the consent of the governed. and economic conditions.
• Mikhail Gorbachev: Gorbachev's tenure as o Example: Scandinavian countries like
the leader of the Soviet Union marked a Sweden, Denmark, and Norway have
significant shift in the changing nature of the well-developed welfare states. They
state. His policies of perestroika provide extensive social services,
(restructuring) and glasnost (openness) healthcare, and education to ensure the
aimed to reform the Soviet system, well-being of their citizens.
introducing elements of political openness • Globalization and Economic Policies:
and economic restructuring. Gorbachev's Globalization has a profound impact on the
views reflected a recognition of the need for economic policies of advanced industrial
change within socialist structures. states. Governments may adjust economic
• Francis Fukuyama: Fukuyama, in his strategies to remain competitive in the global
influential work "The End of History and the market. This can involve liberalizing trade,
Last Man," argued that the end of the Cold adopting flexible labor market policies, and
War signaled the triumph of liberal encouraging innovation and technological
democracy as the final form of human advancements.
government. While not specifically focused o Example: Germany's emphasis on export-
on socialist countries, Fukuyama's ideas led growth and its strong manufacturing
suggest that the changing nature of the sector reflect adjustments to global
state in socialist systems might involve a economic dynamics. The country's "social
convergence toward liberal democratic market economy" combines a
principles. competitive market with a commitment
• Deng Xiaoping: Deng, as a key figure in to social welfare.
China's leadership, played a pivotal role in • Technological Changes and Digital
Governance: Advances in technology have led

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to the digitization of governance. States in diverse cultural, religious, and ethnic

advanced industrial societies increasingly use backgrounds, aiming to foster inclusivity and
technology for service delivery, data social cohesion. Policies related to
management, and communication with immigration, anti-discrimination, and cultural
citizens. E-governance initiatives aim to integration reflect this changing nature.
enhance efficiency, transparency, and public o Example: Canada is often cited as a
participation. multicultural success story. Its policies
o Example: Estonia is known for its embrace cultural diversity, recognizing
advanced e-governance initiatives. The and celebrating various ethnic and
country has implemented digital identity, religious backgrounds.
e-residency programs, and online • Debate on the Role of the State: The role of
government services to enhance the state in economic affairs is subject to
efficiency and citizen engagement. ongoing debate. While some advocate for a
• Environmental Sustainability: Concerns about limited government and free-market
environmental sustainability have led to shifts principles, others argue for a more
in state policies. Advanced industrial states interventionist role to address economic
may implement regulations and incentives to inequalities and social challenges. The balance
promote green technologies, reduce carbon between state intervention and market forces
emissions, and address environmental varies across countries.
challenges. Climate change policies and o Example: The debate between a more
international agreements also influence state interventionist and a more market-
actions. oriented approach is evident in the
o Example: Denmark is a pioneer in economic policies of the United States
renewable energy. The country has and European countries. The U.S.
implemented policies to promote wind generally leans towards a more market-
energy, leading to a significant share of its driven approach, while some European
electricity being generated from wind countries have a stronger tradition of
power. state intervention.
• Security and Surveillance: The nature of • Aging Population and Pension Reforms:
security has evolved with the rise of new Advanced industrial states often face the
threats such as terrorism and cyber warfare. challenge of aging populations. This
Advanced industrial states may enhance demographic shift necessitates reforms in
surveillance capabilities, both online and pension systems and healthcare to ensure the
offline, to ensure national security. This raises sustainability of social programs. Governments
questions about the balance between security may explore innovative solutions to address
measures and individual privacy. the economic implications of an aging
o Example: The United States, post-9/11, workforce.
implemented extensive security o Example: Japan, with its aging population,
measures, including the Patriot Act, to has implemented pension reforms and
enhance surveillance capabilities in measures to address the challenges
response to the threat of terrorism. posed by a declining workforce.
• Political Pluralism and Multiculturalism: • Human Rights and Equality: There is an
Political systems in advanced industrial states increased focus on human rights and equality
often embrace political pluralism and in advanced industrial states. Governments
multiculturalism. Governments recognize may adopt policies to promote gender

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 pg. 39

equality, LGBTQ+ rights, and social justice. of these societies, acknowledging the
Legal frameworks and social norms evolve to complexities of their political development and
reflect changing societal values. the varying roles of state institutions. This
o Example: Sweden is recognized for its approach recognizes that political systems in
commitment to gender equality. Policies developing countries are not one-dimensional
promote equal opportunities in the but are shaped by diverse factors.
workplace, parental leave, and women's • Gunnar Myrdal's concept of a "soft state" finds
representation in decision-making resonance in the context of India, reflecting the
positions. challenges of governance and institutional
• Post-Industrial Economy and Knowledge- effectiveness. The Asian Values Thesis
Based Policies: The shift to a post-industrial introduces a cultural perspective, arguing that
economy emphasizes knowledge and Asia's collectivistic traditions shape resistance
information as key drivers. States invest in against Western individualism, even amidst
education, research and development, and economic modernization. This illustrates the
innovation to foster a competitive knowledge- importance of cultural factors in shaping the
based economy. Policies may support the political landscape of these nations,
growth of technology and knowledge- showcasing the intricate interplay between
intensive industries. cultural values and political structures.
o Example: Singapore has transformed into • Scholarly Perspectives: Applying Samuel P.
a knowledge-based economy. The Huntington's idea, many developing states
government has invested heavily in witness some form of 'political decay.' Riggs
education, innovation, and technology to further characterizes them as caught in a
position the country as a global hub for 'development trap,' where challenges in
research and development. governance and institutional functioning
hinder progress. Neo-Marxist scholars label
them as periphery states, where ruling elites
Characteristic and changing nature of
act as instruments of the bourgeoisie in core
state in developing countries regions, contributing to economic disparities.
Developing countries, often referred to as the This underscores the economic dimensions of
global south, represent a complex tapestry of post- political development in these nations.
colonial societies facing a myriad of challenges o Hamza Alvi, utilizing the structuralist
such as malnutrition, widespread poverty, and the approach, deems post-colonial states as
deprivation of basic needs. The study of these "overdeveloped states." This perspective
developing economies has been a major underscores the paradoxical nature of
preoccupation for scholars in modern comparative excessive development in certain areas
politics due to their unique characteristics and coexisting with underdevelopment in
ever-evolving nature. others, revealing the intricate dynamics of
Methodological Approaches: their socio-political structures. The
• Scholars employ a variety of methods within structuralist lens emphasizes the
comparative politics to unravel the intricacies interconnectedness of economic, political,
of developing countries. The political and social aspects in shaping the trajectory
development approach, for instance, of these states.
categorizes these nations as 'prismatic o Moreover, Dependency theorists such as
societies,' a term coined by F. W. Riggs. Riggs' Andre Gunder Frank and Fernando
concept emphasizes the multifaceted nature Cardoso have explored the unequal

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 pg. 40

relationships between developed and Post war period ideology

developing countries. They argue that the The post-war period, particularly after World War
economic development of the global south II, witnessed significant ideological shifts in
is hindered by dependency on the comparative politics.
developed world, perpetuating a cycle of
• Cold War Ideologies: The post-war era was
underdevelopment.
dominated by the ideological struggle between
o World-System Theory, proposed by
the United States (representing liberal
Immanuel Wallerstein, positions
democracy and capitalism) and the Soviet
developing countries as part of a global
Union (representing communism). This
capitalist system. This theory asserts that
geopolitical rivalry, known as the Cold War,
the global economy is structured in a way
influenced global politics and divided the world
that exploits peripheral nations,
into two blocs.
contributing to their economic struggles.
o Scholars such as Francis Fukuyama, in his
• Transitions and Exceptions: The developing work "The End of History and the Last
world has undergone transitions, adopting Man," argued that the victory of liberal
various models. While India stands out as an democracy over communism signaled the
exception, successfully sustaining its end of ideological evolution. However,
democracy, many countries experimented other scholars like Samuel P. Huntington
with communism post-independence. The challenged this notion, highlighting the
post-1990s shift towards liberal democracy has persistent influence of cultural and
been uneven, with pockets of resistance in religious differences.
countries like China, North Korea, Cuba, Iran,
• Liberal Democracy: The Western bloc, led by
and certain African monarchies. In some of
the United States, championed liberal
these nations, democracy remains fragile,
democracy and capitalism as the prevailing
often teetering on the brink of semi-
ideology. Countries like the U.S., the United
authoritarianism, highlighting the challenges
Kingdom, and Western European nations
of political transition. The examination of
embraced democratic governance, individual
transitions emphasizes the complexities of
rights, and market-oriented economic
political change in diverse contexts.
systems.
• Global Trends and Impact of COVID-19: o Political theorist Robert Dahl emphasized
Developing nations are not isolated from the importance of pluralism in liberal
global trends. The gradual decline of the liberal democracies, asserting that power is
world order is evident, with the rise of rightist dispersed among various groups. On the
parties and authoritarian leaders worldwide. economic front, Milton Friedman's
The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated advocacy for free-market capitalism
existing issues of poverty, hunger, and poor influenced policies in the United States
health in these countries. The challenge of and beyond.
accessibility to vaccines has further deepened
• Communism and Socialist States: The Eastern
their dependence on other nations,
bloc, led by the Soviet Union, propagated
highlighting the interconnectedness of global
communism. Countries in Eastern Europe and
issues. The impact of global trends, including
parts of Asia adopted socialist economic
the recent challenges posed by the pandemic,
models and one-party political systems. The
underscores the vulnerability and resilience of
post-war period saw the spread of communism
developing countries in the face of external
in countries like China, North Korea, and Cuba.
shocks.

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 pg. 41

o The works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Third World. Myrdal advocated for
Engels laid the theoretical groundwork for policies addressing poverty and
communism. However, scholars like inequality.
Alexander Solzhenitsyn and Vaclav Havel • European Integration: In Western Europe, the
criticized the authoritarian nature of devastation of World War II led to a push for
communist regimes, highlighting the economic and political integration. The
suppression of individual freedoms. European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC),
• Decolonization and Nationalism: The post-war established in 1951, and later the European
period witnessed the decolonization of Asia, Economic Community (EEC), laid the
Africa, and the Middle East. Former colonies foundation for the European Union (EU).
sought independence and embraced o Jean Monnet, a key architect of European
nationalism. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi in integration, believed in fostering
India and Kwame Nkrumah in Ghana played economic interdependence to prevent
pivotal roles in the decolonization movement. another European war. Scholars like Neil
o Frantz Fanon, in "The Wretched of the Fligstein later examined the social and
Earth," analyzed the psychological and economic aspects of European
cultural impacts of colonization. integration.
Historians like Eric Hobsbawm discussed • Human Rights and International
the rise of nationalism as a powerful force Organizations: The post-war period saw the
in shaping post-colonial states. establishment of international organizations
• Non-Aligned Movement: Some newly like the United Nations (UN) in 1945. The
independent nations opted for a non-aligned Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948
stance, avoiding alignment with either the articulated a global commitment to individual
Western or Eastern blocs. The Non-Aligned rights, reflecting a growing emphasis on
Movement, founded in 1961, included human rights in international politics.
countries like India, Yugoslavia, and Egypt, o Political philosopher John Rawls' "A
advocating for independence and Theory of Justice" influenced discussions
development. on human rights, emphasizing the
o Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime principles of justice in global affairs.
Minister and a key figure in the Non- International relations scholar Hans
Aligned Movement, emphasized the need Morgenthau critiqued the idealism of
for newly independent nations to pursue human rights, emphasizing power
their paths, avoiding alignment with politics.
major power blocs. • Crisis of Colonialism: The post-war period
• Third Worldism: The term "Third World" witnessed the decline of colonial empires. The
emerged during this period to describe Suez Crisis in 1956 highlighted the limitations
countries that were not aligned with either of colonial powers, and countries like Algeria,
superpower. Third Worldism often focused on Kenya, and Vietnam pursued independence
issues of economic inequality, poverty, and through nationalist movements.
development. o Historian Frantz Fanon, in "The Wretched
o The Bandung Conference in 1955 marked of the Earth," critically analyzed the
a key moment for Third World solidarity. psychological and social consequences of
Political scientist and economist Gunnar colonialism. The works of Edward Said
Myrdal's "Asian Drama" contributed to explored the impact of Orientalism on
the discourse on development in the Western perceptions of the colonized.

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 pg. 42

• Crisis of Marxism-Leninism: The latter part of distribution of power and resources in a

the post-war period saw a crisis within Marxist- globalized world.
Leninist ideologies. Economic struggles, Conclusion:
political repression, and the fall of the Soviet • Despite diverse approaches, the state remains
Union in 1991 led to a reevaluation of central in comparative politics when examining
communist and socialist principles. the characteristics and changes in developing
o Dissidents like Andrei Sakharov in the countries. The evolution of these economies,
Soviet Union and Vaclav Havel in particularly the role of the state, reflects the
Czechoslovakia challenged the dogmas of dynamic nature of political systems. Change is
Marxism-Leninism, emphasizing the inevitable, and the functions of the state will
importance of individual rights and civil continue to evolve with the demands of the
society. time. Understanding the complex and
• Globalization and Neoliberalism: In the late changing nature of developing countries
20th century, the rise of neoliberalism requires a nuanced analysis that considers
emphasized free-market principles, historical, cultural, economic, and political
deregulation, and globalization. Policies factors, providing a comprehensive
promoting economic liberalization became perspective on their developmental
widespread, influencing the political and trajectories. The detailed examination of
economic landscape globally. methodological approaches, scholarly
o Economist Joseph Stiglitz criticized the perspectives, transitions, and global trends
negative consequences of neoliberal contributes to a richer understanding of the
policies, arguing for a more balanced challenges and opportunities facing these
approach to globalization. Sociologist nations in the global political landscape.
Saskia Sassen analyzed the uneven

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Chapter - 3 pg. 43

Politics of Representation and Participation

Analysis of important dimensions from PYQ

1. Discuss the role of social movements in strengthening the democratic processes in developing
societies. [2022]
2. How has the electoral democracy augmented the participation of people in the democratic process?
[2022]
3. The modernization thesis asserts that affluence breeds stable democracy. How do you explain the
success of India being the world’s largest democracy as an exceptional case? [2021]
4. Explain the impact of electoral systems and cleavages in shaping party systems with reference to
developing countries. [2021]
5. “Political parties and pressure groups are sine-qua-non of democracy.” Comment. [2021]
6. Has the increased participation of the underprivileged in the political process of the developing
societies strengthened democracy or created political chaos and conflict? Comment. [2020]
7. Analyze the contribution of liberal democratic principles in the democratization of Indian polity.
[2020]
8. Explain the reasons for low voter turnout in democratic countries with suitable examples. [2019]
9. Write an essay on ‘The New Social Movements’ in developing countries. [2019]
10. How big a role does identity play in determining political participation in the developing countries?
Discuss your answer with suitable illustrations. [2018]
11. Examine the LGBT (lesbian gay bisexual and transgender) movement in developed societies and how
it is affecting the political participation in developing societies. [2017]
12. Comment on the decline of political parties and examine whether new social movements shall be
alternative strategies for establishing link between government and society. [2016]
13. Do interest groups help to promote democracy or to undermine it? Give your opinion. [2016]
14. What is the difference between interest groups and pressure groups? Are the pressure groups in
India in a position to fully protect or promote the interest of their members? [2015]
15. The Party System in India is neither western nor indigenous. Explain. [2014]
16. In what respect, is the new social movement, new in nature? Discuss. [2014]
17. Compare and contrast social movements in advanced industrial and developing societies. [2013]
18. Is the rise of social movements a sign of opening up of popular space in the political process or decline
of representative politics? Examine. [2013]

Political parties and Party systems Political Parties

Political parties and party systems are integral Political parties are organized groups of individuals
components of modern political landscapes, with shared political ideologies, goals, and
playing a crucial role in the functioning of interests. They function as intermediaries between
democratic societies. They serve as vehicles for citizens and the government, presenting policy
political representation, governance, and the alternatives, and contesting elections to gain
articulation of societal interests. Understanding political power. Political parties play a vital role in
the dynamics of political parties and the broader shaping public opinion, formulating policies, and
party systems is fundamental to comprehending contributing to the overall stability of political
the complexities of comparative politics. systems.

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 pg. 44

Key aspects of political parties include: systems are common in certain political
• Ideology: Parties are often distinguished by contexts.
their ideological orientations, ranging from • Fragmentation: Fragmented party systems
conservatism and liberalism to socialism and involve numerous parties with limited
environmentalism. dominance, requiring coalition-building for
• Organization: Parties have internal structures, governance.
leadership hierarchies, and mechanisms for • Ideological Polarization: The degree of
decision-making. They mobilize resources, ideological polarization among parties
including financial support and human capital, influences the nature of political discourse and
to operate effectively. policy decisions.
• Mobilization: Political parties engage in
Definition of Political Parties
mobilizing voters, forming alliances, and
participating in electoral campaigns. They aim • Maurice Duverger: "An organized group of
to secure public support for their candidates citizens who act as an intermediary between
and policies. the people and the government."
• Representation: Parties represent specific • Robert Michels: "The aggregation of all the
segments of society, reflecting the diversity of oligarchical tendencies latent in any large
interests, identities, and opinions within a organization."
given population. • E.E. Schattschneider: "Political parties are
groups of men who seek to control the
Party Systems government apparatus by gaining office in a
Party systems refer to the configuration and duly constituted election."
interactions of political parties within a particular • Anthony Downs: "A team of men seeking to
political environment. The number of parties, their control the governing apparatus by gaining
relative strengths, and patterns of competition office in a duly constituted election."
define the nature of a party system. Comparative • Joseph Schumpeter: "Parties are groups
politics analyzes various party systems across whose members propose to act in concert in
different countries to identify commonalities, the competitive struggle for political power."
differences, and their impact on political • Seymour Martin Lipset: "Political parties are
outcomes. organizations that are trying to gain power or
Key features of party systems include hold onto power within a government."
• Number of Parties: Party systems can be • Richard S. Katz and Peter Mair: "A political
classified based on the number of significant party is an organized, durable group of citizens
parties. These range from two-party systems who seek to gain control of the government
(e.g., the United States) to multi-party systems through the election of its members to public
(e.g., Germany or India). office."
• Party Competition: The nature of competition • Arend Lijphart: "A political party is an
among parties influences political stability and organization that presents at elections, and is
policy outcomes. Competitive party systems capable of placing through elections,
often lead to vibrant democracies with diverse candidates for public office in competition with
policy debates. candidates presented by other organizations."
• Dominance: Some party systems exhibit • David Easton: "Political parties are groups of
dominance, where one party consistently people in a political system who have the goal
holds power over an extended period. of winning control of the government."
Dominant-party systems and single-party

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 pg. 45

• Giovanni Sartori: "A political party is an Christian Democratic Union (CDU) in Germany
organized group that attempts to influence historically adopted centrist policies.
government policy by electing its members to • Party Identity Theory: Explores parties' role in
public office." shaping individual and collective political
identities. Example: The African National
Theories of political parties
Congress (ANC) shaped the anti-apartheid
• Party Systems Theory: Examines the identity in South Africa.
arrangement and structure of political parties, • Clientelism Theory: Examines patron-client
categorizing systems based on the number of relationships, where parties provide resources
significant parties. Example: The United States for political support, often in developing
is often cited as a two-party system. democracies. Example: Mexico's PRI
• Duverger's Law: Proposes a relationship historically engaged in clientelism.
between electoral systems and party systems, • New Institutionalism: Analyzes the impact of
suggesting first-past-the-post leads to a two- formal and informal rules, norms, and
party system. Example: The United Kingdom, structures on party behavior. Example:
with its first-past-the-post system, exhibits a Sweden's proportional representation system
two-party system. institutionalizes multi-party cooperation.
• Institutional Theory: Explores how political
institutions shape party behavior and Classification of Political Parties
strategies, considering the impact of electoral Maurice Duverger, a French political scientist,
systems and federalism. Example: Germany's made significant contributions to the study of
mixed-member proportional representation political parties and developed a classification
system influences party structures. system that remains widely used today. His
• Cleavage Theory: Examines societal divisions classification focuses on the structure and
or "cleavages" that give rise to political parties, organization of political parties, distinguishing
aligning with factors like religion, class, between two primary types: cadre(elitist) parties
ethnicity, or language. Example: In Belgium, and mass parties.
parties align with linguistic cleavages. 1. The Cadre(elitist) Parties
• Resource-Based Theory: Emphasizes the role Cadre parties, also known as elite parties or
of resources in shaping party formation and traditional parties, are characterized by a small,
success, including financial support, tightly knit group of members who form the party's
organizational capacity, and media influence. leadership and control its decision-making
Example: Financial resources significantly processes. These parties typically have a limited
influence major U.S. parties' campaign membership base and rely on the expertise and
strategies. connections of their leaders to maintain their
• Party Cartel Theory: Suggests parties may influence.
converge on key policy issues to minimize Characteristics of Cadre Parties:
differences and maintain stability, aiming to • Small Membership Base: Cadre parties have a
attract a broad voter base. Example: Some relatively small number of active members
European parties adopt similar economic compared to mass parties.
policies for stability. • Emphasis on Leadership: Leadership plays a
• Catch-All Party Model: Describes parties central role in cadre parties, with decisions
seeking broad appeal by downplaying made by a small group of experienced and
ideological differences and adopting influential members.
pragmatic, centrist positions. Example: The

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• Flexible Structure: Cadre parties often have Decision-making authority may be distributed
flexible organizational structures, allowing for across various party factions and interest
adaptability and responsiveness to changing groups.
political conditions. • Amateur Leadership: Leadership roles within
• Intermediary Role: Cadre parties often act as American elitist parties may be filled by
intermediaries between the state and society, individuals who are not exclusively
articulating the interests of specific groups or professional politicians, often with business or
social classes. other backgrounds.
• Examples of Cadre Parties: Conservative Party • Ideological Consistency: American elitist
(UK), Republican Party (US), Liberal Party parties may maintain a more consistent
(Japan) ideological stance, with a clear set of principles
guiding their policies.
Elitist parties are normally divided into (a) the • Narrower Social Base: These parties may
European Type (b) the American Type. appeal to a narrower social base, with a more
1 (a). European Type Elitist Parties focused appeal to specific demographics or
• Hierarchy and Centralization: European elitist interest groups.
parties often exhibit a more hierarchical and • Independence and Autonomy: American
centralized organizational structure. elitist parties may prioritize independence and
• Professional Leadership: Party leadership autonomy, avoiding formal alliances or
tends to have significant control over decision- coalition politics.
making processes. • Dynamic Party System: The American political
• Ideological Flexibility: Leadership roles within system, with its two-party dominance, often
European elitist parties are often filled by involves a more dynamic party system, with
professional politicians who may have a long- third parties having a challenging time gaining
term political career. substantial influence.
• Broader Social Base: These parties may show
greater ideological flexibility, adapting to 2. The Mass Parties
changing political landscapes and public • Mass parties, also known as integrated parties
opinion. or modern parties, are characterized by a
• Coalition Politics: European elitist parties may large, diverse membership base that includes
have a broader social base, appealing to a individuals from various social and economic
wider spectrum of voters. backgrounds. These parties engage in mass
• Party Stability: Participation in coalition mobilization campaigns to attract and retain
governments is relatively common for members, and they emphasize active
European elitist parties. They may collaborate participation from the rank-and-file
with other parties to form a government. membership.
These parties may exhibit stability over time, Characteristics of Mass Parties:
with a consistent presence in the political • Large Membership Base: Mass parties have a
arena. large and diverse membership base, often
incorporating individuals from various social
1 (b). American Type Elitist Parties: and economic groups.
• Decentralization and Pluralism: American • Decentralized Structure: Mass parties often
elitist parties may have a more decentralized have a more decentralized organizational
and pluralistic organizational structure. structure, with local and regional branches

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playing a significant role in decision-making • Worker Control: Socialist parties promote

and activities. worker empowerment, involving them in
• Emphasis on Membership Participation: Mass decision-making, profit-sharing, and
parties encourage active participation from potentially ownership and management of
their members, providing opportunities for enterprises.
involvement in party activities and decision- 2 (b). Communist Parties
making processes. • Communist Parties: Advocating for a classless
• Comprehensive Ideology: Mass parties society with collective means of production,
typically adopt a comprehensive ideology that Communist parties like the CPC, CPRF, CPI, and
appeals to a broad range of social groups and CPI(M) are rooted in Marxist principles. Critics
interests. argue they lack internal democracy,
○ For example, Examples of Mass Parties: centralizing power among top leaders, limiting
Social Democratic Party (Germany), Labour dissent, and strictly adhering to ideology.
Party (UK), Democratic Party (US) and 2 (c). Fascist Parties
Indian National Congress(India). They are • Fascist Parties: Embracing far-right fascism,
classified into 1. Socialist parties 2. these parties, exemplified by Mussolini's
Communist parties and 3. Fascist parties. National Fascist Party and Hitler's Nazi Party,
2 (a). Socialist Parties prioritize dictatorial rule, extreme nationalism,
● Socialist parties are political parties that and authoritarianism. Historically rejecting
advocate for socialism, a socio-economic democracy, they emerge during social
system characterized by social ownership of upheavals, emphasizing centralized and
the means of production, a classless society, autocratic governance. Caution is advised in
and social equality. Socialist parties generally using the term "fascist" due to its historical
reject capitalism and its associated specificity and potential for
inequalities, and they aim to create a society mischaracterization in contemporary
where wealth and resources are distributed discussions.
more equitably. 3. Intermediate Type Parties
Core Principles of Socialist Parties ● Maurice Duverger's concept of intermediate
• Social Ownership: Socialist parties push for parties refers to political organizations that
collective ownership of means of production, exhibit characteristics of both cadre and mass
aiming to eliminate exploitation and ensure parties. These parties have a balanced
fair benefit distribution. leadership structure, combining elements of
• Classless Society: Striving for a society without professional leadership and mass
rigid class divisions, socialist parties seek participation. Intermediate parties involve a
equitable opportunities and a just system. broader membership compared to cadre
• Social Equality: Addressing poverty and parties but are not as inclusive as mass parties.
discrimination, socialist parties work towards They often possess a defined ideology but may
equal rights, opportunities, and living be more flexible and pragmatic, allowing them
standards for all. to appeal to a diverse social base. Examples
• Democratic Economic Planning: Advocating include certain European Christian Democratic
government-led economic planning, socialist parties.
parties aim to align production with social
needs, departing from capitalist laissez-faire
approaches.

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Hitchner and Levine’s Classification of

political parties Despite some criticisms, Hitchner and Levine's
classification remains a valuable tool for
In their 1964 book "Political Parties: A
understanding political parties. This classification
Comparative Analysis," Austin Hitchner and
of political parties is a useful tool for understanding
Walter Levine proposed a classification of political
the different motivations of political parties. It
parties based on the goals and motivations of their
helps to explain why parties behave in certain ways
members. They identified three main types of
and why they make certain decisions. The
political parties:
classification can be applied to political parties in
• Pragmatic Parties: Pragmatic parties are
all countries and at all levels of government.
primarily interested in gaining and maintaining
power. Their members are not strongly Party System
committed to any particular ideology, and they • The concept of Party Systems, a cornerstone in
are willing to adapt their policies to changing comparative political science examining the
political circumstances. Example: Indian governance structure by political parties,
National Congress originated from European scholars,
• Doctrinal Parties: Doctrinal parties are particularly James Bryce and Moisey
motivated by a strong commitment to a Ostrogorsky.
particular ideology or set of principles. Their • While categorizing parties, as discussed earlier,
members are willing to sacrifice power or provides valuable insights into the study of
compromise their goals in order to uphold politics, a deeper understanding of a country's
their beliefs. Example: the Bharatiya Janata political landscape and its overall political
Party character emerges through the examination of
• Interest Parties: Interest parties are organized the party system. G. Sartori's influential
to represent the interests of a particular group classification emphasizes that party systems
or class. Their members are primarily should be categorized based on relevant
concerned with securing benefits for their parties capable of forming a government,
group, and they may be willing to compromise distinguishing them by the number of such
on other issues in order to achieve their goals. parties.
Example: Jharkhand Mukti Morcha, the • The enduring stability of a country's political
Peasants and Workers Party of Maharashtra. system is rooted in the prolonged evolution of
its political parties concerning factors such as
Criticisms of Hitchner and Levine's
their numbers, internal structures, ideologies,
Classification
alliances, and interactions with opposition
Some critics of Hitchner and Levine's
parties. A comparative analysis of diverse party
classification argue that it is too simplistic and
systems facilitates a comprehensive
that it does not take into account the complexity
comprehension of the political systems in the
of political parties. They point out that parties
respective countries.
often have a mix of pragmatic, doctrinal, and
• Numerous contemporary scholars have
interest party elements.
proposed their classifications of party systems.
Despite these criticisms, Hitchner and Levine's
Duverger, for instance, broadly classified party
classification remains a valuable tool for
systems into two categories:
understanding political parties. It provides a
o Pluralistic party systems and
framework for analyzing the motivations of
o One-party systems.
parties and helps to explain their behavior.
• Pluralistic party systems further subdivide into

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o Multi-party systems and Characteristics of Multi-Party Systems

o Two-party systems. Multi-party systems are typically characterized by
• Meanwhile, one-party systems are categorized the following features:
into ● A large number of political parties: There are
o Single-party systems and typically more than two major parties in a
o Dominant party systems. multi-party system, and these parties may
represent a wide range of political ideologies.
Multi-Party system
● Proportional representation: Multi-party
● A multi-party system is a political system in systems often use a system of proportional
which multiple political parties compete for representation to allocate seats in the
power and all have the capacity to gain control legislature, which ensures that the number of
of government offices, separately or in seats each party holds reflects their share of
coalition. Unlike a two-party system or a one- the popular vote.
party state, a multi-party system allows for a ● Coalition governments: In a multi-party
greater diversity of political viewpoints and system, it is often difficult for a single party to
ideologies to be represented in the win enough seats to form a majority
government. government. As a result, parties often form
coalitions to achieve a majority and govern.

Merits of multi-party system Demerits of multi-party system

• Greater representation of diverse • Difficulty forming governments: It can be
viewpoints: Multi-party systems allow for a difficult for parties to form stable
wider range of political ideologies to be coalitions in a multi-party system, which
represented in the government, which can can lead to political instability.
lead to more diverse and inclusive policies. • Slow decision-making: The need to
• Increased accountability: Multi-party negotiate and compromise between
systems tend to be more competitive, which different parties can make it slow to reach
can lead to greater accountability on the part decisions in a multi-party system.
of elected officials. • Potential for political gridlock: If there are
• More stable governments: Coalitions in too many parties in a multi-party system, it
multi-party systems are often more stable can be difficult to achieve consensus on
than single-party governments, as they are important issues, leading to political
less likely to be overthrown by a vote of no gridlock.
confidence.

Two party System: Characteristics of Two-Party Systems

• A two-party system is a political system in • Dominance of two major parties: The two
which two major political parties dominate the major parties typically hold a large majority of
political landscape. These two parties are seats in the legislature and are the only parties
typically so dominant that they have a near- that have a realistic chance of forming a
monopoly on power, and it is extremely rare government.
for a third party to win a significant number of • Two-party competition: Elections in two-party
seats in the legislature or to form a systems are typically very competitive, with
government.

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 pg. 50

the two major parties vying for control of the One-party system
government.
• Exclusive existence of a single party, often tied
• Ideological polarization: The two major parties to specific ideologies like Marxism or Fascism,
in a two-party system often have opposing suppressing opposition parties systematically.
ideologies, which can lead to a high degree of Originating from the establishment of the
political polarization. Communist Party in the USSR post-Bolshevik
Revolution.
Merits: Demerits:
• Historical examples include Turkey under
• Clear choices for • Limited
Mustafa Kemal Pasha, Italy's Fascist Party
voters: Two- representation
(1922-43), and Hitler's Nazi regime in Germany
party systems of diverse
(1933-45). Coined around 1930 by Fascist
make it easier for viewpoints:
writers, aiming to draw parallels between
voters to choose Two-party
between two systems can limit Fascist/Nazi regimes and Communist systems,
clear the a view contested by communist writers.
alternatives, representation • Three forms delineated by James Jupp:
which can lead to of diverse o Liberal One-Party Rule: Features internal
more informed viewpoints in the democracy, open leadership criticism, and
voting decisions. government, as local government autonomy.
• Stable only two major o Rigid One-Party Rule: Absolute leader
governments: ideologies are control, devoid of internal democracy,
Two-party typically and no elections even at the party unit
systems tend to represented. level.
produce more • Potential for o Authoritarian Rule: Represents a more
stable gridlock: If the oppressive form, seen in regimes like
governments, as two major Hitler's and Mussolini's.
there is less risk parties are very
of political ideologically Dominant party systems
instability from opposed, it can A dominant party system is a political landscape
coalition- be difficult to where one political party consistently and
building or third- achieve continuously holds power, often securing a
party influence. consensus on majority of seats in elections over an extended
Efficient decision- important issues, period. This dominance can be sustained through
making: Two-party leading to
various means, including institutional advantages,
systems can political gridlock.
electoral systems, historical factors, or a
facilitate more Entrenchment of
combination of these.
efficient decision- the status quo: Two-
Features:
making, as there are party systems can
fewer parties to make it difficult for • Long-Term Rule: The dominant party
negotiate with and new ideas or maintains a prolonged period of political
reach consensus challengers to control, often spanning multiple election
among. emerge, as the two cycles.
major parties have a • Electoral Success: The party consistently
strong grip on secures a majority of seats in legislative
power. elections, making it the ruling party.
• Institutional Advantages: The dominant party
may benefit from institutional structures that

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 pg. 51

reinforce its position, such as a first-past-the- • Representation of Minorities and Civil Society
post electoral system or favorable Engagement: Parties may advocate for
redistricting. minority rights and interests and engage with
• Political Stability: Dominant party systems are civil society organizations, acting as a bridge
often associated with political stability, as a between citizens and the political system.
single party provides continuity in governance. • Government Stability and International
• Limited Opposition Influence: Opposition Relations: In multi-party systems, parties form
parties may struggle to gain significant coalitions for stable governance, influencing
traction, resulting in a lack of effective checks foreign policy and representing the nation's
and balances. interests globally.
• Cultural or Historical Factors: Historical • Political Socialization: Parties shape citizens'
events, cultural factors, or a party's role in a understanding of political processes and
country's struggle for independence may values, contributing to political socialization.
contribute to its dominance.
Impact of Participation of underprivileged in
In India - Indian National Congress (INC) was the
developing Societies
dominant party in India for several decades after
independence in 1947, with periods of opposition • Strengthening Democracy: Advocates,
rule being relatively rare. including Carole Pateman, argue for
underprivileged participation for a truly
Roles of political party representative democracy. Participatory
• Representation and Formation of democracy theories emphasize diverse
Government: Parties represent diverse engagement for equitable policies.
societal interests and, upon winning, form the Reservations in Indian local governance,
government, with the head of the winning studied by Christophe Jaffrelot, illustrate
party typically becoming the head of the inclusive governance efforts.
government. • Political Mobilization and Empowerment:
• Policy Formulation and Legislation: Parties Political mobilization of underprivileged
articulate political ideologies, present policy groups, per Amartya Sen, leads to
platforms, and actively contribute to the empowerment and social awareness.
development and passage of legislation. Indigenous movements in Latin America
• Political Education and Campaigning: Parties highlight the impact on indigenous rights and
educate the public on political issues through environmental issues.
campaigns, debates, and communication, • Potential for Conflict: Increased
informing citizens about policies and underprivileged participation can lead to
government actions. conflict, especially in deeply unequal societies.
• Check and Balance and Opposition Role: Samuel Huntington's theory warns of
Opposition parties scrutinize government instability without proper institutional
policies, provide alternative viewpoints, and capacity.
hold the ruling party accountable, ensuring a • Polarization and Populism: Underprivileged
system of checks and balances. participation may contribute to polarization,
• Social Integration and Recruitment of with leaders mobilizing identity politics. Rise of
Leaders: Parties unite individuals with similar populist leaders in developing countries can
political beliefs, fostering social cohesion, and lead to divisive politics, challenging democratic
serve as platforms for identifying, nurturing, norms.
and promoting political leaders.

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 pg. 52

Party System in India highlighting the multi-layered nature of

Indian politics.
• Divergence from Western Models: Despite
adopting a 'first-past-the-post' electoral • A Hybrid Political System: India's party system
system similar to many Western democracies, represents a unique hybrid model, not entirely
India's political landscape significantly diverges aligning with Western political structures or
in its development of a robust multi-party indigenous forms. It is a blend shaped by the
system. country's diverse socio-political fabric and
o This deviation can be primarily attributed historical influences.
to the diverse and pluralistic nature of o Operating within a democratic framework,
Indian society. Factors such as regional, it is distinguished by its Indian plurality and
linguistic, caste, and religious identities regional diversity, creating a political
play a pivotal role in shaping political environment that is uniquely Indian in its
dynamics, a phenomenon extensively essence and operation.
analyzed by Rajni Kothari in "Politics in Impact of Electoral Systems on Party system
India."
• First-Past-the-Post (FPTP): In FPTP systems,
• Colonial Legacy and Democratic Evolution:
the candidate with the most votes in a
The Indian party system's historical evolution is
constituency wins. This system often leads to a
deeply rooted in its colonial past and the
two-party system due to the "Duverger's Law,"
trajectory of democratic development post-
as articulated by political scientist Maurice
independence. The transformation of the
Duverger. It incentivizes parties to broaden
Indian National Congress from an elite
their appeal to a wider electorate to win single-
dialogue platform to a mass political
member districts. For example, India, despite
movement epitomizes this evolution.
its diverse society, has a largely two-party
o This transition, as detailed by
system at the national level (BJP and Congress)
Ramachandra Guha, marked the
largely due to its FPTP system.
beginning of a new era in Indian politics.
• Proportional Representation (PR): PR systems,
The post-independence era, particularly
where parties gain seats in proportion to the
the dominance of the Congress Party,
number of votes received, often result in multi-
represented a unique system within a
party systems. They allow smaller parties to
democratic framework that allowed for
gain representation, reflecting a wider range of
opposition and dissent, often termed the
interests. Countries like Brazil and South Africa
'Congress System.'
with PR systems exhibit a diverse array of
• Rise of Regional Parties and Coalition Politics:
political parties representing various interest
The recent political landscape in India has been
groups.
characterized by the rise of regional parties
and coalition politics, signifying a shift away Impact of Societal Cleavages on Party system
from single-party dominance. • Ethnic and Religious Cleavages: In countries
o This current scenario, where national with pronounced ethnic and religious divisions,
parties like the BJP and Congress coexist political parties often form along these lines.
with a multitude of regional and caste- Parties represent specific ethnic or religious
based parties, reflects the intricate socio- groups and advocate for their interests. For
political diversity of India. This aspect has instance, in Nigeria, political parties often
been explored by scholars such as reflect the country's complex ethnic and
Yogendra Yadav and Suhas Palshikar, religious divisions.

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• Class and Ideological Cleavages: In many Rajni Kothari and M. N. Srinivas have studied
developing countries, class and ideological the intersection of caste and politics. Political
differences drive party formation. Left-wing parties in India often align with specific castes
parties representing workers and peasants, to secure electoral support. The Dalit identity,
and right-wing parties representing business representing marginalized castes, has led to
and upper-class interests, are common. The the emergence of Dalit political movements.
rise of leftist parties in Latin American • Gender: Gender identity influences political
countries like Bolivia and Venezuela reflects participation, with women often facing unique
class cleavages and ideological divides. challenges. Scholar Naila Kabeer has explored
• Rural-Urban Cleavages: Differences between the role of gender in politics. In many
rural and urban areas in terms of interests and developing countries, women's political
development levels can also shape party participation is hindered by cultural norms and
systems. Parties may emerge to specifically barriers. For example, in Saudi Arabia, women
represent the interests of rural or urban were granted the right to vote and run for
populations. office only in recent years.
• Regional Cleavages: Regional disparities in Example: India's complex caste system has
development and identity can lead to the profound political implications. Political parties
formation of regional parties. India, for often create alliances based on caste identities.
example, has numerous regional parties like The Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in Uttar Pradesh
the DMK in Tamil Nadu and the Shiv Sena in represents Dalit interests, showcasing the political
Maharashtra, which cater to specific regional mobilization of marginalized castes.
interests.
The modernization thesis and Indian
Identity and Political Participation Exceptionalism
• Ethnicity: Ethnic identity is a powerful The modernization thesis, most prominently
determinant of political participation. In many advocated by scholars like Seymour Martin Lipset,
developing countries, ethnic groups have posits that economic development and affluence
distinct political affiliations. Scholar Donald are conducive to the establishment and stability of
Horowitz, in his work on ethnic conflict, democratic systems. This theory suggests that
highlights how ethnic identity can shape higher levels of education, urbanization, and
political behavior. For instance, in Kenya, income associated with modernization lead to a
ethnic identity strongly influences voting more informed and engaged citizenry, fostering
patterns, with individuals often supporting democratic values and institutions. However,
candidates from their own ethnic group. India's experience as the world's largest democracy
• Religion: Religious identity can play a presents an intriguing exception to this thesis.
significant role in political participation. In
countries like India, religion often influences India's Democratic Exceptionalism:
voting choices. Scholars like Ashutosh • Democracy Without Affluence: Contrary to
Varshney have examined the impact of the modernization thesis, India has sustained a
religious identity on politics. For example, the stable democracy since 1947, despite low
Hindu-Muslim divide in Indian politics has been economic development initially. This
a long-standing issue, with political parties challenges the belief that affluence is
targeting religious identities for electoral gains. necessary for democratic stability.
• Caste: In countries like India, the caste system • Socio-Cultural Factors: India's democratic
has a profound impact on politics. Scholars like resilience is partly attributed to its socio-

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 pg. 54

cultural diversity. Scholars like Ashutosh well-informed about the electoral process and
Varshney highlight India's pluralistic society its significance.
and rich tradition of debate as key contributors • Registration and Voting Process: Complexities
to its democratic fabric. in voter registration and inconvenient voting
• Institutional Foundations: The Constitution of procedures can act as barriers. In some U.S.
India laid a robust institutional foundation for states, the introduction of voter ID laws has
democracy, emphasizing secularism, been contentious for potentially reducing
federalism, and judicial independence, voter participation.
countering the modernization theory's focus • Socio-economic Factors: Lower socio-
on economic factors. economic status correlates with lower voter
• Political Leadership and Commitment: Early turnout. In diverse countries like India, voter
Indian leaders, notably Jawaharlal Nehru, participation varies across socio-economic
played a crucial role in instilling democratic groups, with underprivileged sections often
values, steering the country towards a less engaged.
democratic path in the face of poverty and • Electoral System: The type of electoral system
diversity. influences turnout. For instance, proportional
• Democratic Adaptation and Reform: India’s representation systems, like those in
democracy has evolved to address societal Scandinavia, generally see higher participation
needs, implementing significant reforms like than first-past-the-post systems.
reservations for marginalized communities and • Political Stability and Trust: Low public trust in
decentralization through Panchayati Raj government institutions and political
institutions. instability can discourage voter participation,
• Economic Growth and Civil Society: India’s with skepticism about the electoral process's
economic growth in later years has further integrity.
deepened democracy, with an expanding • Mandatory Voting Laws: Countries with
middle class and vibrant civil society becoming compulsory voting, such as Australia, typically
key stakeholders in the democratic process. report higher turnout rates, often exceeding
90%.
Reasons for low voter turnout in democratic
countries • Election Timing and Accessibility: Elections
held on weekdays, like in the U.S., may
Low voter turnout in democratic countries can be
experience lower turnout compared to
attributed to several factors, and it varies from one
countries that hold elections on weekends or
country to another. This phenomenon has been a
declare them public holidays.
subject of study by scholars and experts in political
science. Interest Groups & Pressure Groups
• Political Disengagement: A common reason ● Interest groups and pressure groups are
for low turnout is voter apathy or structured organizations aiming to influence
disillusionment with the political process. For public policy and decisions, advocating for
example, in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, specific interests, causes, or issues. While the
approximately 43% of eligible voters did not terms are often used interchangeably,
participate, largely due to disinterest or distinctions exist. Interest groups typically
dissatisfaction with the candidates. encompass a broader range of interests,
• Lack of Awareness or Interest: This is including business, labor, or professional
particularly evident among younger voters, associations. In contrast, pressure groups may
who may lack interest in politics or are not focus more narrowly on specific issues or

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 pg. 55

causes, employing direct tactics to exert Seek to influence Primarily seek to exert
pressure on policymakers. policy decisions by immediate pressure
Scholars view: engaging in dialogue and influence through
● Pluralist Perspective: Scholars like Robert Dahl and collaboration direct action.
advocate the pluralist perspective, with policymakers
emphasizing the crucial role of interest groups Typically do not Primarily do not engage
in a democratic society. They argue that the participate directly in in electoral processes,
competition among these groups ensures a electoral politics but some may indirectly
balance of power, preventing the dominance support candidates or
of any single interest. campaigns.
● Elitist Perspective: Conversely, elitist theorists Do not have a direct Do not have a direct
such as C. Wright Mills contend that a small role in governing the role in governance, but
elite holds disproportionate power, and country they aim to influence
interest groups may serve the interests of this government decisions.
elite rather than promoting true democratic Federation of Indian Greenpeace, National
representation. Chambers of Rifle Association (NRA),
● Neo-Pluralist Perspective: Neo-pluralists, Commerce and Human Rights
including Theodore Lowi, integrate elements Industry (FICCI), Campaign (HRC)
of both pluralism and elitism. They recognize American Medical
the importance of interest groups but Association (AMA)
underscore the unequal distribution of Studied under various Scrutinized in the
resources and influence among these groups. lenses in comparative context of their impact
● Nature and Function of Interest Groups: politics, such as on democracy,
People with shared interests often organize pluralist, elitist, and representation, and
into interest groups to protect and promote neo-pluralist political power
their concerns. Notable examples include the perspectives. dynamics.
Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce
and Industry (FICCI). The distinction between
interest groups and pressure groups lies in the Characteristics of pressure groups/interests
groups
focus and tactics employed, though clear
demarcation is often challenging. • Organized Pursuit of Interests: Structured
around shared interests, utilizing hierarchies
Difference between interest groups and
for effective pursuit through committees,
pressure groups
leadership, and memberships.
Interest Groups Pressure Groups • Response to Increasing Demands: Emerges
Represent a broader May focus more due to rising demands and competition for
range of interests narrowly on specific limited resources, forming to safeguard
(business, labor, issues or causes. interests and secure a fair share.
professional • Result of Political Parties' Shortcomings:
associations, etc.) Arises from perceived deficiencies in political
Employ various Use direct tactics to party representation, addressing concerns or
strategies, including exert pressure, such as priorities that political parties may fall short in.
lobbying, research, protests, petitions, and • Focused Policy Influence: Concentrates on
and public relations advocacy campaigns. specific policy issues rather than seeking

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governance, aiming to influence decisions for o Testimony: Providing expert insights to

favorable outcomes. legislative bodies and government
• Varied Resources and Influence: Exhibits committees.
diversity in resources, including funding, o Public Hearings: Actively participating and
membership, and expertise, impacting their advocating in public hearings.
capacity to shape policy and achieve • Agenda-Setting:
objectives. o Media Campaigns: Launching campaigns to
• Diverse Membership Representation: raise awareness, influence media coverage.
Represents a spectrum of interests, from o Public Protests: Organizing demonstrations
specific industries and professions to broader to mobilize support and pressure
social and environmental concerns, policymakers.
encompassing individuals, organizations, o Grassroots Mobilization: Engaging local
businesses, or entities with shared interests. communities, organizing meetings, and
encouraging civic participation.
Functions of Pressure groups
• Interest Aggregation and Social Mobilization:
• Representation: Acts as representatives, o Membership Drives: Expanding reach and
giving a voice to marginalized groups; e.g., All- resources through membership initiatives.
India Kisan Sabha for farmers in India. o Coalition Building: Forming alliances to
• Agenda-Setting: Shapes political agendas by strengthen impact and broaden advocacy.
highlighting important issues; e.g., Narmada o Networking: Actively engaging in
Bachao Andolan in India. information sharing with organizations and
• Policy Influence: Influences policy through allies.
lobbying, expert advice, and collaboration;
Types of Pressure Groups
e.g., Confederation of Indian Industry.
• Social Mobilization: Mobilizes members for G. Almond presented four types of pressure
activism, raising awareness and garnering groups.
support; e.g., National Campaign for People's • Institutional Interest Groups: Formally
Right to Education. organized entities deeply embedded within
• Interest Aggregation: Brings individuals with the political system. Example: Federation of
shared interests together for collective Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry
advocacy; e.g., Dalit Panthers of India. (FICCI).
• Promote Political Participation: Encourages • Associational Interest Groups: Voluntarily
civic engagement and democratic formed organizations representing specific
participation; e.g., Association for Democratic groups based on shared interests. Example:
Reforms. Indian Medical Association (IMA).
• Check on Power: Holds government and • Anomic Interest Groups: Spontaneous,
influential actors accountable; e.g., Amnesty informal gatherings arising in response to
International India. specific issues or events. Example: Nirbhaya
movement in response to the Delhi gang-rape
Techniques of Pressure Groups
incident.
• Representation: • Non-Associational Interest Groups:
o Lobbying: Engaging policymakers directly Individuals or entities influencing the political
through meetings, calls, and written system without formal organization. Example:
submissions. Independent activists advocating for
sustainable agriculture practices.

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Jean Blondel’s classification of • Official vs. Non-Official Groups: He also

interest/pressure groups considers whether "pressure groups" should
Jean Blondel's classification of interest groups is only refer to non-official groups or if official
based on the factors responsible for their groups can be included in this category.
formation, dividing them into two main categories: Duverger’s Classification of Pressure Groups:
community interest groups and associational • Exclusive vs. Partial Groups:
groups. Each of these categories is further o Exclusive Groups: Solely focused on
subdivided into two sub-categories. pressuring the political system, examples
Blondel’s Classification of Interest Groups: include the French Parliamentary
• Community Interest Groups: Association for the Defence of Educational
o Customary Groups: These are formed Freedom.
based on the customs and traditions of a o Partial Groups: Primarily established to
community. An example includes caste or promote members' interests, such as
sub-caste groups in India. professional associations and cultural
o Institutional Groups: Formed by people groups, occasionally using pressure tactics
living together for a long time, developing as needed.
common social relationships. Examples • Private vs. Public Groups:
include welfare associations of serving or o Private Groups: Originating in the United
retired soldiers, civil servants’ welfare States, these are private institutions
associations, and senior citizens’ welfare pressuring the state apparatus.
bodies. o Public Groups: Official groups, including
• Associational Groups: government officials secretly aligning with
o Protective Groups: Aimed at protecting the pressure groups to advance certain
interests of their members, such as trade interests.
unions and professional associations. They • Pseudo-Pressure Groups:
typically have a more or less homogeneous o Pseudo-Pressure Groups: Comprising
clientele. specialists engaging in pressure politics for
o Promotional Groups: Have a broader others, including technical experts and
membership, representing large cross- mass media, often for monetary gains.
sections of the community. Examples Shortcomings of pressure groups:
include groups advocating for disarmament • Narrow Self-Interest: Certain groups prioritize
or environmental protection. their interests, neglecting broader societal
needs. Example: Caste-based groups in India
Maurice Duverger’s Classification advocating for exclusive policies like
Maurice Duverger's analysis of pressure groups is reservations, criticized for perpetuating
quite detailed and addresses several fundamental divisions.
questions about their nature and classification. • Undue Influence on Policymaking: Powerful
Duverger’s Key Questions on Pressure Groups: groups exert disproportionate influence on
• Nature of Pressure Groups: Duverger policies, favoring their interests over the public
questions whether the term "pressure groups" good. Example: Indian corporations
should be limited to those whose sole function influencing economic policies for self-benefit.
is political pressure or if it should also • Lack of Transparency and Accountability:
encompass groups with multidimensional Groups with limited transparency hinder
activities. assessment of their motives. Example:

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Accusations in India of unethical practices and Position of Pressure Groups in India:

undisclosed funding by certain groups. Pressure groups in India play a significant role in
• Potential for Extremism and Violence: Groups advocating for specific issues and influencing
resorting to extremist tactics undermine policymaking. However, challenges exist in their
democratic processes. Example: Instances in ability to fully protect or promote the interests of
India where religious and political groups are their members.
linked to violence. • Positive Aspects:
• Limited Capacity to Represent Diverse Voices: o Policy Influence: Pressure groups in India
Groups may not effectively represent diversity, have been successful in influencing policy
leading to policies overlooking minority decisions. For example, the farmers'
interests. Example: Women's rights groups in protests in recent times have pressured
India criticized for focusing on urban, middle- the government to reconsider agricultural
class issues. reforms.
Difference between pressure groups and political o Legislative Impact: Some pressure groups
party: have influenced legislation. The LGBTQ+
Pressure Groups Political Parties rights movement contributed to the
Influence policy Seek political power decriminalization of homosexuality
decisions on specific and control the through the repeal of Section 377.
issues or interests government • Challenges:
Focus on specific Operate on a broader o Limited Representation: Some pressure
issues or interests political spectrum, groups may not fully represent the
encompassing a range diversity of interests within their
of policies and constituencies, leading to a partial
ideologies promotion of members' interests.
Individuals or Individuals who adhere o Inequality in Access: Resource disparities
organizations united to a common ideology impact the effectiveness of pressure
by a common interest or political platform groups. Well-funded groups might have
Can range from Typically have a formal more influence, potentially sidelining
informal groups to organizational those with fewer resources.
highly organized structure with o Government Response: The
associations leadership positions, government's response to pressure
membership rules, and groups varies. While some groups succeed
internal processes in achieving their goals, others face
May lobby, protest, or Seek to win elections challenges due to government resistance.
engage in other forms and hold office in order • Theories and Frameworks:
of activism to to implement their o Resource Mobilization Theory: Scholars
influence policies like Sidney Tarrow emphasize the role of
policymakers resources, organizational strength, and
Represent the Shape the political strategic choices in the success of
interests of specific agenda, mobilize pressure groups.
groups and advocate voters, and participate o Pluralist Perspective: The pluralist view,
for their concerns in the electoral process advocated by theorists like Robert Dahl,
suggests that pressure groups contribute
to a more inclusive democratic process by
representing diverse interests.

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Interest group and its impact on democracy Social Movements

Promotion of Democracy: Definitions:
• Representation of Diverse Interests: Interest • Charles Tilly: "A social movement is a series of
groups, by representing various sectors and contentious performances, displays, and
constituencies, contribute to a more pluralistic campaigns by ordinary people making
and representative democracy. They provide a collective claims on others." Tilly emphasized
mechanism for diverse voices to be heard in the role of collective action and the disruptive
the policymaking process. nature of social movements in challenging the
• Policy Expertise: Interest groups often bring status quo.
specialized knowledge and expertise to the • Sidney Tarrow: "A social movement is a
political arena. In doing so, they assist collective challenge [to elites, authorities,
policymakers in making informed decisions, other groups or cultural codes] by people with
contributing to the quality of democratic common purposes and solidarity in sustained
governance. interactions with elites, opponents and
• Participation and Civic Engagement: By authorities." Tarrow distinguished social
engaging citizens in the political process, movements from political parties and
interest groups foster a sense of civic advocacy groups, highlighting their focus on
responsibility. This active participation challenging existing power structures and
enhances the democratic ethos, promoting an cultural norms.
informed and engaged citizenry. • John McCarthy and Mayer Zald: "A social
movement is a set of opinions and beliefs in a
Undermining Democracy: population which represents preferences for
• Influence Imbalance: Critics argue that certain changing some elements of the social structure
interest groups, particularly those with and/or reward distribution of a society."
significant financial resources, can McCarthy and Zald focused on the underlying
disproportionately influence policymaking. ideologies and goals that drive social
This may lead to an imbalance where the movements, emphasizing their desire to bring
interests of powerful groups take precedence about social change.
over those of the general public.
Classification of social Movements
• Elitism and Exclusivity: Some interest groups
may be perceived as representing elite or Old Social New Social Movements
exclusive interests, potentially sidelining Movements
marginalized or less powerful groups. This can 19th to early 20th Emerged in the latter half
undermine the principle of equal centuries. of the 20th century,
representation in a democratic system. evolving in the
• Capture of Regulatory Agencies: Scholars like contemporary era.
Mancur Olson have discussed the concept of Economic and class Beyond traditional class
"interest group capture," where powerful issues, seeking struggles, emphasizing
groups influence regulatory agencies meant to reforms within identity, culture, and
serve the public interest. This capture can existing societal quality of life.
result in policies that favor specific interests structures.
over the broader public good. Hierarchical and Decentralized and
centralized, often network-based,
organized around

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specific leveraging technology and Tarana Burke, addresses gender inequality and
institutions or social media. sexual harassment.
leaders. • Technology and Connectivity: Utilizing
Often drawn from Diverse, emphasizing technology, especially social media, for
specific classes or inclusivity and communication and mobilization. The
groups, using intersectionality, using Umbrella Movement in Hong Kong leveraged
traditional non-traditional methods digital platforms for organization and
methods like like online activism. communication, showcasing the impact of
protests and technology.
strikes. • Globalization and Anti-globalization
Primarily aimed at Challenges broader Movements: Responding to globalization's
changes within societal structures, aiming challenges, either embracing or resisting global
existing political for transformative interconnectedness. Scholars like Arjun
and social change, questioning Appadurai analyze the impact of globalization,
structures. existing political and while movements like Occupy Wall Street
economic systems. resist economic globalization.
• Youth Activism: Characterized by significant
youth involvement and innovative strategies.
New Social Movement
Greta Thunberg's Fridays for Future movement
New Social Movements (NSMs) emerged in the showcases youth activism focused on climate
latter 20th century, shifting focus from class-based change.
to identity and quality-of-life concerns. They • Intersectionality: Recognizing interconnected
emphasis on social issues like class, race, and gender.
• Identity and Cultural Issues: Prioritizing Kimberlé Crenshaw's intersectionality theory
identity, cultural preservation, and indigenous informs movements like Black Lives Matter,
rights. Scholars like Stuart Hall and Homi addressing the intersection of racial and
Bhabha discuss cultural identity dynamics, gender inequalities.
while movements like the Zapatistas in Mexico • Cultural Hybridity: Blending traditional
advocate for indigenous autonomy. elements with modern ideas in the context of
• Environmental Activism: Advocating for globalization. Scholars like Homi Bhabha
sustainable practices and resisting explore cultural hybridity, while movements
environmentally harmful projects. The Chipko like the Indigenous Peoples' Global Summit on
Movement in India, led by Sunderlal Bahuguna, Climate Change emphasize preserving cultural
exemplifies environmental activism with a identity in a globalized world.
focus on forest conservation. • Non-Institutional Forms of Protest: Engaging
• Human Rights and Democracy: Championing in decentralized protests, cultural expressions,
civil liberties, challenging authoritarian and street demonstrations. The Arab Spring's
regimes, and promoting democratic values. grassroots protests across the Middle East
Movements like the Arab Spring across the illustrate non-institutional forms of challenging
Middle East, influenced by scholars like Gene authoritarian regimes.
Sharp, emphasize democratic aspirations. Types of Social Movements
• Gender Equality: Advocating for women's • Migratory Movements: Physical relocation of
rights, equal opportunities, and an end to a group due to economic, social, or political
gender-based violence. The #MeToo reasons. Example: The Great Migration in the
movement globally, inspired by activists like early 20th century, where African Americans

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 pg. 61

moved from rural Southern to Northern cities • Diversifying Political Participation: By bringing
for economic opportunities. in traditionally marginalized voices,
• Reform Movements: Aim for gradual changes movements foster a more representative
within existing social, political, or economic democratic discourse through increased
systems. Example: Civil Rights Movement in political participation.
the 1950s and 1960s in the U.S., advocating for • Raising Awareness and Education:
equal rights and opportunities. Contributing to political awareness,
• Revolutionary Movements: Seek rapid and movements educate the public on critical
fundamental changes to existing structures, issues, rights, and the political landscape,
challenging the established order. Example: creating an informed electorate.
Cuban Revolution in 1959, led by Fidel Castro, • Responding to Crises: Swiftly responding to
establishing a socialist government. crises, social movements offer grassroots
• Resistance or Reactionary Movements: support, complementing government efforts
Emerge in response to perceived threats or during emergencies.
changes, resisting specific policies or • Driving Cultural and Social Transformation:
ideologies. Example: Tea Party Movement in Challenging norms, movements lead cultural
the early 21st century in the U.S., advocating and social transformations, fostering an
for limited government and fiscal inclusive and progressive culture within the
responsibility. democratic framework.
• Alternative Movements: Propose alternative • Influencing Policies: Successful movements
social, cultural, or lifestyle models, often influence policy changes, prompting
operating outside established norms. Example: governments to respond to their demands,
Back-to-the-Land Movement in the 1960s and showcasing grassroots activism's impact on
1970s, seeking self-sufficiency and commune- governance.
based living. • Building Global Solidarity: Gaining
Role of Social Movements in strengthening international support, these movements find
democratic process in developing societies global solidarity, amplifying their impact and
• Empowering Citizens: Providing a platform for drawing attention to local issues globally.
collective action, movements encourage active Decline of Political Parties:
citizenry, participation, and informed • Party Membership and Participation: Scholars
engagement in political processes. like Robert Putnam, in his work "Bowling
• Advocating for Social Justice: Addressing Alone," have noted a decline in traditional
injustices and advocating for marginalized forms of political participation, including party
communities, movements contribute to an membership and engagement. This decline
inclusive democracy by challenging systemic raises questions about the efficacy of political
issues. parties as primary intermediaries between
• Ensuring Political Accountability: Serving as a citizens and the government.
check on political power, movements demand • Trust Deficit: Many established political
transparency, challenge corruption, and parties face challenges related to a trust deficit
uphold accountability for a healthy democracy. among the public. Instances of corruption,
• Expanding Civil Liberties: Advocating for inefficiency, and a perceived disconnect from
fundamental rights like freedom of speech, the concerns of ordinary citizens contribute to
movements contribute to developing a the erosion of trust in traditional political
democratic society valuing individual institutions.
freedoms.

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 pg. 62

• Rise of Populism and Anti-Establishment concerns, amplifying marginalized voices.

Sentiment: The surge of populist movements Scholars like Frances Fox Piven highlight their
globally reflects a growing disillusionment with role in pushing for societal changes often
traditional political parties seen as part of an overlooked in mainstream politics.
entrenched and unresponsive political • Democratic Renewal: Political theorists,
establishment. including Hannah Arendt, see citizen
New Social Movements as Alternatives: engagement in social movements as a form of
• Issue-Centric Activism: New social movements democratic renewal. Movements like Occupy
often emerge around specific issues, allowing Wall Street exemplify citizens demanding
citizens to engage with causes they are greater accountability, reflecting an active and
passionate about. Movements like Fridays for revitalized democratic spirit.
Future, driven by youth activism for climate Decline of Representative Politics:
action, showcase how issue-centric • Loss of Trust in Institutions: Edelman's Trust
approaches can mobilize public support. Barometer indicates a global decline in trust in
• Technology and Decentralization: Social traditional institutions. Movements like the
media and digital communication have Yellow Vest protests in France express
empowered new social movements to discontent, signaling a shift away from reliance
mobilize without traditional party structures. on representative politics.
Movements can rapidly organize, • Fragmentation of Political Discourse: The
communicate, and gain momentum, proliferation of niche movements can
challenging the hierarchical nature of political fragment political discourse, challenging the
parties. imagined community, as argued by Benedict
• Inclusivity and Diversity: New social Anderson. This may hinder coherent policy-
movements tend to be more inclusive, making in representative politics.
representing a diversity of voices and • Challenges to Governance Stability: Social
perspectives. This inclusivity contrasts with the mobilization, noted by scholars like Charles
often homogenous nature of political parties, Tilly, poses challenges to governance stability.
providing a platform for marginalized groups Ongoing protests in Hong Kong illustrate how
and fostering a more representative governments may struggle to formulate
democracy. effective policies in the face of sustained public
dissent, contributing to a sense of political
Impact of Rise of Social Movements on
instability.
Politics
Opening up of Popular Space in the Political Social Movements in Developed and
Process Developing societies
• Increased Citizen Participation: Social Similarities
movements, as noted by scholars like Sidney • Injustice and Inequality: Movements in both
Tarrow, empower citizens, drawing in those societies respond to perceived injustices,
traditionally disengaged from politics. The focusing on civil rights, environmental
Arab Spring illustrates this with its use of social concerns, and labor rights.
media for mobilization against autocratic • Technological Influence: Social media plays a
regimes, showcasing a surge in civic crucial role in mobilizing activists in
participation. contemporary movements across diverse
• Focus on Grassroots Issues: Movements like societies.
Black Lives Matter emphasize grassroots

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 pg. 63

• Youth Engagement: Youth contribute • Increased Visibility: The movement has

energetically to movements, seen in examples increased the visibility of LGBT individuals,
like climate activism and youth-led political fostering a sense of community and solidarity.
movements. Scholar Judith Butler's work on performativity
Differences: sheds light on the role of visibility.
• Economic Context: Movements in advanced • Political Mobilization: LGBT organizations and
industrial societies may focus on economic activists have engaged in political mobilization,
policies, while those in developing societies contributing to policy changes. Scholars like
address poverty and exploitation. Susan Burgess have examined the political
• Political Structure: Advanced industrial activism of the LGBT movement.
societies have established democratic systems, • Challenges Remain: Despite progress,
while developing societies may grapple with challenges such as violence, mental health
governance, democracy-building, and disparities, and discrimination persist for LGBT
resistance against authoritarian regimes. individuals. Scholar Ilan H. Meyer's research
• Cultural and Identity Issues: Movements in highlights these issues.
developing societies emphasize cultural Impact on Developing Societies:
preservation and identity rights, while those in • Globalization of LGBT Rights: The successes of
advanced industrial societies revolve around the LGBT movement in developed societies
multiculturalism and minority rights. have led to the globalization of LGBT rights,
• Access to Resources: Movements in advanced with international organizations advocating for
industrial societies often have greater access equal treatment. The United Nations, for
to funding, legal support, and media coverage. example, promotes LGBT rights as human
• Globalization Impact: Movements in advanced rights.
industrial societies challenge economic • Transnational Advocacy: LGBT organizations
inequality, while those in developing societies from developed countries often collaborate
address cultural globalization, neocolonialism, with counterparts in developing societies to
and economic dependency. share knowledge, resources, and advocacy
strategies. This transnational advocacy, as
LGBT Movements
noted by scholars like Keck and Sikkink, can
The LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and influence policy changes in developing
Transgender) movement in developed societies countries.
has made significant strides in recent decades, • Legal Reforms: Some developing countries
achieving legal recognition and greater societal have made progress in decriminalizing
acceptance. These advancements have had ripple homosexuality and enacting anti-
effects on political participation in developing discrimination laws. For instance, India
societies, albeit with varying impacts and decriminalized consensual homosexual acts in
challenges. 2018, partly influenced by global
Developed Societies' LGBT Movement: developments.
• Legal Recognition: In developed societies, the • Challenges and Backlash: However, the path
LGBT movement has successfully advocated to LGBT rights in developing societies is fraught
for legal recognition of same-sex marriage, with challenges. Scholars like Steven L. B.
anti-discrimination laws, and equal rights. Jensen highlight backlash, cultural resistance,
Scholars like Nancy Polikoff have documented and legal barriers.
the legal evolution of LGBT rights. • Civil Society and Grassroots Movements:
LGBT activists in developing countries often

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 pg. 64

rely on civil society and grassroots movements activists. Scholars and advocates continue to
to advance their cause. These movements, explore strategies for advancing LGBT rights
though facing adversity, work toward changing worldwide.
societal attitudes and laws. Conclusion: Political representation and
• Intersectionality: It's crucial to recognize that participation are evolving with social movements,
the impact of the LGBT movement on political technology, and demographics. While movements
participation in developing societies is amplify diverse voices, concerns exist about
intertwined with issues of gender, class, and representative politics' responsiveness. The
ethnicity. Scholars like Kimberlé Crenshaw coexistence of both offers an opportunity for a
emphasize intersectionality in understanding dynamic political landscape. Scholars and
social justice movements. policymakers must integrate social movements'
• Future Prospects: The future of the LGBT strengths within representative frameworks for a
movement's impact on political participation in participatory and accountable democracy. The
developing societies is dynamic. It will depend challenge is balancing movements' transformative
on various factors, including local context, potential with the stability and inclusivity of
international pressure, and the resilience of representative institutions.

Student Notes ✍

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Chapter - 4 pg. 65

Globalization
boundaries and increasing global
Analysis of important dimensions from PYQ
interdependence.
1. What is a “global village"? Elaborate its
• Anthony Giddens defines globalization as the
main characteristics and also the factors
intensification of worldwide social relations
that contributed to its growth. (2014)
that link distant localities, shaping local events
2. Is globalization essentially a process of
by distant occurrences and vice versa,
'universalisation' of capitalist modernity?
highlighting global interconnectedness and
(2015) (characteristics of Globalization)
interdependence.
3. How is it that economic and neo-liberal
• Thomas Friedman views globalization as the
globalization is being interrogated from
comprehensive integration of markets, nation-
inside even in developed countries? What
states, and technologies, enabling far-
are the economic consequences of such
reaching, rapid, deep, and cost-effective global
globalization? (2015)
interactions.
4. Discuss the impact of globalization on
• David Held and Anthony McGrew characterize
the internal functioning of the state.
globalization in four dimensions: stretching of
(2016)
global activities across frontiers; intensifying
5. Critically examine Globalization in the
global interconnectedness and flows;
past 25 years from the perspective of the
accelerating global interactions and processes;
Western world. (2017)
and increasing the impact of global
6. Explain the relevance of the Marxist
interactions.
approach in the context of globalisation.
• Manfred Steger sees globalization as a social
(2019)
condition with tight global economic, political,
7. Critically examine the impact of
cultural, and environmental interconnections
globalization from the perspective of
and flows, rendering traditional borders and
countries of the global south. (2020)
boundaries largely irrelevant.
8. What is globalization? Why is there an
intense debate over globalization and its
Various aspects of globalization
consequences? (2021)
• Economic Globalization: Economic
9. What are the main challenges faced by
globalization refers to the increasing
the developing countries in the era of
interdependence of world economies as a
globalization? (2022)
result of the growing scale of cross-border
10. Critically examine the impact of
trade of commodities and services, flow of
Globalisation on the developing
international capital, and wide and rapid
countries of the world. (2023)
spread of technologies.
o Example: The rise of multinational
Introduction
corporations like Apple and Samsung,
• Joseph Nye and Robert Keohane describe which operate and distribute products
globalization as the integration of state and globally, reflects economic globalization.
non-state activities across borders in Their supply chains encompass various
economic, political, social, and cultural countries for different stages of
domains, diminishing the importance of production, from raw material sourcing to
geographical distance and territorial manufacturing and final assembly.

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 pg. 66

• Political Globalization: Political globalization is European nations into powerhouses of

the process by which political decisions and manufactured goods.
actions are becoming increasingly ▪ David Ricardo's theory of
international. This aspect of globalization is Comparative Advantage explains how
characterized by the formation of countries specialized in
transnational alliances, increased influence of manufacturing certain goods,
international organizations, and the spread of boosting international trade.
democracy. o Global Trade Dynamics: Emergence of
o Example: The European Union (EU) is a global markets and colonial trade routes,
prime example of political globalization. It fueled by advancements in transportation
represents a significant shift in the like steamships and railroads.
sovereignty and governance of member o Dormant State: Interwar Period (Between
states towards a central authority, with WW1 and WW2)
coordinated foreign policies, a shared o Economic Crunch: Post-WWI,
economy, and standardized laws. industrialized nations grappled with
• Socio-Cultural Globalization: Socio-cultural economic instability; others remained
globalization refers to the spread of ideas, under colonial rule.
values, norms, practices, and social habits o The Great Depression: A significant global
around the world. This aspect includes the economic downturn that hindered
global sharing of knowledge, cultural international trade and investment.
identities, and the creation of a global o Empire Decline: Traditional powers like
consciousness. Great Britain weakened due to war efforts.
o Example: The global popularity of o Keynesian Economics: John Maynard
Hollywood movies and fast-food chains Keynes advocated for government
like McDonald's and Starbucks exemplify intervention during this period to revive
socio-cultural globalization. These brands economies, a shift from classical laissez-
not only represent American culture but faire economics.
have also adapted to local tastes and • Second Phase: End of WWII to End of Cold
cultures, illustrating a two-way cultural War
exchange. o Expansion of Capitalism: Rise of
Multinational Corporations, leading to the
Evolution of globalization
internationalization of production and
Globalization, as a process of increasing worldwide trade.
interconnectedness in economic, political, social, o Bretton Woods System: Established
and cultural realms, has evolved through distinct international financial institutions (IMF,
historical phases, often referred to as "waves." World Bank) and global financial markets,
Each wave reflects a unique era in the global promoting monetary stability and
integration process, characterized by specific reconstruction.
technological, political, and economic o Decolonization: Political restructuring
developments. with new states emerging, altering global
• First Phase: Industrial Revolution to End of political dynamics.
WWI o Liberalism: Emphasis on free trade and
o Industrial Revolution Impact: Sparked the open markets, as theorized by Adam
first major expansion of world trade and Smith, became predominant.
investment in the 18th century, turning • Third Phase: Post-Cold War Era

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o End of Bipolarity: Fall of the Berlin Wall Nature of globalization

and the Soviet Union marked the triumph The nature of globalization is complex and
of capitalism over socialism. multifaceted, with various models and ideologies
o World Trade Organization (WTO): shaping its processes and impacts across the world.
Symbolized global acceptance of liberal The current dominant model of globalization is
trade policies. This phase is often linked to deeply influenced by neo-liberal ideology, but it's
Thomas Friedman's concept of the world crucial to understand that this is not the only way
being "flat," denoting global economic globalization can manifest. Other historical and
leveling. cultural models offer alternative visions for global
o Economic Shifts: The rise of multinational interaction and integration.
corporations, the liberalization of trade Present Model of Globalization
policies, and the integration of global
• Neo-Liberal Ideology: The contemporary
financial markets.
model of globalization is heavily based on neo-
o Technological Revolution: Advancements
liberal ideology, which emphasizes free-
in communication and information
market capitalism, deregulation, and a
technology spurred a new wave of
reduction in government intervention in the
globalization, reducing barriers and
economy. This model advocates for the free
increasing global interconnectivity.
flow of capital, goods, and services across
o Cultural Globalization: This period also
national borders, aiming to create a global
saw an unprecedented exchange of
market without restrictions.
cultures and ideas, facilitated by the
o Hegemonic Idea: Globalization, in its
internet and global media networks.
current form, is often criticized as a
• 4th Wave: Emerging Economic Powers hegemonic idea that benefits developed
(Present) nations and multinational corporations at
o Characterized by: The rise of emerging the expense of less developed countries.
economies like China, India, Brazil, and This hegemony manifests in economic
others as key drivers of global economic practices, cultural dominance, and political
growth. influence, perpetuating inequalities on a
o Digital Revolution: Marked by global scale.
advancements in AI, IoT, and digital o Critique by Bhikhu Parekh: Philosopher
technologies reshaping the global Bhikhu Parekh criticizes the present model
economic landscape. of globalization for being imposed from
o Geopolitical Realignments: A shift in the top without engaging in a "civilization
global power dynamics, with emerging dialogue." He argues for a more inclusive
economies gaining more influence in approach to globalization that respects
international affairs. and incorporates diverse cultural and
o Economic Integration: Increased South- civilizational perspectives.
South cooperation, with emerging o Discontents against Globalization: Joseph
economies trading more among Stiglitz, among others, has highlighted the
themselves. discontents against globalization, pointing
o Environmental Considerations: Growing out that while globalization has the
awareness and response to global potential to bring about significant
environmental challenges like climate economic growth and development, its
change. benefits have been unevenly distributed,

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 pg. 68

often exacerbating inequality and social • Democracy and Human Rights: Liberals link
unrest. economic globalization with the promotion of
Other Models of Globalization democratic values and human rights,
• Socialist Idea of Proletariat Internationalism: suggesting that interconnected economies are
Contrasting with the neo-liberal model, the likely to share and adopt these principles.
socialist idea of proletariat internationalism • Cultural Exchange: Globalization fosters
emphasizes solidarity among the working class cultural understanding and tolerance through
across national boundaries. It advocates for a the exchange of ideas and values.
globalization that prioritizes the needs and • Global Cooperation: It necessitates
rights of workers, aiming for a more equitable collaborative efforts among nations to address
distribution of resources and wealth. cross-border challenges like environmental
• Vedic Idea of Vasudhaiv Kutumbukam: This issues and public health.
ancient Indian concept translates to "the world • Open Markets: Advocacy for open markets
is one family." It suggests a form of and trade liberalization underpins the belief
globalization based on mutual respect, that free trade propels economic development
compassion, and an understanding that all of and reduces poverty.
humanity is interconnected. This model • Innovation: The flow of ideas and knowledge
promotes peace, harmony, and sustainable across borders is seen as key to innovation,
development. especially benefiting developing nations by
• Buddhist Idea of Conquering Hearts Not Land: bridging the digital divide.
Buddhism promotes a globalization of • Inequality Mitigation: While recognizing that
compassion and non-violence, focusing on globalization can exacerbate disparities,
conquering hearts through love, empathy, and liberals argue for policies to redistribute
understanding rather than territorial or wealth and ensure the benefits of globalization
economic domination. This approach are broadly shared.
emphasizes the importance of moral and
Hyperglobalists Theory of Globalization
ethical considerations in global interactions.
• Islamic Caliphate: The idea of an Islamic The hyperglobalists theory of globalization posits
Caliphate represents a form of globalization that globalization is a dominant force transforming
that seeks to unite the Muslim community the world into a highly interconnected and
(Ummah) across the globe under a single integrated global society.
political and religious leadership. While • Economic Integration: Hyperglobalists view
historically specific, the concept highlights the the global economy as increasingly integrated,
role of faith and religious values in shaping with national borders becoming less relevant
visions of global unity and governance. in the face of global trade, investment, and
capital flows. They argue that the world is
Theories of globalization moving towards a borderless global
Liberal Perspective on Globalization marketplace.
The liberal perspective on globalization champions o Kenichi Ohmae author of "The Borderless
it as a catalyst for economic growth, democratic World," Ohmae contends that nation-
spread, and cultural exchange. states have become obsolete in the face of
• Economic Growth: Globalization is seen as a global economic forces. He argues that
driver of global economic expansion and traditional borders are becoming
consumer benefits through efficient resource irrelevant as economies become more
allocation and cost-effective production.

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 pg. 69

integrated through trade, investment, and the expense of local traditions and
technology. identities.
o The European Union (EU): The EU • Technological Advancements: The theory
represents a significant move towards emphasizes the critical role of technology in
economic integration, with member states advancing globalization, making global
sharing a common market and currency communication and transportation faster and
(the euro for many of its members). This more efficient, thus facilitating the global flow
level of integration supports the of goods, services, information, and people.
hyperglobalist view that economic forces o The rapid spread of the internet and the
are leading to a more interconnected global reach of social media platforms like
global economy. Facebook, Twitter, and TikTok exemplify
• Political Changes: This perspective suggests how technology is facilitating global
that globalization diminishes the power and communication and cultural exchange, a
sovereignty of nation-states, as global core aspect of the hyperglobalist
institutions and multinational corporations perspective.
gain more influence, regulating global issues • Critiques and Challenges: Despite its
beyond the reach of individual governments. optimistic view of globalization fostering global
o Thomas Friedman argues in books like unity, the hyperglobalists theory faces criticism
"The World is Flat" that technological for potentially overlooking the exacerbation of
advancements have leveled the global inequalities, undermining of local cultures, and
playing field, allowing people from all over environmental impacts. Critics also argue that
the world to compete economically on an nation-states remain powerful actors in
equal footing. He suggests that regulating economic and social welfare.
globalization has effectively 'flattened' the o Joseph Stiglitz acknowledges the benefits
world, making it more interconnected and of global integration but highlights its
interdependent. downsides, such as increased inequality
o The World Trade Organization (WTO) with and environmental degradation
its global trade rules and dispute
Skeptical Theory of Globalization
resolution system, exemplifies how
international institutions can have a The skeptical theory of globalization presents a
profound impact on national policies and counterpoint to the hyperglobalists' view, offering
sovereignty, aligning with the a more critical and cautious perspective on the
hyperglobalist perspective on the decline extent and impact of global integration. Skeptics
of nation-state power. question the novelty and depth of current
• Cultural Homogenization: Hyperglobalists globalization processes, arguing that the world is
contend that globalization leads to a not as interconnected and uniform as
worldwide cultural homogenization, often hyperglobalists suggest.
spreading Western cultures at the expense of • Limited Global Integration: Skeptics argue that
local identities and traditions. economic globalization is not a new
o The worldwide presence of brands like phenomenon and that the current level of
McDonald's, Coca-Cola, and the global global integration is not unprecedented. They
influence of Hollywood movies illustrate point to periods such as the late 19th and early
cultural homogenization. These examples 20th centuries as times of high global
support the hyperglobalist view that global economic integration, suggesting that current
culture is becoming more uniform, often at

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 pg. 70

global trade and investment flows are not diversity and the strengthening of local
significantly deeper than in the past. identities in the face of global cultural flows.
o Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson are They argue that local cultures are not merely
prominent voices here. In their work, they passive recipients of global influences but
argue against the notion of unprecedented actively engage with and transform these
global integration. influences, leading to hybrid cultural forms
• Regionalization vs. Globalization: The rather than uniformity.
skeptical perspective emphasizes the o The global popularity of Bollywood films,
importance of regional blocs and trade which blend local Indian traditions with
agreements, suggesting that much of what is global cinematic techniques, exemplifies
considered global trade is actually regional. the dynamic interplay between global and
They highlight the dominance of trade within local cultural forms.
regions such as North America (NAFTA, now • Critiques of Technological Determinism:
USMCA), Europe (European Union), and East Skeptics such as Manuel Castells are cautious
Asia, arguing that these regional ties challenge about claims that technology inevitably drives
the notion of a borderless global economy. globalization forward, suggesting that political,
o The European Union (EU) showcases economic, and social factors play a significant
regional integration, with its members role in shaping technological adoption and
trading extensively within the bloc, impact. They challenge the notion that
supporting skeptics' emphasis on technological advancement alone is leading to
regionalism over globalism. a more integrated world.
• Power of Nation-States: Contrary to the o The varied uptake and use of the internet
hyperglobalists' assertion of diminishing state and social media across different societies
sovereignty, skeptics maintain that nation- show how cultural, political, and economic
states remain powerful and central actors in contexts shape the effects of technology,
the global system. They argue that states still challenging the notion of technology as a
control economic policies, protect their own uniform driver of global integration.
industries through tariffs and regulations, and
Transformationalist Theory of Globalization
play a critical role in managing their economies
and societies. The transformationalist theory of globalization
• Inequalities and Exclusions: Skeptical theorists offers a nuanced middle ground between the
focus on the uneven and unequal nature of hyperglobalists and skeptics, focusing on how
globalization, pointing out that benefits and globalization is transforming state and societal
costs are distributed unevenly across and activities in unprecedented and complex ways. This
within countries. They highlight how perspective does not view globalization as either
globalization can exacerbate inequalities, with wholly new or as simply a continuation of past
wealth accumulating in certain regions and processes. Instead, it emphasizes the
populations while others are left behind. transformative impacts of globalization on national
o Joseph Stiglitz has been critical of and international levels, recognizing its dynamic,
globalization's uneven benefits, focusing ongoing nature.
on how it can increase inequality within • Unprecedented Changes:
and between countries. Transformationalists argue that globalization is
• Cultural Diversity: While hyperglobalists like bringing about profound and unique changes
Arjun Appadurai predict a homogenization of in the political, economic, and social spheres.
culture, skeptics see persistent cultural They see it as reshaping states, institutions,

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societies, and individual identities in novel on how its processes are managed and
ways. regulated.
• State Transformation: Unlike hyperglobalists o Manuel Castells: Known for his work on
who see the state as diminishing in power, or the network society, Castells illustrates
skeptics who argue for its continued how globalization and technology are
dominance, transformationalists believe the creating a global network that transforms
role of the state is being fundamentally economic and social relations.
redefined. States are adapting to globalization o Ulrich Beck: Beck's concept of "risk
by renegotiating their powers and functions, society" emphasizes how global risks (e.g.,
engaging in both global governance environmental, financial) are transforming
mechanisms and enhancing their roles within societies, requiring new forms of global
certain domains. cooperation and governance.
• Economic Reconfiguration: This theory o Example: Global Environmental
acknowledges the significant impact of global Governance: The international response
economic integration but argues that it leads to climate change, through agreements
to a reconfiguration rather than a diminution like the Paris Agreement, exemplifies
of national economies. It emphasizes the transformationalist views on state
changing nature of work, production, and adaptation and the need for global
capital flows, suggesting that economies are governance structures to manage global
becoming more interconnected in complex challenges.
and uneven ways.
• Cultural Interconnectivity: Marxist Theory of Globalization
Transformationalists view cultural The Marxist theory of globalization examines the
globalization as a process of interaction and process through which global capitalism expands
fusion, where cultures influence each other, and integrates economies across the world,
leading to the creation of new cultural forms. focusing on the dynamics of class struggle,
This contrasts with the notion of cultural exploitation, and the concentration of capital.
homogenization or persistent cultural • Capital Accumulation and Expansion: Marxists
diversity, suggesting a more dynamic exchange view globalization as an essential phase of
of cultural values and practices. capitalism, driven by the imperative for capital
• Technological Impact: The role of technology accumulation and expansion. Capitalists seek
is seen as a key driver of globalization, but its to maximize profits by exploring new markets,
effects are mediated by social, economic, and sourcing cheaper labor, and accessing raw
political contexts. Transformationalists argue materials globally, leading to the
that technology both enables and is shaped by internationalization of production and finance.
globalizing processes, leading to new forms of • Imperialism and Economic Dominance:
social interaction and organizational Marxist theorists, like Lenin and Rosa
structures. Luxemburg, have linked globalization to
• Global Inequalities: Transformationalists are imperialism, arguing that developed nations
concerned with the inequalities produced by exploit developing countries through
globalization but focus on how these economic dominance. This process involves
inequalities are being transformed. They the extraction of resources, exploitation of
highlight how globalization can both cheap labor, and the imposition of unequal
exacerbate and mitigate disparities, depending economic agreements, perpetuating a global

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 pg. 72

division of labor that benefits the capitalist globalized world, focusing on issues of power,
core at the expense of the periphery. cultural hegemony, and economic inequality. It
• Class Struggle and Inequality: Globalization, critiques the continuities between colonialism and
from a Marxist perspective, exacerbates class current global power dynamics, arguing that
divisions and inequalities both within and globalization often perpetuates patterns of
between nations. It leads to the exploitation of exploitation, dominance, and cultural imperialism
workers around the world, as capital mobility established during the colonial era.
allows corporations to move production to • Continuity of Colonial Structures: Post-
regions with lower labor costs, undermining colonial theorists argue that contemporary
workers' rights and wages. globalization processes are not entirely new
• Neoliberal Globalization: Marxists critique the but are deeply rooted in the colonial expansion
current phase of globalization as being driven and exploitation of non-Western societies.
by neoliberal policies, which prioritize free They emphasize that the economic and
markets, deregulation, and privatization. political practices of globalization often
These policies, they argue, enhance the power replicate colonial patterns of domination and
of multinational corporations and financial dependency, maintaining the economic
institutions, further entrenching global superiority of former colonial powers.
inequalities and concentrating wealth and • Cultural Imperialism: This perspective
power in the hands of a global capitalist elite. highlights the role of cultural imperialism in
• Resistance and Global Solidarity: Marxism globalization, where the spread of Western
emphasizes the potential for resistance against values, lifestyles, and media acts as a form of
global capitalism, advocating for international soft power, marginalizing local cultures and
solidarity among workers. It suggests that identities. It critiques the global dominance of
globalization also creates conditions for global Western (especially American) cultural
awareness and collective action among the products and argues that this leads to a form
proletariat, potentially leading to a unified of cultural homogenization that erases or
struggle against capitalist exploitation. subordinates non-Western cultures.
o David Harvey: Harvey discusses the • Economic Inequality and Exploitation: Post-
concept of "accumulation by colonial analysis of globalization focuses on the
dispossession," highlighting how continued economic exploitation and
neoliberal globalization enables the inequality between the Global North
capitalist class to accumulate wealth by (developed countries) and the Global South
dispossessing public and private entities of (developing countries). It points to how global
their wealth or land. trade and financial systems often favor
o Immanuel Wallerstein: Wallerstein's developed nations, perpetuating the economic
world-systems theory complements disparities established during the colonial
Marxist analysis by describing the global period.
economy as a complex system divided into • Resistance and Hybridity: The post-colonial
core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral perspective also celebrates resistance to global
countries, with wealth flowing from the hegemony and the emergence of hybrid
periphery to the core, perpetuating global cultural forms. It emphasizes the agency of
inequalities. formerly colonized societies to resist,
Post-Colonial Perspective reinterpret, and hybridize Western cultural
The post-colonial perspective on globalization practices, creating new, syncretic forms of
examines how colonial legacies shape the modern culture that challenge dominant narratives.

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• Reclaiming Identity and Sovereignty: Post- by the rise of multinational corporations that
colonial theorists advocate for reclaiming operate across borders, such as Apple and
cultural identity and sovereignty, emphasizing Samsung, which design products in one
the importance of decolonizing knowledge, country, manufacture them in another, and
economies, and societies. They call for a sell them globally.
reevaluation of global structures and • Marshall McLuhan's concept of the "global
relationships to create a more equitable world village" illustrates the compression of space
order that respects the diversity of cultures and time through modern communication
and histories. technologies. Social media platforms like
o Frantz Fanon: His works, such as "The Facebook and Twitter exemplify this, enabling
Wretched of the Earth," analyze the instant communication and information
psychological and social impacts of sharing worldwide.
colonialism, offering insights into the • Anthony Giddens speaks of the "stretching
dynamics of power and resistance that are and deepening of relations across space and
applicable to understanding globalization. time," a process made manifest through the
o Edward Said: In "Orientalism," Said global spread of cultural products like
explores how Western perceptions of the Hollywood movies and K-pop, which influence
East (the Orient) have been constructed audiences far from their origins.
through a lens of superiority and • Thomas Friedman, in "The Lexus and the Olive
otherness, a concept that can be extended Tree," characterizes globalization as the
to critique the cultural dimensions of inexorable integration of markets, nation-
globalization. states, and technology, leading to interactions
o Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak: Known for that are "farther, faster, cheaper, deeper." The
her essay "Can the Subaltern Speak?", global IT industry, with its rapid innovation
Spivak critiques the ways in which the cycles and worldwide supply chains,
voices of those from the Global South are underscores Friedman's view.
marginalized or silenced within global
discourse, highlighting the need for Globalization as Myth
genuine engagement with subaltern Conversely, a number of scholars and
perspectives in the globalized world. commentators argue that globalization is
overstated or even a myth.
Globalization – Reality Vs Myth
• Rosenberg criticizes globalization as a "self-
The discourse on globalization encompasses a wide
serving myth," a notion echoed in the views of
spectrum of viewpoints, from those heralding it as
Arundhati Roy in "Capitalism: A Ghost Story,"
an inevitable, transformative force, to skeptics
where she depicts neoliberal capitalism as a
who challenge its benefits and even its very
new form of colonialism. Roy's critique is
existence.
illustrated by the dominance of Western
Globalization as Reality
corporations in global markets, often at the
Proponents of globalization see it as a dynamic
expense of local businesses and cultures.
process that has led to an increasingly
• Jorge Heine and Ramesh Thakur describe
interconnected world.
globalization's "soft belly," referring to its
• Kenichi Ohmae describes a "Borderless World"
vulnerabilities and inequalities, particularly in
where traditional national boundaries become
how wealth and opportunities are
irrelevant in the face of global economic
disproportionately concentrated in the West.
operations. Ohmae's perspective is evidenced

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 pg. 74

• Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson from the exporting goods for which they have a lower
Marxist school, argue that the international opportunity cost, thus maximizing global
economy is actually less open now, with trade efficiency and wealth.
and financial flows largely restricted to the • Cultural Exchange and Global Understanding:
West. They point to the rise of regional trade Globalization facilitates cultural exchange and
agreements, like the European Union and enhances global understanding. Pankaj
NAFTA (now USMCA), as evidence of Ghemawat’s "CAGE" framework (considering
internationalization and regionalization rather Cultural, Administrative, Geographic, and
than true global integration. The assertion that Economic distances) suggests that while
genuine transnational companies are less globalization brings diverse cultures closer, it
prevalent than believed supports the view that allows for the exchange of ideas, values, and
economic activities remain largely national or practices, promoting mutual understanding
regional in scope. and tolerance.
• Innovation and Technology Transfer: The
Bridging Perspectives global flow of information and technology has
The debate over globalization's reality or myth accelerated innovation. Thomas Friedman’s
status is nuanced by the acknowledgment that "The World is Flat" theory posits that
while global interconnectedness has indeed globalization levels the playing field in
increased, its benefits and impacts are unevenly commerce and allows businesses and
distributed. The digital divide, for example, individuals from developing countries to
highlights how technological advancements in leapfrog into innovation, thanks to access to
communication and information access have not new technologies and markets.
been universally shared, leaving parts of the • Global Governance and Cooperation:
developing world further behind. Globalization advocates argue that it
encourages international cooperation on
Moreover, the environmental impacts of global issues such as climate change, terrorism,
globalization, such as climate change, underscore and pandemics. The success of international
the complexities of global integration. The agreements like the Paris Agreement on
international response to environmental crises, climate change exemplifies how globalization
including agreements like the Paris Accord, reflects can foster a collective approach to addressing
attempts to address global challenges collectively, global challenges.
yet also reveals the limitations and inequalities
inherent in global cooperation. Arguments Against Globalization
• Inequality and Marginalization: Critics like
Globalization: In Support and against Joseph Stiglitz argue that globalization has
Arguments in Favor of Globalization exacerbated income and wealth inequalities
• Economic Growth and Development: Scholars both within and between countries. The
like Jagdish Bhagwati, a proponent of free argument is rooted in the Dependency Theory,
trade and globalization, argue that which suggests that economic practices under
globalization contributes to economic growth, globalization often result in wealthier nations
reduces poverty, and enhances living exploiting poorer ones, perpetuating a cycle of
standards through the free flow of goods, dependency and underdevelopment.
services, and capital across borders. The theory • Cultural Homogenization: Critics contend that
of comparative advantage suggests that globalization leads to cultural homogenization,
countries benefit from specializing in and threatening local cultures and identities. The

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 pg. 75

theory of Cultural Imperialism suggests that • Christine Lagarde: The former Managing
dominant cultures, particularly through global Director of the International Monetary Fund
media and multinational corporations, impose (IMF) acknowledges rising inequalities as a
their values and practices on others, eroding significant vulnerability of market-driven
local cultures and traditions. globalization. Lagarde's insights suggest the
• Environmental Degradation: Globalization has need for a recalibration of globalization
been linked to environmental degradation processes to address and mitigate these
through increased consumption, pollution, and disparities.
natural resource depletion. The tragedy of the • Sorenson: Sorenson reflects on the crisis facing
commons theory illustrates how shared global globalization and the liberal world order,
resources are overused and depleted in the noting the disproportionately negative impact
absence of effective governance or on the sovereignty of smaller and poorer
cooperation, a situation exacerbated by nations compared to larger ones. This
globalization’s emphasis on economic growth. viewpoint underscores the growing skepticism
• Labor Market Disruptions and Job Losses: towards globalization's current trajectory.
Globalization is criticized for causing job losses • Pratap Bhanu Mehta - Globalization in
in developed countries as companies move Question: Mehta's analysis resonates with
production to lower-wage countries. The Race Stiglitz's concerns, highlighting the shift in anti-
to the Bottom theory suggests that globalization sentiment from the Global South
globalization encourages countries to reduce to the working class in the North. He discusses
labor and environmental standards to attract the impact of globalization on electoral
foreign investment, often at the expense of choices, leading to the rise of right-wing
workers' rights and conditions. populism, xenophobia, ethnic chauvinism, and
• Loss of National Sovereignty: Critics argue that anti-immigrant sentiment. Mehta presents
globalization undermines national sovereignty, globalization as a double-edged sword,
with international corporations and trade offering vast opportunities for some while
agreements influencing domestic policies and prompting elites to seek new avenues for
priorities. Examples include concerns over the profit at the expense of broader societal
Investor-State Dispute Settlement (ISDS) interests.
mechanisms in trade agreements that allow
corporations to sue governments over policies Global Village
that potentially harm their profits. The concept of a "global village" is a metaphor to
describe the phenomenon of the world becoming
More Balanced View more interconnected, with distances between
• Post-Colonial Critique - Edward Said: Edward nations and people feeling smaller due to
Said's critique focuses on how cultural advancements in technology, particularly in
globalization serves to perpetuate Western communication and transportation. This term was
dominance, echoing his analysis of Orientalism popularized by Canadian media theorist Marshall
as a project of Western imperialism. This McLuhan in the 1960s, who envisioned a world
perspective emphasizes the Eurocentric nature where people could communicate with each other
of global governance institutions and critiques across great distances as if they were living in a
the security dilemmas and humanitarian small village.
interventions that often justify Western Main Characteristics of a Global Village:
interference in non-Western societies. • Instantaneous Communication: The advent of
the internet, mobile technology, and social

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 pg. 76

media platforms allows real-time • Cultural Dynamics: The spread of English as a

communication across the globe, making global lingua franca and the global reach of
information and news accessible popular culture through movies, music, and
instantaneously. television shows have contributed to a shared
• Cultural Exchange: There's a significant global culture.
exchange of cultural practices, ideas, values, • Educational and Scientific Cooperation:
and norms among different societies, leading International collaborations in education and
to greater cultural diversity within nations and research have promoted a global exchange of
the adoption of global cultural phenomena. knowledge and expertise.
• Economic Interdependence: Globalization has
led to economies becoming more Examples:
interconnected, with trade, investment, and • The COVID-19 Pandemic: Demonstrated the
financial markets closely linked, making the interconnectedness and vulnerabilities of the
economic downturns or growth in one region global village, with the virus spreading rapidly
affect others. worldwide and global efforts to develop
• Increased Mobility: The ease of travel and vaccines showing the necessity of international
migration has resulted in a more mobile global cooperation.
population, with people moving for work, • Global Social Movements: Movements like
education, or as refugees more frequently than #MeToo or Black Lives Matter show how social
in the past. issues can gain global attention and solidarity
• Digitalization of Life: Many aspects of daily life through digital platforms, emphasizing the
and work are facilitated or dictated by digital global village's role in social change.
technology, including e-commerce, online • Economic Interdependence: The 2008 global
education, telecommuting, and digital financial crisis highlighted how economic
entertainment. activities in one part of the world can have a
ripple effect globally, a phenomenon studied
Factors Contributing to the Growth of the Global by scholars like Joseph Stiglitz.
Village: • Technological Impact: Manuel Castells' theory
• Technological Advancements: Innovations in of the "network society" complements the
communication (the internet, social media) concept of the global village, emphasizing how
and transportation (faster and cheaper air digital networks shape social, political, and
travel) technologies have been primary drivers economic processes.
in shrinking distances and fostering global • Cultural Exchange: The global popularity of
interactions. non-Western media content, such as K-pop or
• Economic Globalization: The liberalization of Bollywood, exemplifies the two-way cultural
trade and investment policies has promoted exchange that characterizes the global village.
global trade and multinational corporations,
Current Prospects of Globalization
making products and services available
worldwide and linking economies together. Globalization, as a process of increasing
• Political Changes: The end of the Cold War and international integration in economic, cultural, and
the subsequent opening up of many political spheres, faces significant challenges and
economies have facilitated a more transformations in the current era. Political science
interconnected global political landscape, with perspectives shed light on these dynamics,
international cooperation on issues like considering the roles of state actors, international
climate change and trade. institutions, and geopolitical tensions.

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Challenges and Transformations: Future Prospects of Globalization Being Led by

• Shift towards Multipolarity: Scholars like John China
Ikenberry argue that the post-Cold War China’s Global Leadership Aspirations:
unipolar moment is giving way to a more • Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): As part of its
multipolar world order, affecting globalization effort to lead globalization, China launched the
processes. This shift complicates global BRI, aiming to enhance global connectivity
governance as power becomes more diffused. through infrastructure projects. This initiative,
• Rise of Nationalism and Populism: The however, has sparked debates about debt
resurgence of nationalism and populist politics diplomacy and regional influence.
in countries like the United States (Trump's • AIIB and NDB: The establishment of the Asian
"America First"), the UK (Brexit), and other Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) and the
parts of Europe challenges the liberal order New Development Bank (NDB) signifies China's
that underpinned globalization. Dani Rodrik’s attempt to offer alternatives to traditional
“trilemma” of globalization outlines the Western-dominated financial institutions,
difficulty of balancing deep economic potentially reshaping global financial
integration with national sovereignty and architectures.
democracy. Challenges and Opportunities:
• Technological Changes and Digitalization: The • Economic Slowdown: China's economic
rapid pace of technological innovation and the slowdown poses questions about its capacity
digital economy are reshaping globalization. to sustain global leadership. The transition
Manuel Castells' theory of the network society from an investment-driven to a consumption-
highlights how digital networks are creating driven economy is crucial.
new forms of economic and social • Global Governance and the "Beijing
organization, transcending traditional Consensus": China advocates for a multipolar
geographical boundaries but also raising issues world order and proposes the "Beijing
of digital divide and cyber sovereignty. Consensus" as an alternative development
• Environmental Concerns: Globalization’s model. However, its approach to human rights
impact on the environment and the need for and international norms often contrasts with
sustainable development practices are Western liberal values, leading to tensions in
increasingly central. The Paris Agreement and global governance frameworks.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) reflect • Digital Silk Road: China’s focus on digital
a global consensus on addressing these infrastructure as part of the BRI, including 5G
challenges, though implementation remains networks and e-commerce platforms, opens
uneven. new fronts in globalization but also raises
• Examples: concerns about data security and digital
o Trade Wars: The US-China trade war sovereignty.
initiated under Trump exemplifies how Theoretical Perspectives:
geopolitical rivalries and protectionist • Realist Perspective: Realists like John
policies can disrupt global trade networks. Mearsheimer view China’s rise as a challenge
o COVID-19 Pandemic: The pandemic to US hegemony, predicting potential conflicts
highlighted the fragility of global supply and a restructuring of the international
chains and prompted discussions about system.
reshoring and diversification of production • Liberal Institutionalism: From this perspective,
to enhance resilience. China’s engagement in global institutions could
lead to cooperation and peaceful rise, as

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 pg. 78

posited by scholars like G. John Ikenberry, Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the World
though this requires China to adhere to Trade Organization (WTO).
established norms and rules.
Critiques and Alternatives:
Globalization and universalisation of capitalist • Hybridization and Glocalization: Scholars like
modernity Roland Robertson and Jan Nederveen Pieterse
Globalization is often discussed in terms of the argue against the view of globalization as mere
spread and influence of capitalist modernity across westernization or capitalist universalisation.
the globe, which includes the expansion of market They highlight the processes of hybridization
economies, liberal democratic forms of and glocalization, where global and local
governance, consumer culture, and technological cultures intermingle, leading to unique cultural
advancements associated with the West. This forms that are not solely defined by capitalist
perspective posits globalization as a process of modernity.
'universalisation' of capitalist modernity, where • Postcolonial Critiques: Scholars such as
economic, political, and cultural practices rooted in Edward Said and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
capitalism become normative globally. However, offer critiques of globalization from a
this view is both supported and contested by postcolonial perspective, emphasizing how
various scholars, reflecting the complexity and historical colonial relationships shape
multifaceted nature of globalization. contemporary global interactions and caution
against viewing globalization as a benign
In Support of the View: spread of modernity.
• Immanuel Wallerstein's World-Systems • Alternative Modernities: The idea of multiple
Theory: Wallerstein argues that the capitalist modernities suggests that non-Western
world-economy is a global system divided into societies may undergo modernization
core, semi-periphery, and periphery countries. processes that do not replicate the Western
Globalization, in this sense, is the expansion model of capitalist modernity. This challenges
and deepening of the capitalist system the notion of globalization as a uniform spread
worldwide, integrating more regions and of Western capitalism and points to diverse
societies into its economic and political paths of development and modernization.
structures.
• David Harvey's Concept of Time-Space Examples:
Compression: Harvey suggests that the global • Rise of State Capitalism in China: China's
spread of capitalism is characterized by an model of state-directed capitalism presents an
acceleration of economic activities and the alternative to neoliberal economic policies,
overcoming of geographical barriers, challenging the notion that globalization leads
facilitated by technological advancements. to a homogeneous capitalist system.
This process leads to a 'universalisation' of the • Resistance and Social Movements: Global
capitalist mode of production and consumer movements, such as anti-globalization protests
culture. and initiatives advocating for fair trade and
• Neoliberal Globalization: The late 20th and sustainability, highlight resistance to the
early 21st centuries have seen the promotion universalisation of capitalist practices and
of neoliberal policies—deregulation, advocate for alternative economic models.
privatization, and free-market capitalism—as a • Digital Globalization: The rapid growth of
global economic model, championed by digital technologies and the internet has
institutions like the International Monetary facilitated new forms of global connectivity

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 pg. 79

and economic models (e.g., the sharing countries, exemplifies this trend. States often
economy, digital currencies) that complicate implement liberalization, privatization, and
traditional understandings of capitalist deregulation policies to attract foreign
modernity. investment, sometimes at the cost of their
policy autonomy.
Impact of Globalization on internal
• Social Welfare and Inequality: Global
functioning of state
economic integration has led to significant
Globalization has profoundly impacted the internal
economic growth in many regions but also to
functioning of states, affecting governance, increased inequality within states. Scholars like
sovereignty, economic policies, social structures,
Joseph Stiglitz in "Globalization and Its
and political dynamics.
Discontents" highlight how globalization's
Various Perspectives:
benefits are unevenly distributed, often
• Hyperglobalists argue that globalization leads exacerbating social disparities and prompting
to a decline in state sovereignty and autonomy states to rethink social welfare policies.
as global forces and institutions increasingly • Political Governance and Democracy: The
dictate domestic policies. Kenichi Ohmae's
global flow of information and ideas has
"The Borderless World" emphasizes the
empowered civil society and transnational
diminishing relevance of national borders in an
advocacy networks, influencing domestic
era of global markets, suggesting that states
politics and policy-making. Manuel Castells'
are less able to control economic activities
concept of the "network society" illustrates
within their territories. how globalization fosters new forms of
• Skeptics, such as Hirst and Thompson, political mobilization that can challenge
challenge the notion that globalization is a new traditional state authority. However, it also
phenomenon or that it significantly erodes raises concerns about the "democratic deficit"
state power. They argue that states remain in global governance, as decision-making in
crucial actors in regulating economic activities international institutions may lack
and protecting their interests against global transparency and accountability.
pressures.
• National Identity and Cultural
• Transformationalists, including scholars like Homogenization: Globalization's cultural
David Held, propose that globalization dimensions, explored by scholars like Arjun
transforms state functions rather than Appadurai, have led to tensions between
diminishing or maintaining them. They suggest global cultural flows and local identities. States
that the state's role evolves in response to navigate the challenge of preserving cultural
global challenges, requiring new forms of heritage while embracing global diversity,
governance that transcend traditional which can impact national cohesion and
boundaries. identity politics.

Impacts on Internal Functioning: Examples:

• Economic Policy Sovereignty: Globalization • Trade Agreements and Economic Policy: The
has compelled states to adjust their economic negotiation of trade agreements like the Trans-
policies in line with global market demands Pacific Partnership (TPP) and the United
and international financial institutions' States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA)
prescriptions. The influence of entities like the reflects how states must balance sovereignty
IMF and the World Bank in shaping domestic with the demands of global economic
economic reforms, especially in developing integration.

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 pg. 80

• Digital Sovereignty: The European Union's Social Impacts:

General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is • Cultural Erosion: Globalization is often
an example of how states attempt to assert criticized for undermining local cultures and
control over digital space and protect citizens' traditions in the Global South through the
data privacy amidst global digitalization. dominance of Western consumer culture.
• Environmental Governance: The Paris Scholars like Arjun Appadurai and Edward Said
Agreement on climate change demonstrates have discussed how cultural flows under
how states are collaborating on global globalization can lead to cultural
environmental issues while adapting their homogenization and the marginalization of
domestic policies to meet international indigenous cultures.
commitments. • Social Inequality: Joseph Stiglitz, in
"Globalization and Its Discontents," highlights
how globalization can exacerbate social
Globalization and Global South
inequalities within countries of the Global
The impact of globalization on countries of the South, as the benefits of globalization are not
Global South has been a subject of intense debate evenly distributed. This can lead to social
among scholars, policymakers, and activists. While unrest and challenges to social cohesion.
some argue that globalization has provided Environmental Concerns:
opportunities for economic development and • Environmental Degradation: The Global South
integration into the global economy, others often bears the brunt of environmental
highlight its negative impacts, including economic degradation resulting from global economic
dependency, inequality, cultural erosion, and activities. The extraction of natural resources,
environmental degradation. deforestation, and the dumping of waste from
Economic Opportunities and Challenges: industrialized countries have significant
• Economic Growth and Integration: Scholars environmental impacts on developing
like Jagdish Bhagwati have argued that countries. Scholars like Vandana Shiva have
globalization, through trade liberalization and highlighted the ecological costs of
foreign direct investment, has led to economic globalization, emphasizing the need for
growth in many developing countries. sustainable development practices.
Countries like China and India have
experienced significant economic growth and Political and Governance Issues:
poverty reduction by integrating into the • Erosion of Sovereignty: Globalization has
global economy. However, this growth is often raised concerns about the erosion of state
unevenly distributed within countries, leading sovereignty in the Global South, as
to increased inequality. international institutions and multinational
• Dependency Theory: Theorists such as Andre corporations exert significant influence over
Gunder Frank and Immanuel Wallerstein argue domestic policies. This has led to debates
that globalization perpetuates economic about the democratic deficit in global
dependency and the exploitative relationships governance and the need for reforming
between the Global North and South. They international institutions to better represent
contend that the global capitalist system is the interests of the Global South.
structured in such a way that wealth is • Neoliberal Policies: The imposition of
extracted from peripheral countries to core neoliberal policies by international financial
countries, hindering sustainable development institutions such as the IMF and the World
in the Global South. Bank has been a contentious issue. Critics

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 pg. 81

argue that structural adjustment programs and • Inequality and Social Stratification:
austerity measures have often led to negative Globalization has been linked to increasing
social impacts, including reduced public income inequality within countries. Joseph
spending on healthcare and education. Stiglitz highlights how globalization processes
Examples: can exacerbate wealth disparities, leaving
• Trade Wars and Protectionism: Recent trends behind marginalized communities.
towards protectionism and trade wars, • Cultural Erosion: The spread of global culture
particularly initiated by countries of the Global can undermine local cultures and traditions,
North, have posed challenges for countries of posing challenges to national identities and
the Global South in accessing global markets. heritage. Arjun Appadurai explores the
This contradicts the principles of free trade dynamics of global cultural flows that can lead
that underpin globalization. to cultural homogenization.
• Digital Divide: The global digital divide Environmental Concerns
exemplifies inequalities in access to • Sustainability and Resource Exploitation:
information technology and the internet, with Developing countries often face
significant implications for economic and social environmental degradation as a consequence
development in the Global South. of global demands for natural resources. The
Tragedy of the Commons, as described by
Impact of Globalization on developing countries Garrett Hardin, exemplifies how collective
In the era of globalization, developing countries global consumption can lead to unsustainable
face a myriad of challenges that stem from the exploitation of shared resources.
global integration of economies, cultures, and • Climate Change Vulnerability: Developing
political systems. These challenges are nations are typically more vulnerable to the
multifaceted, impacting economic stability, social impacts of climate change, despite
cohesion, and environmental sustainability. contributing less to global emissions. The
Economic Vulnerabilities principle of "Common but Differentiated
• Dependency on Developed Nations: Responsibilities" (CBDR) in international
Developing countries often find themselves in environmental agreements acknowledges
a dependent position, relying heavily on these disparities.
foreign investment, technology, and markets. Political and Governance Issues
This can lead to economic instability when • Loss of Sovereignty: The influence of
global conditions change. Dependency Theory, multinational corporations and international
advocated by scholars like Andre Gunder financial institutions can limit the policy
Frank, argues that the development of nations autonomy of developing countries, challenging
is a relational process where some countries their sovereignty. Susan Strange's theory of
benefit at the expense of others. the retreat of the state posits that globalization
• Trade Imbalances: The promise of leads to a diffusion of authority away from
globalization to foster trade can be skewed national governments.
against developing nations, which often export • Challenges in Implementing Global Standards:
raw materials and import finished goods, Adhering to international standards and
leading to trade imbalances. This has been agreements can be resource-intensive, placing
discussed by Ha-Joon Chang in his critique of a strain on the governance capacities of
free trade from a developmental perspective. developing nations.
Social and Cultural Challenges Technological Gap

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 pg. 82

• Digital Divide: The gap in access to information • The debt crisis in countries like Zambia and Sri
technology between developed and Lanka highlights the risks of global financial
developing countries can hinder the latter's integration and the challenges of managing
participation in the global economy. Manuel external debt within a volatile global economy.
Castells addresses the role of information
technology in shaping the global economy, The challenges faced by developing countries in
emphasizing the exclusionary effects of the the era of globalization are interconnected,
digital divide. requiring holistic and nuanced approaches to
development that consider economic stability,
Examples and Implications social equity, environmental sustainability, and
• The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the governance capacity. The global community's role
vulnerabilities of developing countries in the in addressing these challenges is crucial,
global system, from vaccine access inequities emphasizing the need for international
to economic disruptions. cooperation, fair trade practices, and support for
sustainable development initiatives.

Student Notes ✍

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Chapter - 5 pg. 83

Approaches to study International Relations

Analysis of important dimensions from PYQ

1. In what ways does the functionalist approach in International relations help in maintaining
2. peace and order in global politics? [2023]
3. What do you mean by offensive and defensive realism? [2023]
4. What is the realist prescription to the States to ensure their survival in an anarchical world? [2022]
5. Discuss the emergence of neo-realism and its basic tenets [2021]
6. Bring out the major differences between the classical Realism of Hans Morgenthau and Neorealism
of Kenneth Waltz. [2018]
7. Is Realism the best method to understand international relations? Examine this in the context of
classical Realism. [2017]
8. Identify the major differences between the classical Realism of Hans J Morgenthau and the
Neorealism of Kenneth Waltz. Which process is the best suited for analysing international relations
after the cold war? [2015]
9. Examine major principles of state centric world-views. [2013]
10. Write a note on intellectual precursor of Realism. [2013]
11. What is ‘complex interdependence’? Discuss the role of transnational actors in the international
system. [2021]
12. What are the core assumptions of idealism as an approach to study International Relations? Explain
its continuing relevance in peace building. [2020]
13. Discuss the main factors that have contributed to the gradual transformation of the world from
‘Billiards Ball model’ to a ‘Cobweb model’. [2014]
14. Building peace by pieces is the basis of Functionalism. Elaborate. [2013]
15. Discuss the commonalities between the Marxist and Realist approach to the study of International
Politics. [2022]
16. “Marxist approach to the study of international relations has lost its relevance in the post-cold war
era.” Comment. [2021]
17. How does Marxist approach explain contemporary international relations? [2013]
18. Critically examine the Functionalist approach to the study of international relations. [2018]
19. Examine the World Systems approach as developed by Immanuel Wallerstein [2017]
20. Critically examine the Functional and System approaches to the study of international relations.
[2016]
21. Mortan A Kaplan’s system theory is contrary to the fundamental precepts of the Systems approach.
Comment. [2014]

International relations (IR) is a multifaceted system of nation-states, affirming the principle of

discipline that studies the interactions among state sovereignty.
sovereign nation-states and non-state actors
across various domains like economics, politics, Phases of International Politics:
diplomacy, and security. The formal beginning of IR First Phase: From 1648 till World War I (1919) -
is often traced back to the Treaty of Westphalia in state-centric Westphalian World Order
1648, which concluded the Thirty Years' War in • The Westphalian system, established post-
Europe and laid the foundation for the modern 1648, is marked by the principle of state

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 pg. 84

sovereignty, territorial integrity, and non- era was dominated by nuclear deterrence,
interference in domestic affairs. This era proxy wars, the space race, and ideological
solidified the concept of the nation-state as the contestation between capitalism and
primary unit in international politics. communism. The balance of terror,
• European powers, during this period, engaged characterized by the threat of mutual assured
extensively in colonialism, projecting their destruction (MAD), prevented direct military
influence across the globe. This expansion was confrontation between the superpowers.
often justified and guided by doctrines such as • After World War II, the world was divided into
the Monroe Doctrine, articulated by the United the U.S.-led Western bloc and the Soviet-led
States in 1823, which opposed European Eastern bloc, initiating the Cold War era.
colonialism in the Americas and asserted U.S. Fourth Phase: End of the Cold War & Collapse of
influence in the Western Hemisphere. The the USSR
Monroe Doctrine can be seen as an early • The late 20th century saw significant shifts
expression of regional hegemony under the with the fall of the Berlin Wall, the dissolution
guise of opposing external interference. of the Soviet Union, and the end of the Cold
• The balance of power was a predominant War, leading to a unipolar world dominated by
mechanism in this era, aimed at preventing any the United States.
single state from dominating the international • This period saw the rise of global economic
system. This approach is well-illustrated by the integration, liberal democratic values, and the
Billiard Ball Model of IR, which views states as emergence of transnational issues like
cohesive units interacting in a system of terrorism.
anarchy, where the internal characteristics of • Francis Fukuyama's "The End of History" thesis
states are less significant than their external captured the essence of this era, though it was
behaviors and interactions. later critiqued for its perceived triumphalism
Second Phase: Interwar Period (1919-1939) of liberal democracy.
• Post-World War I, the League of Nations was Present Scenario
formed to promote collective security, but its • The current phase of IR is marked by a shift
failure to prevent World War II highlighted its towards multipolarity, with the rise of China,
weaknesses. the resurgence of Russia, and the growing
• This era witnessed the rise of totalitarian influence of regional powers like India and
regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan, and Brazil. Globalization, climate change, cyber
economic challenges like the Great warfare, and non-state actors play significant
Depression. This period was marked by the rise roles in shaping international politics.
of fascism, economic depression, and the
failure of collective security. The Treaty of The study of international relations involves
Versailles and the failure to create a lasting various theoretical approaches, each offering
peace set the stage for the next global conflict. unique perspectives on global interactions. Key
• E.H. Carr and other realist scholars critiqued frameworks include idealism, which prioritizes
the idealism of the League and the flawed moral principles and cooperation; realism,
peace of the Treaty of Versailles. emphasizing state interests and power dynamics;
Third Phase: Cold War Marxist theory, focusing on class struggle and
• The Cold War was characterized by nuclear economic factors; functionalism, highlighting the
deterrence, with the doctrine of Mutual role of international institutions; and systems
Assured Destruction (MAD) preventing direct theory, providing a holistic view of interconnected
conflict between the U.S. and the USSR. This global dynamics.

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 pg. 85

State centric world view actions, largely disregarding internal dynamics

The term "state-centric world-view" in or non-state influences.
international relations refers to a perspective that o Example: The Cold War, characterized by
places the nation-state at the center of political direct interactions between states like the
analysis. This view is grounded in the belief that USA and USSR, with limited external
states are the primary actors in the international influences on their decisions.
system and the main units for understanding global • Cobweb Model: Represents a more complex,
political dynamics interconnected international system with
• Sovereignty: States possess complete control various actors including states, international
over their territories, free from external organizations, NGOs, corporations, and
influence. individuals. These actors are interwoven,
influencing each other in diverse and often
• Anarchy in International System: The lack of a
unpredictable ways.
global authority leads states to rely on self-
o Example: Climate change response,
help for survival and security.
involving a network of actors like states,
• Primacy of National Interest: States prioritize
the UN, environmental NGOs,
their security and economic prosperity, often
corporations, activists, and communities,
over international norms or ethics.
all contributing to policy development
• Realpolitik: Power and practical concerns
and outcomes.
dominate international relations, superseding
ideological or moral aspects.
The shift from the "Billiard Ball Model"
• Power and Security: Focus on accumulating
The shift from the "Billiard Ball Model" to the
and balancing power through military,
"Cobweb Model" in international relations
economic, and diplomatic means for state
represents a transition from a state-centric to a
security.
more complex, interconnected approach due to
• Interstate Relations: Emphasis on state-to-
several factors:
state interactions, such as diplomacy and
• Globalization: Increased global
trade, with limited roles for non-state entities.
interconnectedness in trade, communication,
• Zero-Sum Perspective: International relations
and technology has complexified the
are viewed as competitive, where one state's
international system beyond simple state-to-
gain is another's loss.
state interactions. Examples include global
• Nationalism: National interests and identity
supply chains and international financial
drive state policies, often overriding global or
markets.
humanitarian considerations.
• Rise of Non-State Actors: International
• Realism: Classical realism and neorealism are
organizations, multinational corporations,
the primary frameworks underpinning state-
NGOs, and transnational advocacy networks
centric views in international relations.
challenge the state-centric model by
significantly impacting global policies and
A journey of world from Billiard ball to Cob Web
norms.
• Billiard Ball Model: Reflects a state-centric
• Technological Advancements: The internet
approach in international relations, viewing
and digital technologies have led to new forms
states as primary, sovereign actors interacting
of connectivity and issues like cybersecurity,
at points of conflict or agreement, similar to
expanding the scope of international relations
billiard balls. It focuses on states' external
beyond traditional military and diplomatic
concerns.

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 pg. 86

• Economic Interdependence: The global and the inevitability of conflict among

economy's intricate interconnections mean states. Morgenthau's ideas became
that economic actions in one state can have foundational to the development of
global impacts, as seen in the 2008 financial realism as a dominant theoretical
crisis. framework in the study of international
• Transnational Challenges: Global issues like relations.
climate change, pandemics, and terrorism o They asserted that idealists overlooked
require responses that go beyond individual the role of power, overestimated human
states, underscoring the limitations of a state- rationality, misconceived common
centric model. interests among nation-states, and were
• Shift in Power Dynamics: The rise of new overly optimistic about overcoming war.
powers like China and India and the changing o The outbreak of World War II in 1939
influence of traditional powers have created a validated the inadequacies of the idealist
more multipolar world, where power extends approach, leading to the acceptance of
beyond military and economic might. Realism's timeless insights. The academic
• Increased Public Awareness and field witnessed the Great Debate in the
Participation: The growing influence of public late 1930s and early 1940s, where realists
opinion, fueled by social media and greater emerged victorious over inter-war
information access, has added new dimensions idealists, solidifying Realism as a
to international relations. dominant perspective in international
relations.
Realist school
• The realist school of international politics Intellectual precursors of Realist school
traces its roots to ancient Greece and classical • Thucydides (c. 460–395 BCE): Foundational
political thought, but its modern inception can figure for realist thought, his
be attributed to the early 20th century. The "Peloponnesian War" offers insights into
emergence of realism as a distinct theoretical power politics, state behavior, and the role
approach is often associated with the works of of fear and self-interest in international
scholars such as E.H. Carr and Hans relations.
Morgenthau during the interwar period. • Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527): Central to
o E.H. Carr's influential work, "The Twenty realist thinking, "The Prince" and "The
Years' Crisis" (1939), critiqued the Discourses" emphasize the pragmatic use of
idealistic notions prevalent in power, pursuit of national interest, and
international relations at the time. Carr realpolitik in international relations.
argued for a more realistic and pragmatic • Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679): Advocated
understanding of power politics and the for a strong sovereign authority in
role of states in the international system. "Leviathan," influencing realist thought with
His emphasis on the importance of his views on the anarchic nature of the
national interest and power laid the international system and the pursuit of self-
foundation for realist thought. interest.
o Hans Morgenthau, in his seminal work • E.H. Carr (1892–1982): Critic of idealism in
"Politics Among Nations" (1948), further "The Twenty Years' Crisis" (1939), Carr
solidified the realist school by articulating emphasized power politics, national
key principles such as the primacy of interest, and the realpolitik nature of
national interest, the centrality of power,

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 pg. 87

international relations, contributing to • Neo-Realism

modern realism. 1. Defensive realism
• Hans Morgenthau (1904–1980): Founding 2. Offensive realism
figure of contemporary realism, "Politics • Neoclassical realism
Among Nations" (1948) articulated key • Subaltern or postcolonial realism
principles, including the primacy of national
Classical realism
interest, the role of power, and the
inevitability of conflict among states. Classical Realism is a school of thought in
international relations that emerged during the
Base of realists ideology mid-20th century, and it places a strong emphasis
• Primacy of National Interest: States prioritize on the role of power, the state, and human nature
their interests for security, survival, and global in shaping the dynamics of international politics.
influence.
• Power Politics: Realism emphasizes power as Hans Morgenthau is often referred to as the
crucial in international relations, with states as "Father of Realism." His seminal work, "Politics
rational actors seeking self-preservation and Among Nations," laid out the foundations of
goal achievement. Classical Realism. Morgenthau advocated for a
• Anarchy in the International System: Realists scientific and objective approach to the study of
argue that the lack of a centralized authority international relations. He sought to ground his
leads to an anarchic system, forcing states into theories in observable and measurable
self-reliance for security. phenomena.
• State-Centric Perspective: Realism centers on Six Principles:
states as the primary actors, acknowledging 1. Human Nature: The driving force in politics is
non-state entities but focusing on sovereign the desire for power.
state actions and interests. 2. National Interest: The primary objective of
• Human Nature and Rational Behavior: Realists states is to pursue their national interest.
adopt a realistic, sometimes pessimistic, view 3. Nature of National Interest: Power is both the
of human nature, asserting self-interest as the end and the means to achieve national
primary motivator with rational behavior as a interest.
key premise. 4. Relevance of Ethics: Realism emphasizes
• Inevitability of Conflict: Realists contend that pragmatism in politics and rejects universal
conflicts are inherent, driven by national moral principles. Criticizing U.S. intervention in
interests, resource competition, and the Iraq, for example, can be seen as an application
anarchic international system. of this principle.
• Balance of Power: Realists support 5. Role of Ideology: Morgenthau argued that
establishing and maintaining a balance of ideology should be set aside in favor of a focus
power to prevent any state from becoming on power politics.
overly dominant and destabilizing the system. 6. Autonomous Field of International Politics:
• Historical Realism: Realists draw on historical International politics should be autonomous
examples to support theories, using historical and separate from ethical considerations.
evidence to highlight recurring themes in
power struggles, conflicts, and alliances among Three Types of States : Status quo, Revisionist, and
states. Imperialist states play different roles in
Realism can be classified into: international politics based on their objectives and
• Classical Realism approaches.

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 pg. 88

• Status Quo States: These nations are satisfied relations and the need to consider historical
with the current international structure, context in analyzing state behavior.
focusing on stability and following • Neoclassical Realist Critiques: Gideon Rose
international laws. Example: Canada upholds argues that classical realism oversimplifies
global norms and pursues stable international state behavior by focusing solely on external
relations. factors, neglecting the influence of internal
• Revisionist States: These countries strive to dynamics and domestic politics, which are
change the international order to benefit their crucial for a comprehensive understanding of
interests, often challenging existing international relations.
boundaries and norms. Example: Russia's
Neo-Realism
actions in Ukraine demonstrate a revisionist
agenda to reshape European security Neo-Realism, also known as Structural Realism, is a
dynamics. theory in international relations that evolved as a
• Imperialist States: These states aim to expand response to the traditional Realism theory.
their influence, potentially undermining other Pioneered by Kenneth Waltz in his 1979 book
nations' sovereignty, through means like "Theory of International Politics," Neo-Realism
territorial expansion or economic dominance. shifts the focus from human nature, as emphasized
Modern Example: China's Belt and Road in Classical Realism, to the anarchic structure of the
Initiative, sometimes seen as a form of international system.
economic imperialism, illustrates its drive for Core principles of Neo – Realism
greater global influence. • Anarchy of the International System: Neo-
Criticism to Classical Realism Realism asserts that the international system
• Idealist and Liberal Critiques: Scholars like lacks a central authority, compelling states to
Woodrow Wilson, Robert O. Keohane, and prioritize their own security due to the absence
Joseph Nye argue that classical realism's of reliable protection from others.
pessimistic view of human nature and • Distribution of Power: The structure of the
inevitability of conflict overlooks the potential international system is shaped by the
for cooperation through international distribution of power—unipolar, bipolar, or
institutions and interdependence. multipolar. States continuously assess power
• Constructivist Critiques: Alexander Wendt and dynamics and engage in balancing behaviors to
fellow constructivists contend that classical prevent any one state from dominating.
realism's focus on material power ignores the • State Centrism: Neo-Realism emphasizes
significance of social structures, identities, and states as primary actors in international
norms in shaping international relations. politics, viewing them as unitary, rational
• Feminist Critiques: Cynthia Enloe and Ann entities making strategic decisions to enhance
Tickner criticize classical realism for its gender- power and ensure survival. National interests
blind approach, which neglects the role of take precedence, often in a zero-sum context.
women and gendered power dynamics, • Survival as Primary Goal: States' paramount
perpetuating a masculinized view of global objective is survival in the international
politics. system. This fundamental principle guides the
formulation and execution of foreign and
• Postcolonial Critiques: Edward Said challenges
classical realism's Eurocentric perspectives, security policies.
highlighting its failure to address the impacts • Relative Gains and Power Balancing: States
of colonialism on contemporary international prioritize relative gains in power compared to
others, leading to actions such as forming

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 pg. 89

alliances, engaging in arms races, or aligning and perspectives of non-Western states while
with more powerful states to balance against reinforcing colonial hierarchies.
threats.
• Predictability Based on System Structure: Defensive Realism
Neo-Realists focus on predicting state behavior
Kenneth Waltz through his influential 1979 book
by examining the structure of the international
"Theory of International Politics” analysed a more
system rather than individual state
scientific and structural approach to understanding
characteristics. System-level dynamics are key
the behavior of states.
to understanding state actions.
Defensive Realism offers a distinctive perspective
Criticism of Neo-Realism
on how states behave and interact in the
• Liberal Institutionalism (Robert Keohane):
international system, primarily focusing on the
Oversimplification - Neo-realism overly
pursuit of security rather than power. This theory
focuses on anarchy and power, neglecting the
emerged as a response to more aggressive forms
significant role of institutions and international
of Realism that emphasize relentless power
regimes in shaping state behavior, as argued by
accumulation.
liberal institutionalists.
• Anarchy and Security Priority: Defensive
• Constructivism (Alexander Wendt): Neglect of
Realism begins with the premise of an anarchic
Ideas - Constructivist scholars argue that neo-
international system, where states prioritize
realism overlooks the role of ideas, norms, and
survival and security. Unlike Offensive Realism,
identities in international relations by
it sees states as security-maximizers rather
concentrating solely on material factors.
than inherently power-maximizing.
• Feminist International Relations (Cynthia
• Balance of Power: A key concept is the balance
Enloe): Gender-blind Approach - Feminist
of power, where states seek equilibrium to
scholars criticize neo-realism for neglecting
prevent domination by stronger counterparts.
gender dynamics, asserting that it overlooks
This balance can be achieved through internal
the impact of traditional gender roles and
efforts (e.g., military buildup) or external
power dynamics on international relations.
efforts (e.g., alliances).
• Post-structuralism (Jacques Derrida):
• Security Dilemma: Defensive Realism
Essentialist Assumptions - Post-structuralist
underscores the security dilemma, where
scholars contend that neo-realism relies on
actions taken to enhance security can
essentialist assumptions about states and their
inadvertently threaten other states, leading to
interests, neglecting the influence of
arms races and increased tension that might
discourse, language, and identity on power
escalate into conflict.
relations.
• Moderation and Status Quo: States under
• Marxist Critique (Immanuel Wallerstein):
Defensive Realism favor moderation and
Economic Blindness - Marxist scholars criticize
maintaining the status quo. Aggressive policies
neo-realism for ignoring economic structures
are viewed as risking counteractions,
and class relations. They argue that the theory
diminishing the security of the initiator.
obscures the role of capitalism and class
• Rational Actor Model: The theory assumes
struggle in shaping global politics.
that states are rational actors, making
• Post-colonial Perspectives (Edward Said):
decisions based on a calculated assessment of
Eurocentric Bias - Post-colonial scholars
costs and benefits. The emphasis is on
criticize neo-realism for its Eurocentric bias,
minimizing risks and avoiding unnecessary
asserting that it often neglects the experiences
conflicts to safeguard security.

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Current Relevance: enough power to secure themselves, offensive

• Defensive Realism remains relevant in realism argues that states inherently seek to
understanding contemporary international maximize their power and influence.
politics. For example, the European Union’s • Regional Hegemony as the Ultimate Goal:
cautious approach to security and defense, Mearsheimer suggests that states aim to
focusing on diplomatic solutions and collective become regional hegemons for maximum
security arrangements, can be seen through a security, as global hegemony is unattainable
Defensive Realist lens. due to overextension.
• Similarly, the reactions of states to the rise of • Uncertainty and Fear: The uncertainty about
China, balancing between engaging with China other states’ intentions and capabilities fuels
economically and preparing for potential fear and drives states to adopt offensive
security threats, reflect Defensive Realist strategies.
thinking. Similarities Between Defensive and Offensive
Realism:
Offensive Realism
• Structural Analysis: Both theories are
Offensive realism, a theory in international politics
structural in their approach, meaning they
developed by John Mearsheimer, posits that the
focus on the international system's anarchic
anarchic nature of the international system
nature as the primary influence on state
compels states to seek power aggressively to
behavior. They emphasize the lack of a central
ensure their survival.
authority above states in the international
• Anarchy in the International System: The lack system.
of a global governing authority leads states to
• Timeless Wisdom: Each theory draws on the
rely primarily on their own capabilities for
historical and enduring nature of power
security.
politics, viewing the struggle for power as a
• States as Rational Actors: States are seen as constant feature of international relations.
rational entities that pursue strategies they
• Anarchy: Defensive and Offensive Realism
deem most conducive to ensuring their
agree that the international system is anarchic
survival.
and that this anarchy compels states to
• Power Maximization: Unlike defensive prioritize their own security and survival.
realism, which suggests that states seek only

Aspect Offensive Realism (John Mearsheimer) Defensive Realism (Kenneth Waltz)

Purpose of States inherently seek to maximize power States seek enough power to ensure their
Power and aim for hegemony or regional security and survival. Power is a means to an
dominance. Power is both a means and an end, not an end in itself.
end.
Amount of No amount of power is sufficient; states Seeking too much power is
Power must constantly seek to increase their counterproductive; it provokes other states
power for security. to balance. Enough power for defense is
sufficient.
Strategy States should always be on the offensive, States should adopt a defensive posture,
dominating others to ensure security. avoiding overexpansion and aggressive
Aggressive power maximization is key. policies that lead to insecurity.

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 pg. 91

Dealing with Achieving a preponderance of power is Balancing strategies, including internal

Revisionist essential to deter or defeat revisionist strengthening and forming alliances, are
Powers states. recommended against revisionist powers.

Example: of NATO could be seen as power-maximizing

U.S. Foreign Policy: The U.S.'s approach to moves (Offensive Realism), while its efforts to
international politics, especially in the post-Cold maintain a military presence around the world can
War era, can be interpreted through both lenses. also be seen as a strategy to ensure security against
Its interventions in the Middle East and expansion potential threats (Defensive Realism).

Aspect Morgenthau (Classical Realism) Waltz (Neorealism)

Human Nature Emphasizes human nature, particularly Focuses on the structure of the international
vs Structural the power-seeking aspect, as a driving system, arguing that the anarchic nature
Factors force in international politics. This view (lack of central authority) compels states to
is more philosophical and considers prioritize security and power. Behavior is
psychological aspects of state actors. shaped by systemic constraints and
opportunities.
Concept of Views power as an end in itself, a goal Sees power as a means to ensure security
Power that states inherently seek. The concept and survival. Emphasizes the relative
includes military, economic, moral, and distribution of power (balance of power)
cultural dimensions. among states as key to understanding
international relations.
Levels of Looks at international politics through Focuses primarily on the systemic level,
Analysis various levels, including individual, where the distribution of capabilities among
state, and international system. states is most significant.
Nature of Views international politics as a field of Adopts a more scientific approach, aiming to
International struggle influenced by moral and ethical create a theory based on empirical principles.
Politics choices of statesmen. Acknowledges Downplays the role of morality, focusing on
the role of morality, though is skeptical structural constraints.
of idealism.
Predictability Less predictive and more prescriptive. Aims to offer a predictive theory of
and Policy Provides guidelines for statesmen based international relations, focusing on changes
Prescription on historical and philosophical insights. in the international power structure and their
outcomes.
Examples The U.S.-China rivalry can be seen The U.S.-China dynamic in the South China
through the lens of human nature's Sea illustrates neorealism, where structural
quest for power, reflecting a classic factors like the balance of power and
realist perspective. strategic positioning dictate state behavior.
Role of Ideology Acknowledges the influence of ideology Generally views ideology as secondary to
on state behavior, seeing it intertwined structural factors. Focuses more on material
with power pursuits. capabilities than ideological differences.
Change and Suggests that change in international Views stability and change as outcomes of
Stability relations is driven by shifts in power and shifts in the international power structure,

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 pg. 92

national interests, influenced by human such as the rise or decline of major powers,
decision-making. independent of individual leaders' choices.
Role of Non- Focuses primarily on state actors, giving Also centered on states, but newer
State Actors less emphasis to non-state entities. interpretations of neorealism have started to
consider the impact of non-state actors
within the systemic structure.

significantly shape a state's international

Neoclassical Realism
stance.
Neoclassical Realism is a theory in international Realist prescriptions for states to ensure survival
relations that integrates the basic premises of • Self-Help: States rely on their own resources
classical realism with insights from other theories, for survival. Example: Israel.
particularly domestic political factors. Gideon Rose • Power Accumulation: Building military and
is credited with coining the term "neoclassical economic strength for security. Example:
realism" and contributing to its development. His China.
work, particularly the essay "Neoclassical Realism
• Balance of Power: Forming alliances to
and Theories of Foreign Policy," has been
counter dominant powers. Example: NATO.
influential.
• Pragmatic Foreign Policy: Focusing on power
and security in foreign policy. Example: Russia.
Core principles of Neo-classical realism
• Deterrence and Diplomacy: Using military
• Combining International and Domestic
strength and negotiations to prevent conflict.
Factors: It integrates the influence of the
Example: USA.
international system with domestic elements.
• National Interest: Prioritizing state power and
For example, China's Belt and Road Initiative
security in decision-making. Example: India.
reflects both global economic competition and
• Realpolitik: Emphasizing practical strategies in
domestic economic ambitions.
foreign affairs. Example: Germany.
• State as the Primary Actor: States remain
central in international politics, influenced by
Realism, championed by scholars like Hans
international dynamics and internal factors like
Morgenthau and Kenneth Waltz, highlights power
political leadership and national identity.
dynamics and state competition in international
• Power and Perception: Focuses on state
relations, focusing on military and economic
leaders' perceptions of their nation's power
strength. Criticized for overlooking non-state
and the international system, guiding foreign
actors and global issues, as pointed out by Joseph
policy decisions. An example is Russia's actions
Nye, realism's state-centric approach
in Crimea, influenced by perceived security
underestimates international cooperation.
threats and NATO expansion.
Incorporating insights from other IR theories like
• Importance of Relative Power: The theory
liberalism and constructivism offers a more
emphasizes states' concerns with relative
nuanced understanding of the complex global
power gains and their position in the global
landscape.
hierarchy, as seen in the U.S. pivot to Asia to
maintain power amidst China's rise.
The Liberalism or Idealist school
• Variable Influence of Domestic Factors: Liberalism emerged as the first school of
Domestic politics can variably influence foreign international politics after World War I, offering an
policy. The UK's Brexit decision highlights how alternative to power politics and focusing on
domestic dynamics like nationalism can

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 pg. 93

achieving peace. While accepting the realist view governance, and humanitarianism in foreign
of state centrism and an anarchic international policy.
system, liberalism differs by emphasizing Broad areas of study within liberal international
cooperation over conflict. It presents a more relations theory include:
optimistic and forward-looking perspective, often 1. Liberal institutionalism
dubbed as the 'children of light', in contrast to the 2. Sociological liberalism
'status-quoist and pessimistic' realists, or the 3. Functionalism theory
'children of darkness'. Despite the optimistic vision 4. Interdependence theory
offered by sociological liberalism and other 5. Democratic peace theory
variants, realism's emphasis on power dynamics 6. Complex interdependence
remains a relevant and influential perspective in
understanding international relations. 1. Liberal Institutionalism
• Optimistic View of Human Nature: Immanuel Liberal Institutionalism, emphasizes the role of
Kant and John Locke argue for human international institutions in fostering cooperation
rationality and moral behavior, contrasting and mitigating the anarchic nature of
with realism's power-seeking view. Liberalism international politics. It was significantly
sees potential for progress and cooperation developed by scholars like Robert Keohane and
through education and international norms. Joseph Nye, who argued that these institutions
• Importance of International Institutions and reduce uncertainty, promote cooperation, and
Law: Advocates like Woodrow Wilson and help manage conflicts. This theory believes that
Robert Keohane stress the role of international institutions like the United Nations, World Trade
organizations (like the UN) and legal Organization, and various regional bodies can offer
frameworks in promoting peace and a platform for dialogue, establish norms of
cooperation, offering platforms for dialogue behavior, and provide mechanisms for conflict
and conflict resolution. resolution.
• Economic Interdependence: Theorists like Success of Liberal Institutionalism:
Richard Cobden and Norman Angell suggest • Facilitating Cooperation: International
that economic ties between nations reduce institutions like the World Trade Organization
conflict likelihood, as war becomes (WTO) and the UN Framework Convention on
economically detrimental. Climate Change (UNFCCC) have effectively
• Democratic Peace Theory: Michael Doyle and facilitated cooperation in trade and climate
Bruce Russett explore the concept that change. They provide platforms for states to
democracies are less likely to go to war with negotiate and coordinate on various global
each other, sharing mutual norms that favor issues.
non-violent conflict resolution. • Conflict Resolution: The United Nations (UN)
• Non-State Actors: Joseph Nye and Keohane plays a key role in conflict resolution and
emphasize the importance of non-state actors, peacekeeping, with successful missions in the
including NGOs and MNCs, in international Balkans and sub-Saharan Africa. These
politics, acting as agents of cooperation and operations have been instrumental in
change. maintaining peace and stability.
• Moral and Ethical Concerns: Philosophers • Creating International Norms and Laws:
John Rawls and Martha Nussbaum highlight International institutions have been central in
justice and ethics in politics, with liberalism developing and enforcing global norms and
advocating for human rights, democratic laws. The UN has been pivotal in advancing
human rights law and establishing norms

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 pg. 94

against practices like piracy and the use of society plays a crucial role in international
chemical weapons. relations. His ‘Cobweb Model’ is based on this
Criticism of Liberal Institutionalism: concept, illustrating a complex web of
• State Interests and Power Politics: Realists like interactions and relationships that extend
John Mearsheimer argue that states use beyond state actions.
institutions to further their own power and • Karl Deutsch introduced the concept of a
interests. Example: The use of veto power by ‘Security Community’, an alternative to the
permanent members of the UN Security traditional ‘Security Dilemma’ faced by states.
Council. According to Deutsch, increased interactions
• Effectiveness in Crisis Situations: International and interconnections between societies lead
institutions are sometimes seen as ineffective to stronger and more peaceful relations. He
or too slow to act in crisis situations, limited by posits that in a security community, there is a
the need for consensus among member states. reliable expectation of peaceful resolution of
o Example: Criticisms of the World Health conflicts, and war is no longer considered a
Organization's (WHO) initial response to viable option.
the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Western Bias: Samuel Huntington assert that Core Concepts:
these institutions are biased towards Western • Beyond State-Centric Views: Sociological
countries, reflecting and promoting their liberals argue that focusing solely on state-to-
values and interests at the expense of non- state relations overlooks the myriad ways in
Western states. which societies interact internationally. They
o Example: Criticisms of the International advocate for recognizing the roles of non-state
Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank for actors in shaping global politics.
promoting Western-style economic • Track 2 and Track 3 Diplomacy: This approach
policies. emphasizes informal, people-to-people
• Dependency and Sovereignty Concerns: diplomacy (Track 2) and grassroots
Scholars like Immanuel Wallerstein raise engagement (Track 3) as crucial complements
concerns that international institutions can to official state diplomacy (Track 1).
undermine state sovereignty and create Sociological liberals believe these forms of
dependency, particularly for smaller and less diplomacy can foster mutual understanding
powerful nations. and contribute to peace.
• Rejection of War as a State-Centric
2. Sociological liberalism Phenomenon: Contrary to realist views that
Sociological Liberalism is a branch within the regard war as an outcome of state actions,
Liberal school of thought in International Relations sociological liberals contend that wars are
(IR) that emphasizes the role of societal actors, often driven by political institutions, not by the
transnational networks, and non-state entities in desires of people. They argue that a society-
shaping international politics. It diverges from centric view can promote more peaceful
traditional state-centric views, focusing instead on international relations.
the importance of individuals, groups, and social
interactions across borders. Advantages of this approach
• John Burton's work focuses on the concept of • Understanding Globalization: This approach is
‘Global Society Cooperation’. He argues that instrumental in comprehending the
states are not the only gateways for complexities of globalization. It highlights how
international interaction and that global non-state actors, including multinational

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corporations, NGOs, and transnational 3. Functionalism

advocacy networks, influence global Functionalism is a theory in international relations
economics, politics, and social dynamics. that emerged as a response to the inadequacies of
• Addressing Global Challenges: Sociological traditional state-centric approaches, particularly
liberalism is particularly relevant in addressing after the World Wars. It emphasizes the role of
global issues like climate change, human rights, international organizations and processes in
and public health, where solutions require creating cooperation and peace among states.
cooperation beyond the state level. • Focus on Functions and Technical
• Conflict Resolution: The emphasis on Track 2 Cooperation: Functionalism advocates for
and Track 3 diplomacy provides alternative cooperation based on practical objectives like
avenues for conflict resolution, fostering trade, environment, or health, rather than on
dialogue and understanding between political ideologies. It suggests that states
societies, which can complement and enhance working together on common, non-political
official diplomatic efforts. issues can foster trust and collaboration.
• Promoting Peace and Cooperation: By • Role of International Organizations: This
focusing on societal interactions and global theory underscores the role of international
civil society, sociological liberalism promotes a organizations, like the United Nations and its
more inclusive and cooperative approach to IR, specialized agencies, in transcending national
which can contribute to more sustainable interests to address global concerns
peace and mutual understanding among cooperatively.
nations. • Spillover Effect: Functionalists, such as Ernst B.
Haas, posit the 'spillover' effect, where
Criticisms of Sociological Liberalism: cooperation in one area, particularly economic
• Underestimation of State Power: John or technical, leads to cooperation in other
Mearsheimer argue that Sociological areas, including political.
Liberalism underestimates the role of state • Building Peace and Integration: Functionalism
power and the importance of traditional holds that practical cooperation on common
geopolitical considerations in international interests can reduce conflict likelihood,
politics. fostering peace and leading towards greater
• Overemphasis on Transnational Actors: integration.
Stephen Krasner contend that the theory Criticism:
overemphasizes the influence of non-state • Underestimation of National Sovereignty:
actors, ignoring cases where states Critics argue that functionalism overlooks the
successfully resist transnational pressures or primacy of national sovereignty. States are
global norms. often reluctant to relinquish control to
• Challenges in Measuring Impact: The diffuse international organizations.
and often indirect influence of societal and • Overemphasis on Economic and Technical
transnational actors can be difficult to measure Cooperation: Functionalism is criticized for
and quantify, posing challenges for empirical neglecting political, cultural, and security
validation of the theory. issues, focusing primarily on economic and
• Neglect of Conflict: Critics also argue that technical collaboration.
Sociological Liberalism may not adequately • Questionable Spillover Effect: The expected
address the causes and dynamics of 'spillover' from economic to political
international conflicts, particularly those cooperation has not consistently materialized.
driven by traditional power politics. David Mitrany, another proponent of

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 pg. 96

functionalism, acknowledged the challenges in Criticism:

achieving political cooperation. • Not Always Peaceful: Critics argue that
• Ignoring Power Dynamics: Critics, including economic interdependence doesn't always
realists like John Mearsheimer, argue that prevent conflicts, as seen in instances where
functionalism fails to account for power economically interdependent states still
dynamics in international relations and how engage in hostilities.
powerful states can influence international • Power Politics: Realists contend that security
organizations for their interests. and power concerns often override economic
• Lack of Conflict Resolution Mechanisms: interdependence.
Functionalism does not sufficiently address • Inequality and Dependence: Interdependence
conflict resolution, especially when conflicts can lead to unequal relationships and
are deeply rooted in historical, cultural, or dependency, which might foster tensions and
ideological differences. conflicts, particularly for less developed
Examples: countries.
• European Union (EU): The EU's evolution from
the European Coal and Steel Community Golden Arches Theory
reflects functionalism's principles. Economic • The "Golden Arches Theory of Conflict
integration in specific sectors gradually Prevention" was proposed by Thomas L.
expanded into broader political integration, Friedman in his book "The Lexus and the
although the extent of 'spillover' is debated. Olive Tree". The theory humorously
• World Health Organization (WHO): WHO's suggests that no two countries with a
role in global health, such as coordinating the McDonald's franchise have ever gone to war
response to the COVID-19 pandemic, with each other since establishing the
exemplifies functional cooperation. Despite franchise. This theory is a part of a larger
this, political issues sometimes impede its argument about globalization and economic
functioning, illustrating the theory's interdependence reducing the likelihood of
limitations. conflict.
• While the theory was initially compelling, it
4. Interdependence Liberalism has been disproven by subsequent events.
• Interdependence Liberalism, a variant of For instance, the 2008 conflict between
liberal international relations theory, posits Russia and Georgia, both of which had
that increased economic, political, and social McDonald's restaurants at the time,
interdependence among countries decreases contradicted the theory’s premise. This
the likelihood of conflict. This concept is partly example illustrates that while economic
inspired by Thomas Friedman's "Golden interdependence can be a factor in peace-
Arches Theory," suggesting that countries with building, it is not an absolute deterrent to
strong economic ties, especially in global conflict.
markets (like McDonald's presence), are less
likely to engage in conflict. Trading States Theory
• Additionally, the "Trading States" theory, • The "Trading States" theory, associated with
associated with scholars like Richard scholars like Richard Rosecrance, posits that
Rosecrance, argues that states focused on economic interdependence through trade
economic development and international and investment can lead countries to
trade are more inclined toward peaceful prioritize economic development over
relations than military expansion.

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 pg. 97

territorial expansion or military power. between democratic states (the "zone of

According to this theory, "trading states" peace") and the less peaceful behavior of non-
prefer peaceful economic growth and are democratic states.
less likely to engage in military conflicts. • Economic Interdependence: The theory also
• One can look at the European Union (EU) as posits that democracies, which are often
a modern embodiment of this theory. The economically interdependent, have additional
EU's member states have significantly incentives to maintain peace to preserve
reduced the likelihood of conflict among economic stability and prosperity.
themselves through deep economic • Empirical Evidence: Studies supporting
integration and mutual trade. However, as Democratic Peace Theory have shown a
with the Golden Arches Theory, the Trading statistical correlation between democracy and
States theory is not absolute; external peace, particularly in post-World War II
factors and geopolitical interests can still international relations. Instances of full-scale
lead to conflicts, as seen in the EU's strained wars between established democracies have
relations with Russia. been rare.
o The absence of direct military conflict
5. Democratic Peace Theory/Republican Peace between major democracies like the U.S.,
Theory UK, France, and Germany since World War
Democratic Peace Theory, as developed by II provides empirical support for the
Michael Doyle and others, posits that democracies theory. The rarity of full-scale wars
are less likely to engage in war with each other between established democracies post-
compared to non-democratic nations. Doyle’s World War II is often cited as evidence
interpretation of this theory, often also referred to supporting this theory.
as "Republican Peace Theory," is grounded in the Criticisms of Democratic Peace Theory:
broader framework of liberal internationalism. • Definition of Democracy: Critics argue that the
• Kantian Roots: Doyle’s theory draws heavily definition of democracy is often tailored in
from Immanuel Kant’s essay “Perpetual Peace” such a way to fit the theory. For example, if a
(1795), which argues that republics democratic nation goes to war with another,
(democracies) are inherently more peaceful one of them might be reclassified as not “truly
compared to other forms of government. Kant democratic.”
believed that when citizens who bear the costs • Correlation vs. Causation: While the
of war also have a say in its declaration (as in a correlation between democracy and peace
democracy), they are less likely to favor it might be strong, proving causation is more
unless for defensive purposes. complex. Some critics suggest that other
• Democratic Norms and Structures: The theory factors, such as economic interdependence or
suggests that democratic norms of peaceful international norms, might be more
dispute resolution and a culture of significant.
compromise extend to international relations. o John Mearsheimer, a realist scholar,
Democratic leaders are constrained by public argues that it's not democracy per se, but
opinion, legal checks and balances, and the other factors like the balance of power,
open debate that characterizes democratic that prevent conflict.
political systems. • Democratic Transition Period: The theory
• Separation of Peaceful and Non-Peaceful doesn’t adequately address the volatility of
Countries: Doyle’s theory makes a distinction transitional democracies, which may be more
between the peace that characterizes relations prone to conflict. Wars involving countries in

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the process of democratization can be as overlooking the enduring importance of state

frequent as those involving non-democracies. interests, as evidenced by the decisive actions
• Democratic Aggression towards Non- of the United Nations Security Council's
Democracies: The theory has been criticized permanent members.
for ignoring or downplaying the tendency of • Neglecting Power Politics: The theory is
democratic states to engage in military critiqued for downplaying the significance of
conflicts with non-democratic states. power politics, with states frequently utilizing
• Normative Bias: Some critics argue that the economic strategies to achieve national
theory carries a normative bias, promoting a interests, as seen in the U.S.-China trade war's
view that democratic political structures are use of tariffs and sanctions.
universally applicable and desirable. • Assumption of Peaceful Resolution: Complex
• Internal vs. External Peace: While Interdependence's expectation of conflict
democracies might not fight each other, this resolution through negotiation is often
doesn’t preclude them from being involved in contradicted by real-world scenarios, such as
internal conflicts or conflicts with non- the military conflict in Ukraine, including the
democracies. annexation of Crimea.
• Challenges in Identifying Interdependencies:
6. Complex Interdependence Theory The COVID-19 pandemic underscores the
Complex Interdependence is a theory in difficulty in discerning and managing the
international relations, developed by Robert O. intricate web of global interdependencies,
Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, that challenges especially in supply chains and international
traditional realist views which emphasize state travel.
sovereignty, military power, and clear hierarchies • Limited Applicability in Conflict Zones: The
of issues. It emerged in the 1970s as global theory struggles to fully account for
relationships became more multifaceted and international relations dynamics in areas
interconnected. where military or ideological factors are
• Multiple Channels of Interaction: States are dominant, like the intense geopolitical
not the only international actors; international conflicts in the Middle East involving nations
organizations, multinational corporations, and like Syria and Iran.
non-governmental organizations also play
significant roles. Present state of liberal world order
• Absence of Hierarchy Among Issues: Military • Renewed Unity and Purpose among
security is not always the dominant concern; Democracies: The Russian invasion of
economic, environmental, and social issues Ukraine has galvanized democracies
can be equally significant. worldwide, leading to unified actions such
• Diminished Role of Military Force: Military as imposing sanctions on Russia, increasing
force is not a useful instrument in many military aid to Ukraine, and boosting military
international situations, especially where spending. This response contrasts with the
economic and environmental issues are previous decade's more muted reactions to
concerned. democratic challenges and authoritarian
attacks.
Criticism of Complex Interdependence: • Potential Strengthening of the Liberal
• Overemphasis on Non-State Actors: Critics Order: Putin's attack on international norms
highlight that Complex Interdependence might ultimately reinforce the liberal world
overstates the role of non-state actors,

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 pg. 99

order. The unified response from Western economic factors in international relations.
democracies, costly repercussions for They analyze how economic interests, class
Russia, and divisions within authoritarian struggles, and the dynamics of capitalism
coalitions could strengthen liberal influence state behavior and international
democracies and diminish Russian outcomes.
geopolitical power. • Critique of Capitalism and Class Oppression: A
• Challenges to Democracy: The past decade central concern of Marxist theory is exposing
has seen subtle and ambiguous attacks on how capitalism perpetuates class oppression
democracy, with authoritarian populists and inequality. It views the international
emerging within democratic systems. These system as a space where capitalist states and
efforts have often involved politicizing state multinational corporations exploit less
bureaucracies and controlling media developed countries, perpetuating a cycle of
outlets, gradually eroding democratic norms dependency and underdevelopment.
without overt assaults on democracy. • Critical Theory: Due to its emphasis on
• Democratic Malaise: Despite being more critiquing and changing the existing system,
democratic than during the Cold War, the Marxist IR theory is often associated with
world has seen autocrats damage Critical Theory. This approach challenges
established democracies and erode dominant ideologies and power structures,
pluralism through gradual, piecemeal seeking to uncover the underlying mechanisms
tactics. Countries like Hungary, India, and of oppression and exploitation in the
the United States have experienced international system.
significant democratic backsliding.
Basis of the Theory:
• Capitalist Globalization and Instability: Marx
and Engels argued that capitalism would
Marxist theories eventually become a global system, creating
Marxist theories in International Relations (IR) instability and contradictions both within and
draw on the ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich between nations. They foresaw that the
Engels, although Marx himself did not explicitly relentless pursuit of profit and market
address international relations. Later Marxist expansion by capitalist states would lead to
scholars have interpreted and expanded upon exploitation and inequality on a global scale.
Marx's ideas to analyze the international system, • Neo-Colonialism: Marxist theorists contend
particularly focusing on issues of economic that modern capitalism has led to forms of
inequality, class struggle, and the dynamics of neo-colonialism, where powerful capitalist
capitalism on a global scale. states and corporations exploit the resources
• Demand for Systemic Change: Unlike other and labor of less developed countries. This
theories that often seek to explain or justify exploitation is seen as a continuation of
the existing international system, Marxist colonial practices, albeit through economic
approaches call for a fundamental overhaul of rather than direct political control.
the system. They argue that the existing global • Inequality and Exploitation: The theory holds
order, underpinned by capitalist structures, is that the global capitalist system creates and
inherently exploitative and needs to be perpetuates inequality, both within nations
replaced. and on an international scale. This results in
• Economic Analysis of International Politics: the exploitation of poorer countries, which are
Marxist theories emphasize the primacy of

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 pg. 100

often trapped in a cycle of dependency on Immanuel Wallerstein's World-Systems Theory:

wealthier, industrialized nations. • Extension of Dependency Theory: In the
1970s, Immanuel Wallerstein expanded on
Instrumentalist/Dependency School
Dependency Theory with his World-Systems
The Instrumentalist/Dependency School and Theory, providing a more comprehensive
Immanuel Wallerstein's World-Systems Theory framework for understanding global
offer critical perspectives on global economic inequalities.
dynamics, especially focusing on the relationships • World-System as a Unit of Analysis:
between developed and developing nations. These Wallerstein proposed viewing the world as a
theories emerged as a reaction to Modernization single interconnected system (world-system),
Theory, which posited a universal path of divided into core, semi-periphery, and
development for all societies, typically modeled periphery regions. He argued that this system
after the development trajectories of Western is characterized by a division of labor where
countries. peripheral regions are exploited by core
Instrumentalist/Dependency School: regions.
• Origins : The Dependency School was a • Core, Semi-Periphery, and Periphery:
response to the observed underdevelopment o Core Countries: These are economically
in many post-colonial countries, which dominant, technologically advanced, and
contradicted the predictions of Modernization benefit from the current global system.
Theory. They exploit peripheral countries for
• Core Concepts: Dependency theorists argue resources, labor, and markets. Ex: USA
that the international economic system is o Semi-Periphery Countries: These
structured in such a way that wealth is countries exhibit characteristics of both
extracted from 'peripheral' (less developed) core and periphery. They are more
countries to 'core' (developed) countries. This developed than peripheral countries but
process leads to a 'development of still lack the influence of core countries.
underdevelopment' in the periphery – a Ex: India
condition where the economic growth in these o Periphery Countries: These are less
countries is stunted or distorted due to developed and are exploited by core
external dependencies. countries. They often specialize in the
• Critique of Capitalism: The theory is critical of export of raw materials and agricultural
global capitalism, suggesting that it inherently products at low prices. Ex: Chad
leads to unequal relationships. Developed • Challenges to State Sovereignty: Wallerstein
countries exploit the resources and labor of argued that the notion of absolute state
developing countries, keeping them in a sovereignty is a myth in the modern world-
subservient, dependent position. system. States, especially in the periphery, are
• Neo-Colonialism: Dependency theorists view often unable to make independent economic
the ongoing economic relationships between decisions due to their dependencies.
former colonial powers and their former • Global Society Perspective: Wallerstein
colonies as a form of neo-colonialism, where advocated for understanding the world as a
control and exploitation continue, albeit global society where a few powerful nations
through economic means rather than direct and entities exert disproportionate influence,
political rule. leading to persistent inequalities.

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 pg. 101

Criticisms: concept of cultural hegemony is particularly

influential, referring to the ways in which
• Overemphasis on Economic Factors: Critics
dominant groups in society maintain their
argue that both Dependency and World-
dominance not just through material forces
Systems theories overly focus on economic
but also through cultural and ideological
relationships at the expense of political, social,
consent.
and cultural factors.
• Hegemony and Civil Society: Gramsci argued
• Determinism: These theories are sometimes
that the state is not the only arena where
criticized for their economic determinism and
hegemony is established; rather, civil society
failure to account for the agency of developing
plays a critical role. Intellectuals, media, and
countries.
educational institutions help in manufacturing
• Changing Global Dynamics: The rise of
consent and legitimizing the prevailing power
countries like China and India challenges the
structures.
notion of a rigid core-periphery division. These
• Counter-Hegemony: Gramsci emphasized the
countries have shown that movement from
role of organic intellectuals and political
periphery to emerging or core status is
activism in building a counter-hegemonic
possible, contrary to the static structure
culture that challenges the existing order. He
suggested by these theories.
believed that transformative change requires
Critical/Frankfurt School both political and cultural revolution.
• Critique of Capitalism and Modernity: A • Relevance in IR: In international relations,
central theme is the critique of capitalism and Gramscian theorists analyze how certain
modernity, particularly how they perpetuate norms, ideologies, and practices become
domination and inequality. This school dominant in global politics. They explore how
examines how cultural and ideological international institutions, global capitalism,
apparatuses in capitalist societies serve to and the spread of Western values serve as
maintain the status quo. mechanisms for establishing and maintaining a
• Emphasis on Ideology and Culture: The global hegemony.
Frankfurt School theorists, such as Theodor • Example: The Role of the IMF and World Bank
Adorno and Max Horkheimer, emphasize the o The IMF and World Bank, influenced by
role of culture and ideology in reinforcing Western powers, significantly impact the
power structures. They argue that culture economic policies of developing countries
industry and mass media are tools for creating through loans and structural adjustment
a passive and compliant populace, which is programs.
essential for maintaining elite domination. o Their policies often promote free-market
• Critique of Instrumental Reason: They criticize reforms, privatization, and liberalization,
the overemphasis on instrumental reason embodying neoliberal ideologies.
(rationality oriented toward control and o Cultural Hegemony: This adoption of
domination) in modern societies, arguing that neoliberal policies represents a form of
it leads to a dehumanized and repressive social cultural hegemony, internalizing Western
order. economic norms and values globally.
o Impact on Developing Countries: These
Gramscian School policies, while potentially spurring
• Antonio Gramsci’s Contributions: The economic growth, are critiqued for
Gramscian School in IR is based on the works primarily benefiting core countries and
of Italian Marxist theorist Antonio Gramsci. His corporations, sometimes undermining

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 pg. 102

social welfare and autonomy in developing Commonalities between Realism and

nations. Marxism
Relevance of Marxist theory of IR in • Focus on Power Structures: Realism centers on
contemporary world state power (military, economic), while
The Marxist approach in contemporary Marxism emphasizes economic structures
international relations (IR) is crucial for analyzing (capitalism, class).
global politics through economic structures, class • External Influences on State Behavior: Realists
dynamics, and capitalism's influence. point to the anarchic international system, and
• Globalization and Economic Inequality: Marxists highlight global capitalism as key
Thomas Piketty and Joseph Stiglitz examines influences on state actions.
the growing wealth disparities fostered by • Critique of Idealism: Both reject the idea that
capitalist systems in the globalization era. international relations are driven solely by
• Neo-colonialism and Global Capitalism: Samir moral principles, focusing instead on material
Amin analyzes how neo-colonial practices and interests.
multinational corporations impact developing • Pessimism Towards International
economies. Cooperation: Realists doubt long-term
• Imperialism in Modern Guise: Immanuel alliances due to self-interest, and Marxists
Wallerstein’s world-systems theory explores view cooperation under capitalism as
how powerful states and corporations exert inherently exploitative.
economic dominance through mechanisms like • Historical Perspective: Both employ historical
the IMF and World Bank. analysis - Realism for patterns of power,
• Rise of Multinational Corporations: Marxist Marxism for the evolution of capitalist
analysis focuses on the significant influence of systems.
multinational corporations in global politics, • Pragmatism in State Actions: Realism
comparable to nation-states. advocates for national interest pursuit, while
• Class Analysis in Global Politics: It provides Marxism sees state actions as influenced by
insights into international dynamics by material interests within the capitalist system.
examining global class struggles and socio- Feminist Approach
economic group interests. Feminist theory in International Relations (IR),
spearheaded by scholars like Cynthia Enloe and J.
• Response to Crises: The theory critiques how
Ann Tickner, critically examines global politics
capitalist interests shape international
through a gender lens. It challenges conventional
responses to economic crises, often valuing
IR theories by underscoring women's roles and
market stability over social welfare.
experiences, the impact of gendered power
Despite criticisms for sometimes oversimplifying
dynamics, and the interplay of gender with other
complex relations, Marxist IR theory's emphasis on
social factors. This approach significantly enriches
economic factors and capitalism critique is vital for
the understanding of global affairs, highlighting
understanding contemporary global politics. It
gender's pivotal role in shaping international
offers a critical perspective on issues like economic
political, economic, and social interactions.
inequality, neo-colonialism, and the role of
multinational corporations in shaping 21st-century • Gender Lens in IR: Cynthia Enloe analyzed
international relations. global politics using a gender lens, arguing that
international relations cannot be fully
understood without considering the roles,

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 pg. 103

experiences, and contributions of women and military-focused approach. They emphasize

the impact of gendered power structures. human security, which includes economic,
o Cynthia Enloe’s seminal work, "Bananas, health, and environmental security, all of
Beaches and Bases," highlights how the which impact women differently.
international political and economic
Criticism of Feminist IR:
systems are gendered. J. Ann Tickner, in
"Gender in International Relations," • Perceived Overemphasis on Gender: Critics
criticizes traditional IR theories for their sometimes argue that feminist approaches can
masculine bias. overemphasize gender at the expense of other
• Critique of Traditional Theories: Feminist factors in international relations.
theorists critique traditional IR theories like • Challenges in Policy Implementation:
Realism and Liberalism for their gender Implementing feminist perspectives in
blindness. These conventional theories often practical policy-making has been challenging,
ignore the experiences of women and how with critics pointing out the gap between
gender dynamics shape international politics. theoretical insights and real-world
• Gender and Power: A central theme in applicability.
Feminist approach is the examination of how • Diversity of Approaches: The diversity within
gender influences power relations both within feminist IR approaches can sometimes lead to
and between states. This includes exploring fragmented analyses, with different scholars
how masculine norms and values dominate focusing on different aspects of gender and
global politics and often marginalize women's international relations.
voices and concerns.
• Intersectionality: Chandra Talpade Mohanty Systems theory
and Kimberlé Crenshaw use the concept of
System theory in International Relations (IR),
intersectionality to explore how gender
primarily developed by Morton Kaplan, views
intersects with other social categories like
international relations as a system composed of
race, class, and ethnicity, impacting
interacting units (states) under anarchy. This
individuals’ experiences and roles in
approach emphasizes the structure of the
international politics.
international system, defined by the distribution of
• Women, Peace, and Security: Feminist has
power, rather than individual state characteristics
brought significant attention to the role of
or internal politics. System theory argues that the
women in conflict and peacebuilding. This
behavior of states is significantly influenced by the
includes advocating for women's participation
systemic constraints and opportunities presented
in peace negotiations and highlighting the
by the international order, leading to patterns of
unique impacts of war on women, such as the
international behavior and outcomes.
use of sexual violence as a weapon of war.
• International System as a Unit of Analysis:
• Inclusion of Women's Experiences: Feminist IR
Focuses on the entire international system,
seeks to bring women's experiences and
characterized by the interactions of states and
contributions in global politics to the forefront,
other actors. For example, the Cold War's
highlighting their roles in areas like
bipolar system showed how the USA and USSR
peacekeeping, conflict resolution, and global
dictated global dynamics.
economics.
• Interdependence and Complexity: Highlights
• Redefining Security: Feminist argue for a
that entities within the international system
broader understanding of security that goes
are interdependent, where actions by one
beyond the traditional state-centric and

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 pg. 104

actor affect others. An instance is the 2008 U.S. Post-colonialism in International Relations (IR)
financial crisis impacting the global economy. critically explores the enduring effects of
• Feedback Mechanisms: Stresses the colonialism and imperialism on global politics.
importance of feedback within the system, Pioneered by scholars such as Edward Said, Frantz
where actions provoke reactions, as seen in Fanon, and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, it
the Cold War arms race between the challenges Eurocentric views in IR, focusing on how
superpowers. colonial legacies affect modern power structures,
• Balance and Homeostasis: System Theory economic systems, and cultural interactions. This
suggests a tendency towards equilibrium in the approach highlights the perspectives and
international system, disrupted by internal or experiences of formerly colonized regions,
external factors. This concept parallels balance addressing issues of identity, representation, and
theories in other disciplines. resistance, and offers a more inclusive
• Structural and Functional Analysis: Involves understanding of international dynamics.
examining how the international system is • Legacy of Colonialism: Post-colonialism
organized and how actors within it operate, emphasizes the enduring effects of colonialism
such as the role of the United Nations in global on former colonies and colonizers. It argues
governance. that contemporary political and economic
Criticism of System Theory in IR: disparities between the Global North
• Overemphasis on Structure: Critics like (developed countries) and the Global South
Alexander Wendt argue that this focus on (developing countries) are deeply rooted in the
structure overlooks the agency of individual history of colonial exploitation and
actors like states or leaders. The Cuban Missile domination.
Crisis, where individual leaders' decisions • Critique of Eurocentrism: A central tenet of
played a crucial role, challenges the notion that post-colonialism is critiquing Eurocentric
systemic structures alone dictate state perspectives that have traditionally dominated
behavior. IR. It challenges the Western-centric
• Complexity and Abstraction: The theory's worldview and seeks to bring forward the
abstract nature and focus on complex perspectives, experiences, and voices of the
interdependencies can sometimes make it colonized.
challenging to apply to specific historical • Cultural Hegemony and Identity: Post-colonial
events or predict future outcomes in theorists examine how colonial powers
international relations. The Arab Spring is a imposed their culture, values, and norms on
prime example where systemic theories colonized societies, leading to a form of
struggle to predict or explain complex and cultural hegemony. They also explore the
rapid political changes. construction and politicization of identity in
• Lack of Focus on Human Element: Scholars the post-colonial context.
such as Martha Finnemore point out the • Hybridity and Syncretism: The concept of
theory's oversight of human factors. World hybridity, as articulated by theorists like Homi
War I, influenced by nationalist ideologies and Bhabha, explores the complex mix of colonizer
leadership decisions, underscores the and colonized cultures, leading to unique
significance of human elements in syncretic forms.
international relations beyond mere systemic • Subaltern Studies: This approach focuses on
structures. the history and experiences of the 'subaltern' -
a term used to describe marginalized and
Post-colonialism oppressed groups. It seeks to recover the

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 pg. 105

perspectives of those who have been • Generalizations and Theoretical Ambiguity:

historically silenced. Some critics point out that post-colonial theory
• Neo-Colonialism: Post-colonialism also can be overly broad and ambiguous, making it
addresses the issue of neo-colonialism, where difficult to apply to specific cases or to develop
former colonial powers continue to exert clear policy implications.
economic and political influence over their • Neglect of Other Forms of Inequality: While
former colonies, often through economic focusing on colonial legacies, post-colonialism
means. might neglect other forms of inequality and
Criticism of Post-Colonialism in IR: oppression, such as gender, class, or race, that
• Overemphasis on Culture and Identity: Critics are not directly related to colonialism.
argue that post-colonialism may Conclusion
overemphasize cultural and identity issues at "In the realm of international relations, power
the expense of material and economic factors. remains the primary currency, shaping the very
fabric of global interactions."

Student Notes ✍

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Chapter - 6 pg. 106

Key Concepts in International Relations

Analysis of important dimensions from PYQ
1. National Interest is an essentially contested concept. Comment. [2022]
2. Explain the instruments and methods devised for the promotion of national interest. [2016]
3. ‘National interests are dynamic’. Identify the dynamic nature of national interest in contemporary
world politics with suitable examples. [2013]
4. Critically assess the changing nature of the concept of national security. [2014]
5. Bipolar structure of the world is more stable than the multipolar one. Comment. [2022]
6. Explain the concept of balance of power. What are the various techniques of maintaining balance of
power? [2020]
7. Identify the benefits of a multi-polar world. [2019]
8. ‘The notion of balance of power is notoriously full of confusion’. In the light of this quotation do you
think that the concept of balance of power is relevant? [2016]
9. Discuss the theory of Nuclear Deterrence. Did nuclear deterrence prevent a superpower war? [2015]
10. Some feel that multinational corporations (MNCs) are a vital new road to economic growth, whereas
others feel they perpetuate underdevelopment. Discuss. [2018]
11. Discuss the changing nature of modern state with reference to transnational actors. [2017]
12. How do you explain the growing importance of Multi National Corporations (MNCs) and civil society
in contemporary international politics? [2014]
13. Transnational actors have become driving forces of global politics. Elaborate. [2013]
14. Discuss the conceptual dimensions of collective security. [2022]
15. Enumerate the challenges in the operation of the principles related to collective security in the UN
Charter. [2020]
16. Collective Security and Collective Defence are the institutional and state mechanism to sustain the
domination of powers that be in international politics. Elaborate. [2013]
17. How has the development of Global Capitalism changed the nature of Socialist economies and
developing societies? [2017]

deemed necessary for a nation's existence and

National interest well-being.
Hans J. Morgenthau, a key figure in the school of Components:
political realism, provided a structured framework • Security and Survival: The primary focus of
for understanding national interests in vital interests is the security and survival of the
international relations. His classification system state. This involves safeguarding the nation
differentiates between vital and non-vital against external threats, both military and non-
interests, shedding light on the hierarchical nature military, that could pose existential challenges.
of a nation's objectives in the pursuit of its survival • Territorial Integrity: Vital interests encompass
and prosperity. the preservation of territorial integrity. This
Vital Interests implies protecting the nation's borders from
any encroachment or aggression, ensuring that
Vital interests, according to Morgenthau, are those
the geographical boundaries remain intact.
elements crucial to the security and survival of the
• Sovereignty: Maintaining sovereignty is a vital
state. They represent the core aspects that are
interest, emphasizing the independence and

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 pg. 107

autonomy of the state. This includes protecting • Primary Interests: Core and vital concerns
the nation's decision-making processes from crucial to a nation's security, sovereignty, and
external influence. survival. Non-negotiable and foundational to
• Core National Values: Elements such as foreign policy.
national identity, cultural values, and political • Secondary Interests: Important considerations
institutions that form the core of a nation's that may not be as critical as primary interests.
identity are considered vital interests. Could include economic prosperity, diplomatic
Preserving these values is crucial for the relations, or regional stability. Subject to
continuity of the state. negotiation. Example: Economic Prosperity,
Examples: Diplomacy, Regional Stability.
• Military Security: Actions taken to ensure • Permanent Interests: Enduring and consistent
military strength and preparedness to defend concerns vital to a nation's identity and
against potential threats. security. Stable over time and less influenced
• Diplomatic Alliances: Forging alliances with by short-term changes. Example: National
other nations to enhance security and create a Identity, Security.
favorable geopolitical environment. • Variable Interests: Contingent on changing
circumstances and the evolving international
Non-vital Interests
landscape. Flexible and subject to shifts in
Non-vital interests include elements that, while response to geopolitical developments.
important, are not considered essential for the Example: Geopolitical Changes, Emerging
immediate security or survival of the state. These Threats.
interests extend beyond the core necessities and • General Interests: Broad and overarching
often involve aspects of cooperation and concerns that encompass various issues, from
collaboration with the international community. economic well-being to global stability. Reflect
Components: a holistic view of a nation's overall goals.
• Economic Security: While economic prosperity Example: Economic Well-being, Global
is essential, it may be considered a non-vital Stability.
interest. This includes actions taken to • Specific Interests: Precise and narrowly
promote economic growth, trade defined objectives a nation seeks to achieve.
relationships, and access to resources for the Example: Bilateral Agreements, Regional
nation's well-being. Security, Diplomatic Initiatives.
• Diplomatic Relations: Maintaining friendly
relations with other nations is a non-vital Various ways to secure national interest
interest. Diplomacy plays a role in managing Securing national interests is a fundamental goal of
international affairs, building partnerships, and states in international politics. Various methods
resolving conflicts through peaceful means. are employed to achieve this, each reflecting
• Global Commons: Contributing to the pursuit different strategic, economic, and political
of global commons, such as addressing considerations.:
environmental issues or participating in • Diplomacy: Diplomacy involves managing
international initiatives, can be considered a international relations through negotiations,
non-vital interest. These actions go beyond dialogue, and communication. It's a primary
immediate security concerns. Ex: Climate tool for states to pursue their interests
change. peacefully.
Classification of national interest o Example: The United States' diplomatic
efforts in negotiating the Iran Nuclear Deal

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 pg. 108

(Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action) to • Intelligence and Surveillance: Gathering

prevent nuclear proliferation. intelligence and conducting surveillance are
• Military Power and Defense: Military power is crucial for understanding global developments
used to deter threats, defend national and threats.
sovereignty, and sometimes project power o Example: The United States' use of the
abroad. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and
o Example: China’s military buildup in the National Security Agency (NSA) for global
South China Sea to assert its territorial intelligence gathering.
claims and secure its maritime interests. • Cyber Capabilities: In the digital age, cyber
• Economic Policies and Sanctions: Economic capabilities are essential for both offensive and
tools include trade policies, sanctions, and defensive operations.
economic aid. States use these to influence o Example: The alleged use of cyber attacks
other countries' behaviors and secure by Russia for political interference in other
economic interests. countries’ elections.
o Example: The use of economic sanctions by • Economic Development and Innovation:
the European Union and the United States Investing in economic development and
against Russia following its annexation of technological innovation can enhance a state's
Crimea. competitiveness and economic security.
• Strategic Alliances and Partnerships: Forming o Example: Germany’s focus on high-quality
alliances with other nations can enhance manufacturing and technological
security, provide mutual defense, and innovation to maintain its economic
strengthen diplomatic and economic ties. strength.
o Example: The North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO), a military alliance Acts done in the name of national interest
formed for mutual defense and to counter In global politics, states often justify their actions
Soviet influence during the Cold War. by citing their national interest, arguing that these
• Soft Power and Cultural Diplomacy: Soft actions are necessary to protect or advance their
power is the ability to influence others through country's key goals and priorities.
cultural appeal, values, and policies. Cultural • Military Interventions: The U.S. invasion of
diplomacy involves promoting a country's Iraq in 2003 was justified by the Bush
culture to improve its image and strengthen administration as essential for American
relations. security and global stability, aiming to
o Example: Japan’s promotion of its culture eliminate alleged weapons of mass destruction
through initiatives like the Japan and reduce terrorism.
Foundation, enhancing its global influence • Economic Sanctions: Western sanctions
and soft power. against Russia post-Crimea annexation in 2014
• International Law and Organizations: were framed as upholding international law
Engaging with international law and and protecting European security, aligning
organizations can help states resolve disputes, with the national interests of the imposing
build legitimacy, and cooperate on global countries.
issues. • Trade Wars and Protectionism: The U.S.-China
o Example: The Philippines’ use of the trade war under President Trump was justified
United Nations Convention on the Law of as protecting American economic security by
the Sea (UNCLOS) to challenge China’s addressing unfair competition and trade
territorial claims in the South China Sea. imbalances through tariffs on Chinese goods.

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 pg. 109

• Climate Change Policies: The U.S. withdrawal Various perspectives on Security

from the Paris Agreement under President • Realism (Hans Morgenthau, Kenneth Waltz):
Trump was claimed to protect national Realism views security primarily in military
interests, arguing that the agreement was terms. It emphasizes the anarchic nature of the
economically burdensome and hindered international system, where states exist in a
domestic industry. constant struggle for power and security. The
• Territorial Claims: China justifies its actions in main focus is on protecting national
the South China Sea, such as building artificial sovereignty and survival through military
islands, as protecting its sovereign rights and strength. A realist approach may involve
territorial integrity, considering it a core maintaining a strong military and forming
national interest. alliances to deter potential aggressors.
• Humanitarian Interventions: NATO's • Liberalism (Immanuel Kant, Michael Doyle):
intervention in Kosovo in 1999 was justified by Liberals broaden the concept of security to
member states as a moral duty to prevent include not only military threats but also
human rights abuses, serving the national economic stability, human rights, and
interest of promoting human rights and international cooperation. Economic
European stability. interdependence and institutions are seen as
• Non-Proliferation Efforts: The Iran nuclear key factors in maintaining peace and security.
deal (JCPOA) is often justified in terms of A liberal approach might involve promoting
national interest, with involved countries free trade, fostering democratic governance,
including the U.S., Russia, and China viewing it and participating in international organizations
as essential for global security and stability. to enhance global security.
In international relations, the concept of national • Constructivism (Alexander Wendt, Martha
interest is primarily defined by a state's pursuit of Finnemore): Constructivists argue that
power, security, and prosperity. Prominent realist security is socially constructed, shaped by
theorist Hans Morgenthau described it as ideas, norms, and identities. Threats are not
fundamentally linked to power. However, solely objective but depend on how actors
contemporary views, influenced by scholars like perceive them. Emphasis is on the role of non-
Joseph Nye, also consider ethical values and global state actors and transnational issues.
cooperation, especially in addressing transnational • Critical Security Studies (Ole Wæver, Ken
issues like climate change and global health. This Booth): Critical security scholars challenge
reflects an evolving understanding of national traditional notions of security, highlighting the
interest, balancing traditional power politics with impact of power structures, inequality, and
broader global responsibilities and cooperative discourses on security issues. They explore
strategies. how certain security practices can marginalize
Security certain groups. Critical security studies analyze
how militarized responses to migration issues
"Security is the supreme goal of states. It is the one
can exacerbate human security concerns.
condition that makes possible the steady pursuit of
• Feminist Security Studies (Cynthia Enloe,
other objectives, especially freedom and welfare."
Carol Cohn): Feminist scholars critique
- Hans Morgenthau
traditional security studies for their gender-
"Security denotes the relative absence of threats to
blind approach. They argue that security must
acquired values, and is understood in both
include issues such as gender-based violence,
absolute and relative terms." - John Herz
reproductive rights, and the experiences of

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 pg. 110

women in conflict zones. Feminist security U.S., contributing to a climate of suspicion

studies analyze the impact of conflict on and competition.
women and advocate for policies addressing • Arms Race and Escalation: As one state takes
gender-based violence in conflict zones. defensive measures, neighboring states may
• Human Security (Mahbub ul Haq, Amartya interpret these actions as a potential threat
Sen): Human security broadens the concept and respond by increasing their own military
beyond the state-centric focus, emphasizing capabilities, resulting in an arms race and
the protection of individuals from a wide range escalating tensions.
of threats, including poverty, disease, and o Example: The U.S.-Soviet arms race during
environmental degradation. Human security the Cold War saw continuous nuclear
involve international efforts to address issues buildup, with each side perceiving the
like hunger, disease, and displacement that other as a threat, escalating tensions.
directly impact individuals. • Offence-Defence: Robert Jervis's Offence-
Defence theory distinguishes between the
Security dilemma
relative advantages of offense and defense in
The security dilemma in international relations military capabilities. In a situation where the
describes a situation where one state's efforts to offense has the advantage, states may feel
increase its own security are perceived as compelled to adopt aggressive postures for
threatening by other states, leading to a cycle of security reasons, contributing to the security
competitive and potentially destabilizing actions. dilemma.
The dilemma arises from the inherent uncertainty o Cyberspace
in assessing the intentions of other states, often Changing nature of national security
resulting in actions taken for defensive purposes • Traditional View: Military and Territorial
being interpreted as offensive by neighbors. Security: Scholars like Hans Morgenthau and
How Security dilemma emerges? Kenneth Waltz focus on military power and
• Defensive Measures are Perceived as state-based threats. Example: The Cold War's
Offensive: A state's attempts to enhance its emphasis on nuclear deterrence and
security, such as building up military preventing military aggression.
capabilities or fortifying borders, may be seen • Economic Security: Experts like Joseph Nye
by other states as offensive preparations, highlight economic strength and stability as
heightening tensions. crucial for national security. Example: The 2008
o Example: The deployment of THAAD in global financial crisis.
South Korea by the United States, meant
• Cyber Security: Emphasize protecting
for ballistic missile defense, was viewed by
information systems against cyber threats.
North Korea as offensive, leading to
Example: The 2010 Stuxnet attack
heightened tensions.
demonstrates cyber operations' potential to
• Lack of Trust and Misperception: The security target critical infrastructure.
dilemma is fueled by a lack of trust and the
• Environmental Security: Figures like Norman
difficulty in accurately gauging the intentions
Myers identify environmental issues, like
of other states. Misperceptions can lead to a
climate change, as security concerns. Example:
spiral of suspicion and competition.
The Syrian Civil War's links to drought and
o Example: During the Cold War, the
agricultural collapse show environmental
construction of the Berlin Wall by the
impacts on security.
Soviet Union was misinterpreted by the
• Human Security: Amartya Sen and Mahbub ul
Haq expand security to include individual well-

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 pg. 111

being, health, and education. Example: The Positive-sum interactions, where multiple
COVID-19 pandemic's role in highlighting the actors benefit, are possible in the realm of
importance of health security. power dynamics.
• Transnational Threats: Non-state threats like
Elements of Power:
terrorism and organized crime. Example: The
9/11 attacks reshaped security strategies to • Military Power: The ability to use force and
counter non-state, transnational threats. exert influence through military strength. It
includes factors such as the size and capability
Power of armed forces, technological advancements,
Power, according to Joseph Nye, is the ability to and strategic positioning.
influence others to achieve the outcomes one • Economic Power: The control over resources,
desires. It involves not only coercion but also trade, and economic policies. Economic power
persuasion and attraction, emphasizing the enables states to shape global economic
multifaceted nature of power. dynamics, influence markets, and control vital
resources.
Hans Morgenthau defines power as the control of • Diplomatic Power: The skill in negotiations,
man's environment. It encompasses the alliances, and the ability to shape international
manipulation of political, economic, and military agreements. Diplomatic power involves
resources to shape and direct the course of building alliances, fostering cooperation, and
international events. resolving conflicts through diplomatic means.
Characteristics of Power: • Soft Power: The capacity to influence others
• Dynamic: Power is dynamic, constantly through attraction, culture, and ideology
evolving in response to changes in the rather than coercion. Soft power involves
international system. It involves ongoing shaping perceptions, building cultural
interactions, adaptations, and adjustments influence, and garnering support through non-
among states and non-state actors. coercive means.
• Relative: The measurement of power is • Informational Power: The control over the
relative, often assessed concerning the flow and dissemination of information.
capabilities of other actors in the system. A Informational power includes managing
state's power position depends on how it narratives, shaping public opinion, and
compares to the power of others. controlling the discourse in the global
• Contextual: The effectiveness of power is information space.
contextual and influenced by various factors, • Technological Power: The ability to innovate
including cultural, economic, and political and control advanced technologies.
considerations. What works in one context Technological power involves staying at the
may not be as effective in another. forefront of innovation, controlling critical
• Multifaceted: Power manifests in multiple technologies, and leveraging technological
forms, including military power, economic advancements for strategic advantage.
power, diplomatic power, soft power, Dimensions of Power:
informational power, and technological power. • Military Power: The ability to use military force
States can wield influence through various to influence the behavior of others and achieve
channels. strategic objectives.
• Non-Zero-Sum: Power relations are not always o Example: The deployment of troops
zero-sum, meaning that one actor's gain does during a conflict demonstrates a nation's
not necessarily result in another's loss. military power.

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 pg. 112

• Economic Power: The capacity to use though not to the extent of superpowers.
economic resources and influence economic Example: China, Russia, and the United States.
policies to achieve political and strategic goals. • Middle Power: States with moderate
o Example: Sanctions imposed by a influence, often excelling in specific areas or
powerful economy can showcase its playing crucial roles in regional stability.
economic power, affecting global trade. Example: Canada, Australia, South Korea.
• Psychological Power: The ability to shape • Small Powers: States with limited military and
perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes, influencing economic capabilities, often relying on
the psychological aspects of individuals and diplomatic strategies. Example: Norway,
societies. Singapore, New Zealand.
o Example: Strategic messaging and Types of Power:
information campaigns can be wielded as • Hard Power: Power exercised through
tools of psychological power, shaping coercion, force, or economic pressure to
public opinion. achieve specific goals. Example: Military
Measurement of Power: interventions, economic sanctions.
• Superpower: A state with unparalleled • Soft Power: Power exercised through
strength and influence on a global scale, often attraction, persuasion, and cultural influence
across multiple dimensions of power. Example: to shape opinions and gain cooperation.
United States during the Cold War. Example: Cultural diplomacy, educational
• Great Powers: States possessing substantial exchange programs.
military, economic, and geopolitical influence,

Smart Power
The concept of smart power was popularized by Joseph Nye, who is also known for his work on soft power.
Nye's approach emphasizes the importance of combining hard power (military and economic strength) with
soft power (cultural and ideological appeal) to achieve foreign policy objectives effectively. This concept
advocates for a balanced approach in diplomacy, leveraging both strength and persuasion.
Features:
• Balanced Approach: Smart power emphasizes a balanced mix of military strength, diplomatic finesse,
and cultural influence for greater effectiveness.
• Adaptability: Smart power stresses adaptability, acknowledging that diverse challenges require varied
responses.
• Public Diplomacy: Public diplomacy is integral, involving cultural exchanges, education initiatives, and
positive narratives to influence foreign audiences.
• Global Partnerships: Smart power values building global partnerships, fostering collaborative efforts
with nations, international organizations, and non-state actors.
Sharp Power
The term "sharp power" was coined by Christopher Walker and Jessica Ludwig of the National Endowment
for Democracy. They describe sharp power as the use of manipulative techniques by authoritarian regimes,
particularly China and Russia, to influence and interfere in the internal affairs of other countries. This
concept differs from soft power in its focus on manipulation and coercion rather than attraction and
persuasion.
Feature:

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• Covert Tactics: Sharp power employs covert methods like disinformation campaigns, cyber
interference, and proxy use to advance state agendas.
• Undermining Institutions: It targets institutions and democratic processes in other countries, exploiting
vulnerabilities and sowing discord.
• Non-Transparent Influence: Operating discreetly, sharp power poses challenges for targeted nations to
detect and counteract these influence efforts.
• Media Manipulation: Media manipulation, through narrative control and propaganda, is a prevalent
aspect of sharp power strategies.
Fast Power
Fast power is a concept that underscores the importance of rapid adaptation, agility, and technological
prowess in the realm of international relations. It recognizes the changing nature of power dynamics and
the need for swift responses to emerging global challenges.
Features:
• Technological Innovation: Fast power prioritizes leveraging advanced technologies for strategic
advantage.
• Agile Diplomacy: It employs dynamic diplomatic strategies that swiftly adapt to changing geopolitical
circumstances.
• Economic Agility: Fast power values economic agility, responding rapidly to shifts, disruptions, and
emerging trends.
• Crisis Management: Fast power emphasizes effective crisis management, demanding rapid decision-
making and policy implementation to address unforeseen challenges.

Balance of Power • External Balancing: External balancing

involves forming alliances or partnerships with
The concept of balance of power serves as a dual-
other states to counterbalance a perceived
purpose tool in international relations, managing
threat or power. It relies on collaboration to
and limiting power. Scholars like Hans Morgenthau
enhance collective security.
emphasize that when major global powers
o Example: The formation of NATO (North
maintain an equilibrium in their strengths, it acts as
Atlantic Treaty Organization) is a prime
a limitation on their individual power, promoting
example of external balancing, where
stability. For instance, the Cold War era saw the
member states aligned to deter the
United States and the Soviet Union engaging in a
perceived threat posed by the Soviet
balance of power, preventing a single superpower
Union during the Cold War.
from dominating global affairs. This strategic
approach remains crucial for averting hegemony Balance of Power in present scenario
and fostering a stable international system. • U.S.-China Rivalry: A prime example of the
• Internal Balancing: Internal balancing entails a balance of power at play is the U.S.-China
state independently strengthening its military, rivalry, where the U.S. and its allies seek to
economic, and other resources to enhance its counterbalance China’s rising influence in the
relative power without forming alliances. Asia-Pacific and globally. This situation reflects
o Example: Germany's post-World War II the significant military and economic capability
policy focused on internal balancing, gap between the U.S. and other major powers.
rebuilding its economy and military • NATO Expansion and Russia-Ukraine Conflict:
independently to regain strength. NATO's expansion in Eastern Europe,
particularly in response to Russian aggression

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 pg. 114

in Ukraine and the annexation of Crimea, Deterrence

exemplifies balance of power strategies.
Deterrence in international politics revolves
Concurrently, the ongoing Russia-Ukraine
around dissuading adversaries from taking certain
conflict, partly driven by NATO's eastward
actions by instilling fear of unfavorable
expansion, demonstrates how the U.S. and
consequences. The primary objective of
allies like Poland and Hungary are balancing
deterrence is to influence the decision-making of
against Russia's actions.
other states or actors to prevent them from
• Indo-Pacific Alliances: The formation of the
pursuing actions deemed undesirable by the
Quad, involving the U.S., India, Japan, and
deterrence practitioner.
Australia, aims to maintain strategic balance in
• Threat of Retaliation: Deterrence relies on the
the Indo-Pacific, countering China's growing
credible threat of retaliation or punishment in
presence.
response to unwanted actions. The idea is to
• European Union’s Role: The EU’s collective
convince potential aggressors that the costs
bargaining power in international trade and
and risks associated with their actions
negotiations showcases its strategy to balance
outweigh any potential benefits.
against other large economies and entities.
• Capability and Credibility: Effective
• US as Dominant Power Post-Cold War: After
deterrence requires the possessing state to
the collapse of the Soviet Union, the U.S.
have the capability to carry out the threatened
emerged as a unipolar power. This dominance
consequences. Additionally, the threat must
was evident in instances like the Iraq invasion
be credible, meaning that adversaries believe
in 2003, where opposition from major powers
the state is willing and able to follow through
like China, Russia, France, and Germany
on its warnings.
proved ineffective.
• Communication: Clear communication is
• Response of Small States: Without a
essential in deterrence. The deterring state
counterbalancing power like the USSR, smaller
must effectively convey its red lines, specifying
states fearing U.S. dominance have turned to
which actions will trigger a response.
measures like nuclear proliferation for
Ambiguity can undermine the effectiveness of
security, as seen in North Korea’s nuclear
deterrence.
development claims.
• Rational Decision-Making: Deterrence
• Changing Nature of Power: The evolving
assumes that states and actors are rational
landscape of international politics is marked by
decision-makers who weigh the potential costs
a diminishing exclusive role for military power,
and benefits of their actions. It aims to tip the
influenced by technological advancements and
scales in favor of not engaging in undesired
globalization. This shift has enabled even small
behavior.
states and non-state actors to gain significant
power. Forms of Deterrence:
• Future of Balance of Power: While traditional • Nuclear Deterrence: In the context of nuclear
balance of power may continue to operate in weapons, deterrence involves the threat of
state-to-state conflicts, its effectiveness is devastating nuclear retaliation to dissuade
increasingly questioned in asymmetric potential adversaries from initiating a nuclear
conflicts involving terrorists and non-state conflict.
actors. • Conventional Deterrence: This form of
deterrence relies on the threat of conventional
military force to discourage aggression. It

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 pg. 115

involves the maintenance of a strong military • MAD: A strategic doctrine where major powers
capability and the willingness to use it if avoid direct conflict, especially nuclear war,
necessary. due to the certainty of mutual destruction. It
• Economic Deterrence: Economic tools, such as relies on the principle that a nuclear attack by
sanctions or trade restrictions, can be one superpower would be met with an equally
employed to deter certain actions. The devastating counterattack.
economic impact is leveraged as a deterrent • Nuclear Deterrence: This military doctrine
force. posits that the possession of nuclear weapons
• Psychological Deterrence: This involves deters aggression by adversaries. The threat of
shaping perceptions and manipulating the devastating nuclear retaliation is believed to
psychological aspects of adversaries. It may prevent direct conflicts between nuclear-
include showcasing resolve, determination, armed states.
and a willingness to bear the costs of a conflict. Application and Examples:
Challenges and Criticisms: • Cold War Era: The U.S. policy of deterrence
• Credibility Challenges: Maintaining a credible during the Cold War was a textbook case of
deterrent threat can be challenging, especially MAD, avoiding direct conflict with the USSR
if the deterring state's capabilities are in doubt due to the threat of nuclear war.
or if there is uncertainty about its willingness • Contemporary Examples:
to follow through. o The U.S.-China rivalry and the NATO-
• Risk of Escalation: Deterrence can sometimes Russia tensions involve elements of MAD,
backfire, leading to a cycle of escalation if with nuclear capabilities playing a key role
threats are not carefully managed. The risk of in deterrence strategies.
unintended consequences is inherent in o Smaller states like North Korea developing
deterrence strategies. nuclear capabilities to counterbalance
• Non-State Actors: Deterrence traditionally U.S. power.
involves state actors, but the rise of non-state o The Indo-Pacific alliances and NATO's
actors complicates the application of response to Russian actions are also
deterrence, as these entities may not respond influenced by nuclear deterrence
to traditional state-centric deterrence dynamics.
strategies. Advantages of Nuclear Deterrence:
• Ethical Considerations: Deterrence raises • Prevents Major Conflicts: The fear of mutual
ethical questions, particularly in the context of destruction, as seen in the Cold War, prevents
potential harm to civilians or the use of force escalation to full-scale wars.
to achieve political goals. The balance between • Enhances Bargaining Power: Nuclear
security imperatives and ethical principles is capabilities can elevate a country's position in
often debated. international negotiations.
• Regional Stability: Some argue that nuclear
weapons can promote stability and prevent
Mutually Assured Destruction
conventional wars in tense regions.
The concept of Mutually Assured Destruction Disadvantages and Challenges:
(MAD) and Nuclear Deterrence plays a critical role • Limited to State Actors: Nuclear deterrence is
in international relations, particularly in the less effective against non-state actors like
context of major power dynamics and the balance terrorist groups.
of power.
MAD and Nuclear Deterrence

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 pg. 116

• No Small-Scale Conflict Prevention: Nuclear • Multipolarity: The 19th century European

weapons don't necessarily prevent smaller, politics is a classic historical example of
conventional conflicts. multipolarity. Contemporary scholars like
• Unequal Advantage: Nuclear capabilities Richard Haass have argued that the current
create imbalances in global power dynamics. global order is moving towards multipolarity,
• No Guarantee of Peace: Situations like the evidenced by the rise of China, the resurgence
Cuban Missile Crisis show that nuclear of Russia, the influence of the European Union,
deterrence does not eliminate the risk of and emerging powers like India and Brazil.
conflict escalation.
• Challenges in Deterrence against Non-Nuclear From bipolar to multi Polar World
States: Deterrence is complex when facing • Kenneth Waltz prominent proponent of the
adversaries without nuclear capabilities or stability of a bipolar world, argued in his theory
different strategic cultures. of neorealism that a bipolar system is more
stable due to its simplicity and predictability. In
Polarity of Power
his book "Theory of International Politics,"
The concept of polarity in international relations Waltz suggested that the clear power
refers to the distribution of power among states in distribution between two superpowers
the global system. Scholars like Kenneth Waltz reduces the chances of miscalculations that
have provided valuable perspectives on the impact could lead to war.
of polarity. • John Mearsheimer, another key figure in the
Kenneth Waltz, in his seminal work "Theory of realist school, has often emphasized the
International Politics," distinguishes between stability of bipolar systems. In his work,
unipolarity, bipolarity, and multipolarity as key including "The Tragedy of Great Power
structures in the international system. Unipolarity, Politics," he argues that the mutual deterrence
exemplified by the post-Cold War era with the in a bipolar world, especially with nuclear
United States as the sole superpower, is weapons, makes major conflicts less likely.
characterized by a single dominant state. • Richard Rosecrance offering a different
Bipolarity, as witnessed during the Cold War with perspective, Rosecrance in his book "The Rise
the U.S. and the Soviet Union, involves two major of the Trading State" argues for the benefits of
powers. Multipolarity involves several major a multipolar world. He suggests that economic
powers, each with significant influence, creating a interdependence among multiple powers can
more complex power structure. lead to a more peaceful and cooperative
• Unipolarity: The post-Cold War era, often seen international system.
as unipolar, is epitomized by the U.S.'s • Joseph Nye, known for his concept of "soft
dominance. Scholars like Charles power," has discussed the complexities of both
Krauthammer have characterized this period bipolar and multipolar systems. In his works,
as a "unipolar moment," highlighting the U.S.'s such as "The Future of Power," Nye suggests
unparalleled military and economic strength. that while a bipolar system may offer clarity
• Bipolarity: During the Cold War, the world was and simplicity, a multipolar world can offer
bipolar, split between the U.S. and the Soviet greater flexibility and opportunities for
Union. Political scientists like John cooperation through soft power.
Mearsheimer have extensively discussed how • Barry Buzan in his work on international
this bipolar structure led to a relatively stable security, Buzan has discussed the potential
but tense global order. instability of multipolar systems due to the
complex interplay of multiple powers.

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 pg. 117

However, he also acknowledges the potential Robert Gilpin expanded on HST in "War and
for more balanced global governance in a Change in World Politics," highlighting the
multipolar world. economic aspects. He emphasized that a
hegemon's economic power and willingness to
Benefits of multipolar world order provide public goods contribute to global stability.
• Power is more evenly distributed across However, he also acknowledged that the decline of
multiple countries, reducing any single nation's a hegemon could lead to systemic instability.
dominance.
• Increased Diplomatic Engagement Example:
• Flexibility in Alliances and Partnerships The post-World War II era is often cited as an
reflecting a more dynamic international illustration of Hegemonic Stability Theory, with the
landscape. United States acting as the hegemon. The U.S.
• Fosters cooperation on global challenges like played a key role in establishing institutions like the
climate change and security. Bretton Woods system, providing economic
• Prevents dominance by any single nation, assistance through the Marshall Plan, and
ensuring a more balanced global order. contributing to the stability of the international
• Emphasizes international law and collective system during the Cold War.
action, supporting a multilateral approach to
global issues. Who is a Hegemon?
• Regional powers can address local issues A hegemon is a state that possesses preponderant
effectively, contributing to regional stability. power in the international system. It is
• Ensures a diverse representation of global characterized by its unparalleled military strength,
cultures, politics, and economies in economic size and dynamism, technological
international norms and policies. superiority, and often a degree of cultural or
ideological influence. The hegemon is not just the
most powerful in terms of physical capabilities but
Hegemonic Stability Theory also leads in setting global norms and rules.
The Hegemonic Stability Theory (HST) is a theory in
international relations that proposes that the Conditions to be a Hegemon
international system is more likely to remain stable • Military Dominance: The hegemon must
when a single nation-state, known as the possess a military capability far superior to any
hegemon, dominates and leads the global order. other state, allowing it to enforce rules and
This theory suggests that the presence of a maintain peace.
hegemon creates a stable international system in • Economic Size and Stability: It should have a
which economic and political interactions are large, stable, and dynamic economy, providing
facilitated, reducing conflict and increasing it with the resources to maintain its hegemonic
cooperation among states. status and offering economic benefits to other
states.
Charles Kindleberger, in his work "The World in • Technological Advancement: Technological
Depression," argued that a hegemon plays a crucial superiority, especially in military and industrial
role in providing public goods, such as economic sectors, is crucial for maintaining hegemonic
stability and security, that benefit the entire power.
international system. Without a dominant power, • Diplomatic and Cultural Influence: The
there is a risk of collective action problems and a hegemon often wields significant soft power,
lack of coordination among states.

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 pg. 118

influencing other states through cultural, • Cyclical Nature of Power: History suggests that
ideological, and diplomatic means. hegemonic power is cyclical and no single
• Willingness to Lead: The hegemon must be power can maintain hegemony indefinitely.
willing to take on the responsibility of This leads to periods of instability as the global
leadership, including the costs associated with order readjusts.
maintaining the international order.
Transnational Actors
Importance of Hegemons Transnational actors are entities that operate
• Global Order and Stability: Hegemons provide across national borders, influencing global politics,
a degree of order and predictability to the economics, and society. Unlike traditional actors in
international system, establishing and international relations, such as nation-states and
enforcing rules that facilitate peaceful intergovernmental organizations, transnational
coexistence and cooperation. actors include a wide range of non-state actors like
• Economic Openness: They often champion multinational corporations (MNCs), non-
and sustain open economic systems, like free governmental organizations (NGOs), international
trade, which can lead to increased global non-governmental organizations (INGOs), and
economic prosperity. transnational advocacy networks.
• Conflict Resolution: Hegemonic powers can Role of Transnational Organizations:
play a crucial role in resolving conflicts, either
Transnational organizations play various roles in
through diplomatic means or by serving as a
the international system:
'global policeman.'
• Advocacy and Humanitarian Work: Many
• Promotion of Global Norms: Hegemons can
NGOs and INGOs advocate for human rights,
shape and promote certain global norms and
environmental protection, and social justice.
values, influencing the direction of
They also provide humanitarian assistance
international politics.
during crises.
• Policy Influence and Lobbying: Transnational
Problems with Hegemonic Stability Theory
advocacy networks influence global and
• Imperial Overstretch: The costs of maintaining
national policies on issues like climate change,
hegemonic status can become unsustainable,
trade, and human rights.
leading to what is known as imperial
• Cultural Exchange and Education: Cultural and
overstretch.
educational organizations promote cross-
• Resistance and Rivalry: The dominance of a
border understanding and cooperation.
hegemon can lead to the emergence of rival
• Economic Development: Some transnational
powers or coalitions that seek to challenge its
organizations work towards economic
authority.
development and poverty alleviation.
• Dependency and Inequality: Smaller states
Views of Various Schools on Transnational Actors:
may become overly dependent on the
• Realism: Realists typically focus on state actors
hegemon, leading to inequalities and
and their interests, viewing transnational
imbalances in the international system.
actors as having limited influence on the
• Unilateralism and Neglect of Global Interests:
international system. Realists may see
A hegemon may prioritize its own interests
transnational actors as tools or proxies of state
over global interests, leading to policies that
interests.
are detrimental to other states or the global
• Liberalism: Liberals emphasize the importance
community.
of transnational actors in global governance.

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 pg. 119

They argue that these actors contribute to sometimes be in opposition to the interests or
international cooperation, help to spread ideologies of the state, leading to tensions.
democratic values, and provide checks and • Security Challenges: Transnational criminal
balances on state power. organizations and terrorist networks present
• Constructivism: Constructivists focus on how new security challenges that are often beyond
transnational actors shape norms and ideas in the capacity of any single state to address.
international relations. They examine how These groups exploit globalization and
these actors influence identities, values, and technological advancements to operate across
perceptions in the global arena. borders, necessitating international
• Marxism and Critical Theories: These cooperation and intelligence sharing, which
perspectives often view transnational actors, can sometimes compromise state autonomy.
particularly MNCs, as agents of global • Technological Advancements and
capitalism, contributing to inequality and Information Flow: The digital age has
exploitation in the international system. facilitated the rapid flow of information across
Impact of Transnational actors on states borders, enabling transnational actors to
• Erosion of Sovereignty: Transnational actors communicate, coordinate, and influence at
often operate beyond the confines of national unprecedented scales. States are increasingly
borders, challenging the traditional notion of finding it difficult to control information within
state sovereignty. For example, multinational their borders, challenging their ability to
corporations can influence economic policies govern effectively.
and labor standards, while international • Diplomatic Relations and International
institutions like the United Nations or the Cooperation: States are increasingly required
World Trade Organization can set norms that to engage in diplomatic relations and
states are pressured to follow. international cooperation to address global
• Globalization and Economic issues like climate change, pandemics, and
Interdependence: The rise of globalization has economic crises. This often involves
led to increased economic interdependence negotiating with transnational actors and
among states, with transnational corporations aligning national policies with international
playing a central role. These entities not only agreements, which can be seen as a dilution of
drive trade and investment but also hold national sovereignty.
significant sway over global supply chains,
impacting domestic economies. This
Multinational Corporations (MNCs)
interconnectedness means that economic
policies or crises in one country can have far- MNCs are major transnational actors with
reaching effects, further diminishing the significant economic and political influence. They
autonomy of states to act solely within their operate in multiple countries and have a
national interests. substantial impact on local economies, politics, and
• Transnational Political Movements and NGOs: society.
Transnational NGOs and political movements, • Economic Influence: MNCs contribute to
such as those advocating for human rights, global trade, investment, and economic
environmental protection, or democratic development. They can influence economic
freedoms, exert significant influence. They policies in host countries and play a significant
often operate across borders, mobilizing public role in international economic relations.
opinion and pressuring governments to adopt o Companies like Apple, Google, and Toyota
certain policies or norms. This influence can contribute significantly to global trade and

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 pg. 120

investment, impacting economic leading to coordinated international

development. responses.
• Political Influence: MNCs can wield substantial
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
political influence through lobbying, shaping
policy debates, and sometimes even NGOs are voluntary organizations that operate
influencing the governance of host countries. independently from governments. They are
o Keohane and Nye's concept of involved in a wide range of activities, including
"transgovernmental relations" humanitarian aid, environmental protection,
underscores the political impact of non- human rights advocacy, and development work.
state actors, including MNCs, in shaping • Influence in International Politics: NGOs
global governance. influence international politics through
• Social and Cultural Impact: MNCs can impact advocacy, policy-making contributions, and
social and cultural norms and practices in the implementation of development and relief
countries where they operate. They can bring programs. They often act as watchdogs,
about changes in consumer behavior, work holding governments and international
practices, and cultural values. organizations accountable.
o Global spread of fast-food chains like Role of NGOs in Development:
McDonald's reflects cultural influence • Development Projects: NGOs play a crucial
• Challenges and Criticisms: MNCs face role in implementing development projects,
criticisms for their role in perpetuating especially in areas where government
economic inequalities, environmental presence is limited. They work in various
degradation, and cultural homogenization. sectors like education, health, poverty
There are also concerns about their alleviation, and sustainable development.
accountability and the balance of power o Oxfam implementing water and sanitation
between MNCs and sovereign states. projects in rural areas or Save the
o Vandana Shiva, critique the accountability Children's efforts in education and child
and power dynamics associated with health.
MNCs. • Advocacy and Policy Influence: NGOs
Terrorist Organizations as Transnational Actors advocate for policy changes at both national
• Nature: Terrorist organizations operate and international levels to address
beyond national boundaries, conducting development challenges. They are
activities in multiple countries. They are non- instrumental in shaping agendas like the
state actors that use violence and intimidation Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
to achieve political, religious, or ideological o NGOs like Amnesty International advocate
objectives. for human rights
• Impact on International Politics: They • Grassroots Impact: NGOs often work at the
challenge state sovereignty and global grassroots level, enabling them to effectively
security. Their actions can lead to international address local needs and empower
military interventions, global counter- communities.
terrorism policies, and affect international o Habitat for Humanity engages at the
relations, particularly in regions marked by grassroots level, building homes with local
terrorism. communities
o Examples: Groups like Al-Qaeda, ISIS, and • Partnerships: They collaborate with
Boko Haram have had a global impact, governments, international organizations, and
the private sector to mobilize resources,

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 pg. 121

expertise, and implement development • Clear and Strong Commitment from

programs. Members: Success requires a firm
o CARE International collaborates with commitment from member states to uphold
governments and private partners for the principles of collective security and to take
projects on women's empowerment action when these principles are violated.
• Capacity Building: NGOs contribute to capacity • Effective Decision-Making Mechanism: A clear
building in developing countries by training and efficient process for decision-making
local staff, providing technical expertise, and enables timely and decisive responses to
enhancing institutional capabilities. security threats.
o Doctors Without Borders provides medical • Capability to Enforce Decisions: The collective
training in underserved regions security system needs to have the necessary
military and economic means to enforce its
decisions.
Collective Security
• Perception of Mutual Interests: Member
Collective security is a system in which states come states must perceive that their national
together to ensure the security of all by making a interests align with the principles of collective
collective commitment against aggression. It's security and the maintenance of international
based on the principle that an attack against one peace and stability.
is an attack against all.
• Universalism: It typically involves a broad,
Difference Between Collective Security and
Collective Defence:
universal membership (e.g., the United
Nations) where all states agree to resolve their • Objective: Collective security is a broader
disputes through peaceful means and unite concept aimed at maintaining international
against any state that resorts to war. peace and security among a wide group of
• Non-Discrimination: In principle, collective states, while collective defence is more about
security does not target any specific state as a specific states agreeing to defend each other
potential enemy. Instead, it’s designed to against external threats (e.g., NATO).
deter any member that might contemplate • Membership and Target: Collective security
aggression. systems usually involve a universal or near-
• Legitimacy: Actions under collective security universal membership and do not assume any
are often seen as having higher legitimacy specific state as an adversary. In contrast,
since they are backed by a wide international collective defence alliances are often formed in
consensus. response to perceived threats from specific
• Collective Response: The system relies on the states or groups.
collective response of member states to • Legitimacy and Global Order: Collective
security threats, which could range from security is often linked with the maintenance
sanctions to military intervention. of international order and has a global scope,
Ideal Conditions for the Success of Collective whereas collective defence is focused on the
Security: security of member states and can be regional.
• Universal or Near-Universal Membership: • UN Involvement: Collective security actions
Broad participation ensures that no single are typically associated with the United
state can dominate the system and increases Nations and international law, whereas
the legitimacy and resources available for collective defence can be formed outside the
collective actions. UN framework.

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 pg. 122

Aspect Collective Security Balance of Power

Principle Based on the idea that peace and security are the Based on the idea that peace is
collective responsibility of all nations. An attack maintained by preventing any single
on one is considered an attack on all, with state or coalition from becoming
expected collective response from member dominant, through shifting alliances and
states. power.
Mechanism Operates typically through international States individually or in groups balance
organizations like the United Nations. Requires against a potentially hegemonic power
broad cooperation and commitment from through alliances, military buildups, or
member states to act against aggressors, other strategic means.
regardless of the aggressor's or victim's identity.
Goal To deter potential aggressors by the To prevent any single state from
overwhelming collective response that aggression becoming so strong that it can dominate
would provoke. others, maintaining stability through
counterbalancing.

Aspect Collective Security Balance of Power

Similarities
Shared Objective Maintain international peace and stability; Maintain international peace and
prevent dominance of any single state stability; prevent dominance of any single
state
Use of Alliances May involve forming alliances May involve forming alliances
Response to Reactive to perceived threats Reactive to perceived threats
Threats
Dissimilarities
Nature of Broad, based on a general agreement to Flexible, often temporary, changing with
Alliances oppose aggression power shifts
Reaction to Treats all aggression as a threat to the Focuses on maintaining equilibrium, not
Aggression international community responding to all aggression
Universality Involves a universal commitment from the About specific states or alliances
international community balancing against others
Approach Moral approach based on legal and ethical Pragmatic approach dealing with state
commitments to peace behavior realities

The United Nations Collective Security System • Failure of Collective Security under the League
The United Nations Collective Security System is a of Nations: The League failed due to several
key component of international relations, designed reasons:
to maintain peace and prevent conflicts. • Lack of participation from major powers
• Pre-UN Model of Collective Security: Before (the U.S. never joined, and the Soviet
the UN, the League of Nations was the primary Union was a late joiner).
international body aimed at maintaining global • Weak enforcement mechanisms.
peace through collective security. However, it • Inability to prevent aggression by major
lacked the military power and global consensus powers like Japan, Italy, and Germany in
to enforce its decisions effectively. the 1930s.

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 pg. 123

• Rise of the United Nations: Post World Justification of Collective Security System:
War II, the UN was established to • Promotes global stability by providing a
overcome the shortcomings of the League platform for peaceful resolution of conflicts.
of Nations. The UN Charter was designed • Helps to distribute the burden of maintaining
with a more robust structure for peace among all member states.
maintaining international peace and • Acts as a deterrent against potential
security, including the Security Council aggressors.
with permanent members having veto Despite its challenges, the UN's collective security
power. system remains a central framework for
Criticism Against Collective Security: international cooperation in maintaining global
• Ineffectiveness in Preventing Conflicts: The peace and security.
League of Nations' failure to counter Axis [Note: UN peacekeeping and India’s contribution
powers' aggression pre-World War II to it is discussed in PSIR Paper 2 Section B]
exemplifies the ineffectiveness of collective
security in preventing conflicts, as it couldn't
World capitalist economy
decisively act against Japan in Manchuria The world capitalist economy is a fundamental
(1931) and Italy in Ethiopia (1935). concept in international relations, denoting a
• Lack of Universality: E.H. Carr critiqued the global economic system primarily guided by the
League of Nations for being an alliance of principles of capitalism. This system is
victors rather than a universal security body, characterized by private ownership of production
highlighting the gap between the ideal of means, market-based allocation of resources, and
universal cooperation and the reality of partial the pursuit of profit. In international relations, it
participation. shapes the economic and political interactions
• Problems of Collective Decision-Making: The among states, influences global power dynamics,
United Nations Security Council often struggles and impacts international policies and treaties.
with decision paralysis due to veto powers, as • Global Trade and Investment: It promotes
seen in the Syrian Civil War, where vetoes by extensive international trade and investment,
Russia and China blocked international with countries entering agreements like NAFTA
intervention. or the EU and multinational corporations
• Biased Enforcement: John Mearsheimer operating globally, shaping economic relations
points out that collective security can be and policies.
manipulated by powerful states for their • Influence on Global Governance: Capitalist
interests. An example is NATO's intervention in economic power often translates into political
Kosovo (1999), criticized for bypassing the UN clout, with wealthier nations wielding more
Security Council, raising questions about the influence in international bodies like the IMF,
legitimacy and impartiality of collective World Bank, and the UN, thereby affecting
security. global governance.
• Risk of Escalation: Collective security can • Economic Interdependence: This system
inadvertently escalate local conflicts into larger fosters interdependencies, exemplified by
wars, demonstrated by the Korean War (1950- China's role as a manufacturing hub and the
1953), where UN and major power U.S. as a major consumer market, influencing
involvement transformed a regional conflict diplomatic and economic policies of nations.
into an international war. • Impact on Development and Inequality:
Capitalism drives economic growth but also
contributes to global inequalities, with

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 pg. 124

disparities in development and market than the rate of economic growth, leading to
competition between developed and increasing inequality.
developing countries. • Milton Friedman - A proponent of
• Influence on Conflicts and Cooperation: neoliberalism, Friedman advocated for free
Economic interests rooted in capitalism are key markets, deregulation, and reduced
in international conflicts and cooperation, government intervention. He believed that
driving competition for resources like oil and economic freedom was a prerequisite for
collaborative efforts in areas like climate political freedom and that free markets lead to
change. more efficient and prosperous societies.
Merits: Impact of World Capitalist Economy on
• Economic Growth: Capitalism has been a developing societies
driver of economic growth and development. • Globalization and Market Integration:
Countries that have embraced market- Capitalist expansion has driven globalization,
oriented policies have generally seen pushing socialist economies towards market-
significant growth, like the post-World War II oriented reforms and a blend of socialism and
economic boom in Western Europe. capitalism.
• Innovation and Efficiency: The profit motive • Competition and Efficiency: The capitalist
under capitalism encourages innovation and focus on efficiency and competition has led
efficiency. For instance, the tech industry in socialist economies to reform for increased
Silicon Valley is a testament to how efficiency and productivity, sometimes
competitive capitalism fosters technological compromising socialist ideals.
advancement. • Income Inequality and Social Challenges:
• Consumer Choice: Capitalism promotes Capitalism's wealth generation is tempered by
consumer choice by encouraging a diversity of rising income inequality, a concern for socialist
products and services, evident in sectors like and developing nations facing similar issues of
consumer electronics. inequality and social challenges.
Demerits: • Shift in Political Ideologies: Global capitalism
• Inequality: Capitalism often leads to unequal has influenced a shift towards mixed
wealth distribution. For example, the growing economies in socialist and developing
wealth gap within and between countries countries, merging socialism with capitalism.
highlights this issue. • Financial Systems and Investment: The
• Market Failures: Capitalism doesn't always importance of global capital markets and
address public goods and externalities foreign investment has led developing
effectively, leading to problems like economies to adjust policies to attract
environmental degradation. investment, often relying on foreign capital.
• Economic Crises: The 2008 financial crisis Key concepts in International Relations, are crucial
exemplifies how unregulated or poorly in understanding the complex and interconnected
managed capitalist systems can lead to world of global politics. These concepts form the
significant economic downturns. foundation of state behavior, ensure global
Scholars view stability, address challenges beyond borders, and
• Thomas Piketty - In his book "Capital in the highlight the dynamic interplay of economic and
Twenty-First Century," Piketty focuses on political forces in an increasingly integrated world.
wealth and income inequality in capitalist
societies. He argues that the rate of capital
return in developed countries is often higher

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Chapter - 7 pg. 125

Changing International Political Order

Analysis of important dimensions from PYQ
1. Critically examine the rise of People’s Republic of China (PRC) as a great power and its implications
on Asian Political order. [2022]
2. Critically examine the decline of the United States of America as a hegemon and its implications for
the changing international political order. [2021]
3. Critically analyze the implications of Sino-American strategic rivalry for the South and South-East
Asian region. [2020]
4. Discuss the consequences of Trump’s ‘America first’ and Xi Jinping’s ‘Chinese dream’ on world
politics. [2018]
5. Examine in brief the rise and fall of the Cold War. [2016]
6. Discuss the positive and negative impacts of Soviet Union’s disintegration on developing nations.
[2016]
7. Discuss the collapse of the Soviet Union and its impact on international politics. [2015]
8. Who was Mr. ‘X’ in international politics? Elaborate his approach to foreign policy. [2014]
9. Identify the challenges to American hegemony in the post Soviet world. [2013]
10. Discuss the ways to strengthen the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) to enable it to address the
challenges faced by the developing countries. [2020]
11. Write a brief note on the 17th NAM Summit in Venezuela. [2019]
12. Discuss the significance of Non Aligned Movement as a unique contribution of the non-western
world to world politics. [2018]
13. Do you endorse the view that the end of bipolarity and the rise of multiple regional organisations
has made non aligned movement (NAM) more or less irrelevant? [2017]
14. Highlight the major features of the ‘Non Alignment 2.0’ document. [2013]

The international political order is constantly decline. He emphasizes the resilience of the
evolving, shaped by shifts in power, economic international institutions and norms
changes, technological advancements, and established post-World War II.
emerging global challenges. In recent years, this • Joseph Nye focuses on the concept of "soft
order has been particularly impacted by the rise of power" and "smart power" in international
new powers, the changing nature of global politics, noting how these forms of influence
challenges like climate change and pandemics, and are increasingly important in a world where
shifts in economic and military strengths. These military and economic might alone are
changes have prompted discussions among insufficient to maintain global leadership.
scholars and policymakers about the future of • John Mearsheimer takes a more realist view,
international relations, global governance, and the suggesting that the rise of China and the
balance of power. Understanding these dynamics resurgence of Russia are leading to a more
is crucial for navigating the complex landscape of multipolar world, challenging the dominance
modern international politics. of the U.S. and leading to potential conflicts.
• John Ikenberry argues that the liberal
international order, led by the United States, is
undergoing transformation but not necessarily

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 pg. 126

Cold War • Political and Military Alliances: Formation of

NATO and the Warsaw Pact, dividing much of
The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension
the world into two opposing camps.
between the United States and the Soviet Union,
• Espionage and Intelligence Warfare: Intense
along with their respective allies, from the end of
spying activities, including the use of espionage
World War II until the early 1990s. It is termed
and covert operations by agencies like the CIA
"cold" because it largely lacked direct large-scale
and KGB.
fighting between the two superpowers, unlike a
• Economic Competition and Aid: Efforts to
"hot" war with active, open conflicts.
extend influence through economic means,
Differences between a Hot War and Cold War:
including the Marshall Plan and the Soviet
• A hot war involves active warfare, whereas the
Union's support for communist regimes.
Cold War was marked by political tension,
• Diplomatic Tensions and Summits: High-
ideological conflicts, and proxy wars.
stakes diplomacy, including a series of summits
• Cold War conflicts were often indirect and
and treaties aimed at managing the risk of
included economic competition, political
nuclear war.
maneuvers, and the Space Race.
• Cultural Propaganda: Widespread use of
The Cold War began after World War II, rooted in
propaganda to promote each side's ideology
ideological differences between the capitalist
and demonize the other.
United States and the communist Soviet Union.
The Yalta Conference in 1945 is often cited as the • Psychological Warfare: Efforts to undermine
starting point, where the post-war restructuring the enemy’s morale, often through
led to divergent visions for Europe and the world. psychological tactics and media.
The division of Germany and Berlin, the Marshall
Plan, and the establishment of NATO and the Causes for emergence of cold war
Warsaw Pact further deepened the divide, setting The emergence of the Cold War, a period of
the stage for several decades of Cold War tensions. geopolitical tension between the United States and
Features of Cold War the Soviet Union along with their respective allies
The Cold War period, spanning from the end of after World War II, was driven by a complex
World War II until the early 1990s, had several interplay of ideological, political, and strategic
distinctive features: factors. This period, lasting roughly from 1947 to
1991, shaped much of global politics in the second
• Ideological Conflict: A fundamental ideological
half of the 20th century.
divide between capitalism (led by the United
States) and communism (led by the Soviet • Ideological Differences: Capitalism vs.
Union). Communism: At the core of the Cold War were
starkly different ideologies. The U.S.
• Arms Race: An intense competition in nuclear
championed capitalism and liberal democracy,
and conventional armaments, including the
while the Soviet Union promoted communism
development of intercontinental ballistic
and a centrally planned economy. This
missiles (ICBMs).
ideological divide was seen as irreconcilable by
• Proxy Wars: Indirect conflicts in third countries
both sides.
where the superpowers supported opposing
• George Kennan, an American diplomat,
sides, such as in Korea, Vietnam, and
articulated the ideological conflict in his "Long
Afghanistan.
Telegram" and later in the "X Article," laying
• Space Race: A competition for supremacy in
the foundation for the U.S. policy of
space exploration, exemplified by the moon
containment against Soviet expansion. (To be
landing by the United States.

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 pg. 127

discussed about Mr. X in International Politics • Soviet Expansion and Response:

in further pages) o Soviet Control Over Eastern Europe:
• Mutual Distrust and Security Concerns: Stalin's establishment of Communist
o Historical Mistrust: The U.S. and the regimes in Eastern Europe and support for
Soviet Union were wary of each other's communist parties in Greece and Turkey
intentions. The Soviets remembered the were perceived as direct threats by the
Western intervention in the Russian Civil U.S.
War, and the U.S. was concerned about o Iron Curtain Speech: Winston Churchill’s
Stalin's totalitarian rule. 1946 speech highlighted the division of
o Nuclear Arms Race: The development of Europe into democratic West and
nuclear weapons, starting with the U.S. communist East, symbolizing the growing
atomic bombings of Hiroshima and divide.
Nagasaki and followed by the Soviet • Formation of Military Alliances:
Union's first atomic bomb test in 1949, o NATO and Warsaw Pact: The formation of
escalated security concerns. NATO by Western powers in 1949 and the
• Post-World War II Power Vacuum: Warsaw Pact by the Soviet Union and its
o Europe's Devastation: The devastation of allies in 1955 formalized the military
Europe after World War II created a alignments of the Cold War.
power vacuum. Both the U.S. and the • Spread to Asia:
Soviet Union sought to fill this vacuum, o China’s Communist Revolution: The
leading to conflicting interests, especially victory of Mao Zedong’s Communist
in Eastern Europe. forces in 1949 in China and the Korean
▪ Example: The division of War (1950-1953) extended the Cold War
Germany and the establishment into Asia.
of pro-Soviet governments in The Cold War emerged from a combination of
Eastern Europe were key early ideological differences, mutual security concerns,
indicators of the Cold War. the power vacuum after World War II, strategic
• The Yalta and Potsdam Conferences: decisions by the U.S. and the Soviet Union, and the
o Disagreements in Post-War Settlement: global spread of their rivalry. This period was
At the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the characterized by proxy wars, nuclear arms race,
Allies discussed post-war arrangements. espionage, propaganda campaigns, and the
Disagreements and ambiguities, formation of military and economic alliances. The
particularly regarding the future of Cold War reshaped international relations and
Germany and Eastern Europe, sowed the continues to influence global politics and strategic
seeds for Cold War tensions. thinking.
• American Policy of Containment:
o Truman Doctrine: President Harry Efforts to prevent escalations
Truman's 1947 doctrine signified a policy Throughout the Cold War, several attempts were
of containing Soviet influence, marking a made by both the United States and the Soviet
formal declaration of Cold War intentions. Union, as well as other international actors, to limit
o Marshall Plan: The U.S. economic aid to tensions and prevent the rivalry from escalating
Western Europe, aimed at rebuilding war- into a direct military confrontation. These efforts
torn regions, was also a strategic move to ranged from diplomatic negotiations to arms
counter Soviet influence in those control treaties and policies of détente.
countries.

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 pg. 128

• Détente: Détente was a period of relaxed marked a significant shift in Soviet

tensions and improved relations between the domestic and foreign policy, leading to
U.S. and the Soviet Union, particularly during the end of the Cold War.
the 1970s. • United Nations’ Role:
o Key Moments: The Strategic Arms o Peacekeeping Operations: The UN
Limitation Talks (SALT I and II) which undertook various peacekeeping missions
aimed at limiting the growth of nuclear to manage and resolve conflicts that had
arsenals, and the Helsinki Accords in 1975, the potential to escalate into broader
which were an effort to improve confrontations.
cooperation and reduce tensions in • Regional Conflicts and Negotiations:
Europe. o Middle East Peace Process: The U.S. and
• Arms Control Agreements: Soviet Union occasionally cooperated to
o Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963): Prohibited stabilize conflicts in the Middle East, such
nuclear tests in the atmosphere, outer as the Camp David Accords in 1978, which
space, and under water, marking the first led to the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty.
step towards nuclear disarmament. • Public Diplomacy and Cultural Exchanges:
o Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968): o Exchanges in Science, Culture, and
Aimed to prevent the spread of nuclear Sports: These helped in easing public
weapons and promote cooperation in the sentiments and promoting understanding
peaceful uses of nuclear energy. between the peoples of the U.S. and the
o Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972): Soviet Union.
Limited the development of missile • Economic Interactions:
defense systems, which were seen as o Trade Agreements: Limited trade
undermining the concept of MAD agreements and economic engagements,
(Mutually Assured Destruction). though restricted by the Iron Curtain,
• Diplomatic Engagements and Summits: helped in establishing some level of
o Kennedy-Khrushchev Summit (1961): mutual dependency and dialogue.
While initially increasing tensions due to These efforts to limit Cold War tensions were
the Berlin Crisis, it eventually led to the crucial in avoiding a direct military confrontation
establishment of a direct communication between the superpowers and eventually played a
link (the “Hotline”) between Washington role in the peaceful resolution of the Cold War.
and Moscow. They demonstrate the importance of diplomacy,
o Nixon’s Visit to China (1972): Opened arms control, and international cooperation in
diplomatic relations between the U.S. and managing global conflicts.
Communist China, altering the strategic
balance and easing global tensions. Shift in policies during cold war
• Policy Changes and Doctrinal Shifts: The period from 1980 to 1987 in the Cold War saw
o Flexible Response Doctrine: Introduced significant shifts in the policies of both the United
by President Kennedy, it aimed at States (USA) and the Soviet Union (USSR),
providing the U.S. with a range of options, characterized by escalating tensions and a
both nuclear and conventional, to resurgence of the hostilities that had somewhat
respond to Soviet actions. eased in the preceding years. This phase is often
o Perestroika and Glasnost: Initiated by referred to as part of the "Second Cold War."
Mikhail Gorbachev in the 1980s, these Changing Policies of the USA:
policies of restructuring and openness

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 pg. 129

• Military Buildup: Under President Ronald • Domestic Economic Struggles: The early 1980s
Reagan, the USA embarked on a massive were marked by increasing economic
military buildup, including the development of difficulties within the USSR, leading to
new weapons systems such as the MX missile stagnation and growing internal dissatisfaction
and the B-1 bomber. with the communist regime.
• Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI): One of the • Initial Resistance to Reform: During the early
most significant policies was the 1980s, the Soviet leadership, particularly under
announcement of the SDI or "Star Wars" Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov, and
program in 1983, intended to develop a missile Konstantin Chernenko, largely resisted
defense system that could protect the USA significant economic or political reforms.
from nuclear attacks.
• Economic Pressures on the USSR: The USA The period from 1980 to 1987 was thus marked by
sought to weaken the Soviet economy by heightened tensions and an intensified arms race
various means, including technological between the USA and the USSR. The policies of
embargoes and efforts to reduce global oil both nations during these years significantly
prices, thereby impacting the USSR's major shaped the dynamics of the Cold War, eventually
revenue source. leading to the reforms initiated by Mikhail
• Support for Anti-Communist Movements: The Gorbachev in the Soviet Union and a shift towards
Reagan administration actively supported anti- the eventual end of the Cold War by the late 1980s
communist movements and governments and early 1990s.
around the world, particularly in Latin America,
Africa, and Afghanistan, where the Soviet End of the Cold War
Union was militarily engaged. The end of the Cold War and the subsequent
• Rhetorical Hostility: Reagan’s rhetoric was collapse of the Soviet Union were the results of a
markedly hostile toward the Soviet Union, complex interplay of political, economic, and social
famously describing it as the “Evil Empire” and factors that unfolded over several years.
challenging the legitimacy of the communist Reasons for the End of the Cold War:
system. • Economic Stagnation in the USSR: The Soviet
Changing Policies of the USSR: economy was struggling due to the heavy
• Arms Race Participation: The USSR continued burden of military spending and an inefficient
to participate in the arms race, developing its centralized economy.
own new weapon systems and increasing • Political Reforms by Gorbachev: Mikhail
military spending, despite the strain on its Gorbachev's policies of Perestroika
economy. (restructuring) and Glasnost (openness) aimed
• Intervention in Afghanistan: The Soviet to revitalize the Soviet system but also
invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, which unleashed forces for change that proved
continued through the 1980s, aimed to uncontrollable.
support the communist government there. • Rise of Nationalism in Soviet Republics: There
This became a major point of contention with was a growing desire for independence and
the USA and a drain on Soviet resources. autonomy within the various Soviet republics.
• Support for Communist Regimes: The USSR • External Pressures: Ongoing pressures from
continued to support communist regimes and the West, including economic sanctions and
insurgencies worldwide, in alignment with its military buildups, challenged the Soviet
ideological commitment to global Union’s geopolitical stance.
communism.

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 pg. 130

• Technological and Information Spread: The end of the Cold War and the fall of the Soviet
Increased access to information and exposure Union represented a fundamental shift in global
to Western ideals contributed to a shift in geopolitics, heralding the end of the bipolar world
public opinion and aspirations. order that had dominated since the end of World
War II. It led to the emergence of the United States
Events that took place in End of cold war as the sole superpower and had profound
• The Fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989: The Berlin implications for international relations, global
Wall, a symbol of the Cold War divide, was security, and the ideological landscape of the
unexpectedly opened on November 9, 1989. world.
This event symbolized the collapse of
communist control in Eastern Europe and Consequences of end of cold war
sparked a series of democratic revolutions The end of the Cold War in the late 1980s and early
across the region. 1990s, marked by the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989
• The Reunification of Germany in 1990: Less and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991,
than a year after the fall of the Berlin Wall, East had far-reaching consequences that reshaped
and West Germany were officially reunited on international relations and global politics in several
October 3, 1990. The reunification of Germany fundamental ways:
was a significant indicator that the Cold War • Emergence of a Unipolar World: The collapse
divisions in Europe were coming to an end. of the Soviet Union left the United States as the
• The Dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991: world's sole superpower, marking a shift from
The Soviet Union was formally dissolved on a bipolar to a unipolar world order. This led to
December 26, 1991. This followed a failed coup a period where U.S. dominance in global affairs
against Gorbachev in August 1991, was largely uncontested.
declarations of independence by various Soviet • Rise of Liberal Democracy and Capitalism: The
republics, and Boris Yeltsin’s rise to power in end of the Cold War was seen as a triumph for
Russia. liberal democracy and free-market capitalism.
• The Final Moments: August Coup and Its Francis Fukuyama famously described it as the
Failure: The August Coup of 1991, attempted "end of history," suggesting that liberal
by hardline communists against Gorbachev, democracy might be the final form of human
failed due to lack of support and popular government.
resistance led by Boris Yeltsin. • Regional Conflicts and Ethnic Nationalism:
• Gorbachev’s Loss of Power: Gorbachev’s The power vacuum left by the disintegration of
political power and influence rapidly the Soviet Union led to the emergence of
diminished following the coup, as republics regional conflicts, particularly in Eastern
declared independence and the central Soviet Europe and Central Asia. The breakup of
authority crumbled. Yugoslavia, for instance, resulted in violent
• Final Blow: The final blow to the Soviet Union ethnic conflicts.
was the Belovezha Accords in December 1991, • Nuclear Proliferation Concerns: The collapse
where leaders of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus of the Soviet Union raised concerns about the
agreed to dissolve the Soviet Union and security of its nuclear arsenal. This led to
establish the Commonwealth of Independent international efforts to secure nuclear
States (CIS). Gorbachev resigned on December materials and prevent proliferation, such as
25, 1991, marking the official end of the Soviet the Cooperative Threat Reduction Program.
Union and symbolically concluding the Cold • Expansion of NATO and EU: The end of the
War era. Cold War allowed for the eastward expansion

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 pg. 131

of NATO and the European Union, Rise of Superpowers

incorporating many former Warsaw Pact and
The rise of superpowers, specifically the United
Soviet states, which sought security and
States and the Soviet Union, in the aftermath of
economic integration with the West.
World War II, marked a significant shift in the
• Economic Globalization: The 1990s saw a
global power structure. This transformation was
significant increase in economic globalization,
influenced by a combination of geopolitical,
driven by the liberalization of trade and
economic, military, and ideological factors.
finance, advances in technology, and the
Factors Leading to the Formation of Super
integration of emerging market economies
Powers:
into the global system.
• World War II Aftermath: The devastation of
• Changes in Military Strategies and Alliances:
European powers in World War II created a
Military strategies and alliances had to be
power vacuum. Both the United States and the
reevaluated in the absence of a clear bipolar
Soviet Union emerged relatively unscathed
structure. This led to a redefinition of NATO's
economically and militarily, positioning them
role and the U.S.'s global military presence.
as global leaders.
• Rise of Non-State Actors and New Security
o The U.S. leveraged its economic strength
Threats: The post-Cold War era saw the rise of
and military power, while the USSR spread
non-state actors, such as terrorist groups,
its influence through Eastern Europe,
which became significant security threats, as
establishing a sphere of communist states.
exemplified by the September 11 attacks in
• Economic Capacity: The U.S. had a robust and
2001.
advanced economy, bolstered by wartime
• Re-emergence of Russia and Rise of China:
production, technological innovation, and a
Russia, under Vladimir Putin, sought to
significant increase in manufacturing
reassert its influence on the global stage.
capability.
Simultaneously, China's economic rise began
o The USSR, though economically weaker
to challenge U.S. dominance, shifting towards
than the U.S., had a vast territorial expanse
a more multipolar global order.
and immense natural resources, along
• Humanitarian Interventions and
with a large population and military force.
Responsibility to Protect (R2P): The 1990s saw
• Military Strength: Both nations possessed
a series of humanitarian interventions,
massive military capabilities. The U.S. had a
justified on moral grounds, such as in Kosovo
strong naval and air force, while the USSR had
and Somalia. This period also saw the
the largest land army.
development of the R2P doctrine, emphasizing
o The development and possession of
the international community's responsibility to
nuclear weapons by both superpowers
prevent mass atrocities.
during the Cold War era was a critical
factor in their dominance.
The end of the Cold War significantly altered the
• Political and Ideological Influence: The U.S.
landscape of international relations, leading to a
promoted democracy and capitalism,
unipolar world dominated by the United States,
influencing Western Europe and other parts of
the spread of liberal democracy and capitalism, the
the world.
emergence of new security challenges, and the
o The USSR advocated for communism and
evolution of global economic and political
socialism, exerting its influence in Eastern
structures. These changes continue to have lasting
Europe and supporting communist
impacts on global politics and international
movements globally.
relations.

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 pg. 132

• Global Strategy and Foreign Policies: The U.S. o Nixon’s subsequent visit to the Soviet
implemented strategies such as the Marshall Union resulted in several agreements on
Plan to rebuild and influence Western Europe. space, science, technology, and the
o The USSR established the Warsaw Pact as environment, symbolizing the
a counterbalance to NATO, consolidating cooperative spirit of détente.
its control over Eastern Europe. • Basic Principles of U.S.-Soviet Relations
(1972): This agreement outlined the basic
The détente principles guiding U.S.-Soviet relations,
The détente of the 1970s marked a significant including mutual respect for sovereignty, non-
phase in the Cold War, characterized by a interference in internal affairs, and peaceful
relaxation of tensions and improved relations coexistence.
between the United States and the Soviet Union. • Reduction in Proxy Conflicts: Détente led to a
This period witnessed several key developments decrease in the intensity of proxy wars and
and agreements that reflected a mutual desire to conflicts in which the U.S. and the Soviet Union
stabilize the international environment and reduce were indirectly involved, although it did not
the risk of nuclear war. completely eliminate them.
Key Developments and Progress of Détente in the • Cultural and Scientific Exchanges: Increased
1970s: cultural, scientific, and academic exchanges
• Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT): between the Soviet Union and the West were
o SALT I (1972): The first series of talks led encouraged, promoting better understanding
to the signing of the Anti-Ballistic Missile and reducing mutual suspicions.
(ABM) Treaty and the Interim Agreement • Economic Relations: Trade and economic
on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive relations between the Eastern and Western
Arms. These agreements restricted the blocs improved, although they remained
deployment of ABMs and froze the limited compared to post-Cold War levels.
number of strategic ballistic missile • Challenges and Criticisms: Détente faced
launchers. criticism, especially from hardliners in both the
o SALT II (1979): Aimed to further limit U.S. and the Soviet Union, who viewed it as a
strategic arms. Although signed, it was form of appeasement or a weakening of
never ratified by the United States due to resolve.
the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, but • End of Détente: The invasion of Afghanistan by
both sides largely honored its terms. the Soviet Union in 1979 severely strained U.S.-
• Helsinki Accords (1975): A major diplomatic Soviet relations, leading to the end of détente.
achievement involving 35 countries, including The U.S. responded by boycotting the 1980
the U.S. and the Soviet Union. It was a Moscow Olympics, increasing military
milestone in reducing East-West tensions, spending, and stepping up support for anti-
covering various issues such as security, Soviet forces in Afghanistan.
cooperation in economics, science,
technology, and human rights. Factors responsible for differences between USA
• Nixon's Visits to China and the Soviet Union and USSR
(1972): President Richard Nixon’s historic visit • Ideological Differences: The U.S. championed
to China led to the normalization of U.S.-China capitalism and liberal democracy, while the
relations, altering the strategic balance and USSR advocated for communism and a planned
influencing Soviet willingness to engage in economy.
détente.

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 pg. 133

• Historical Mistrust: Mutual suspicions dated o The U.S. and NATO's expansion eastward
back to the Russian Revolution, when the U.S. has been a point of contention with Russia,
had intervened against the Bolsheviks. leading to increased military posturing and
• Divergent Worldviews: Each superpower rhetoric.
sought to expand its influence and ideology, • Technological and Cyber Warfare: Unlike the
viewing the other as a threat to its national original Cold War, which was heavily focused
security and global ambitions. on nuclear and conventional military power,
• Nuclear Arms Race: Their competition to build the New Cold War sees significant emphasis on
nuclear arsenals heightened tensions. technological supremacy, including control
• Conflicting National Interests: Clashes in over global communications, artificial
geopolitical goals, particularly in Europe, Asia, intelligence, and cybersecurity.
and later in the Middle East and Africa. • Economic Integration vs. Economic
• Propaganda and Espionage: Both engaged in Decoupling: The global economy is much more
extensive propaganda campaigns and interconnected now than during the original
intelligence activities against each other. Cold War. However, there are growing calls for
economic decoupling, particularly between
Emergence of New Cold War the U.S. and China, as part of strategic
The concept of a "New Cold War" refers to the re- competition.
emergence of heightened geopolitical tensions • Global Political Shifts: The New Cold War is
reminiscent of the Cold War era, particularly taking place in a multipolar world, with other
between major world powers like the United significant players like the European Union,
States and China or Russia. This term has been used India, and regional powers exerting influence,
in the 21st century to describe a state of unlike the bipolar world of the U.S. and USSR
international relations characterized by rivalry, during the original Cold War.
mistrust, and competition, though it differs in
several key aspects from the original Cold War. Differences from the Original Cold War:
Characteristics of the New Cold War: • Ideological Conflict: The original Cold War was
• U.S.-China Rivalry: The U.S. and China have fundamentally an ideological conflict between
become principal actors in this New Cold War, capitalism (led by the U.S.) and communism
with tensions arising from trade disputes, (led by the USSR). The New Cold War, while
technological competition, issues of having ideological elements, is more centered
intellectual property and cybersecurity, and around nationalistic and geopolitical rivalry.
geopolitical conflicts in regions like the South • Globalization and Interdependence: Today's
China Sea. world is far more globally interconnected with
o The rise of China as a global economic and trade, technology, and communication,
military power challenges the previously making complete disengagement (like the Iron
unchallenged dominance of the United Curtain era) challenging.
States, leading to strategic rivalry. • Nuclear Threat: While nuclear weapons
• U.S.-Russia Relations: Tensions between the continue to be a significant concern, the New
U.S. and Russia have also been likened to a Cold War has not yet reached the same level of
New Cold War, especially concerning issues nuclear brinkmanship that characterized the
like the annexation of Crimea, the Syrian earlier Cold War.
conflict, cyberattacks, and allegations of • Proxy Conflicts: Although proxy conflicts exist,
interference in U.S. elections. they are less ideologically driven and more

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 pg. 134

about regional power dynamics and national military conflicts, given the high risks
interests. associated with direct engagement, especially
when nuclear weapons are involved.
The term "New Cold War" thus captures the Effect of Globalization on Bipolarity
essence of the current global tensions, which, • Economic Interdependence: Globalization,
while reminiscent of the Cold War in some ways, with its increased economic interdependence,
are unique to the 21st-century geopolitical, challenges traditional notions of bipolarity.
economic, and technological landscape. Economic ties between major powers can
reduce the likelihood of conflict and alter the
Strategic and Ideological Bipolarity
dynamics of power relations.
What is Bipolarity? • Multipolarity Emergence: Globalization
Bipolarity in international relations refers to a contributes to the rise of new powers, leading
global order where two major states or alliances of to a transition from a bipolar to a multipolar
states dominate the international system. These world where multiple states have significant
two poles exert significant influence over world global influence.
affairs, and their interactions often determine the
• Diffusion of Power: Globalization leads to the
global geopolitical environment.
diffusion of power beyond states to non-state
Bipolarity is characterized by:
actors like multinational corporations,
• Two Dominant Powers: The system is international organizations, and transnational
dominated by two superpowers with relatively networks, which can also influence global
equal strength, typically in military, economic, affairs.
and ideological terms. End of Bipolarity
• Spheres of Influence: Each superpower has a • Collapse of the Soviet Union: The end of the
sphere of influence, with other states aligning Cold War and the subsequent collapse of the
themselves with one of the two powers. Soviet Union in 1991 marked the end of the
• Ideological Division: Often, the superpowers classic bipolar structure that had dominated
are divided by fundamental ideological international relations since the end of World
differences, such as during the Cold War when War II.
the U.S. represented capitalist democracy and • Shift to Unipolarity or Multipolarity: The post-
the USSR represented communist socialism. Cold War era initially seemed to shift towards
unipolarity with the U.S. as the sole
Significance of Bipolarity
superpower. However, the rise of other
• Global Stability and Predictability: Bipolarity powers, especially China, and the resurgence
can lead to a stable international order, as the of Russia, indicate a transition towards a more
balance of power between the two multipolar global order.
superpowers prevents any single state from • Challenges in the Post-Bipolar World: The end
becoming overwhelmingly dominant. of bipolarity has led to new challenges,
• Increased Security Dilemmas: It often results including regional conflicts, the rise of non-
in security dilemmas, where actions by one state actors, and complex global issues like
superpower to increase its security (like arms terrorism, cyber warfare, and climate change
buildups) are perceived as threats by the other, that cannot be addressed by a single
leading to escalating tensions. superpower.
• Proxy Wars and Indirect Confrontations:
Superpowers often engage in proxy wars and
indirect confrontations rather than direct

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 pg. 135

Emergence of new bipolarity Implications and Global Reactions:

The emergence of a new bipolarity in the • Multipolar Tendencies: The global system is
international system, characterized by the United not strictly bipolar, as other major powers like
States and China as the primary poles, is a the European Union, Russia, and India play
significant development in global politics. This new significant roles. This multipolarity adds
bipolar dynamic differs from the Cold War era's complexity to the U.S.-China dynamic.
U.S.-Soviet Union rivalry in many aspects, • Global Supply Chains: The interdependence of
reflecting the changing nature of global power and global supply chains, especially involving
influence in the 21st century. China, adds a layer of complexity to the rivalry,
Key Aspects of the USA-China Bipolarity: making complete decoupling challenging.
• Economic Foundations: Unlike the U.S.-Soviet • Regional Alliances and Partnerships:
bipolarity, which was heavily militarized, the Countries in the Asia-Pacific region and beyond
current U.S.-China rivalry has strong economic are navigating this new bipolarity, often
underpinnings. China's rapid economic seeking to balance relations with both the U.S.
growth, its integration into the global and China.
economy, and its status as a major trading • Global Governance: The U.S.-China
partner for many countries, including the U.S., competition extends to international
are central to this dynamic. organizations and global governance,
• Technology and Innovation: A significant impacting issues like climate change, trade
arena of competition is technology and policies, and cybersecurity.
innovation, with both countries vying for
leadership in areas like 5G, artificial Scholarly views:
intelligence, and biotechnology. This • Scholars like John Mearsheimer have
technological rivalry has broad implications for suggested that the rise of China will inevitably
economic and military power. lead to intensified U.S.-China competition,
• Military and Security: While not as overtly given the structural realities of international
militaristic as the U.S.-Soviet rivalry, there is a politics.
significant military dimension, particularly in • Others, like Joseph Nye, argue for a more
the Asia-Pacific region. The U.S. has nuanced approach, suggesting that
established military alliances and bases, while cooperation in some areas (like climate
China is rapidly modernizing its military change) is possible and necessary, despite the
capabilities, especially its navy. rivalry.
• Geopolitical Influence: The U.S. and China are The emergence of a new bipolarity between the
competing for geopolitical influence in various USA and China signifies a major shift in
regions, including Asia, Africa, and Latin international relations, characterized by economic
America. China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) competition, technological rivalry, military buildup,
and its growing presence in international and geopolitical maneuvering. This new dynamic is
institutions are part of its strategy to expand its shaping the 21st-century global order, with
global influence. significant implications for international stability,
• Ideological Elements: Although less economic interdependence, and global
ideologically driven than the Cold War, there is governance.
an ideological component to the U.S.-China Challenges with Rise of China
rivalry, particularly in terms of governance • Territorial Disputes: China's rise has been
models - the U.S.’s democratic liberalism vs. marked by territorial disputes in the South
China’s authoritarian model. China Sea and with India, among others. These

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 pg. 136

disputes have led to tensions and standoffs, • Diplomatic Maneuvering: Countries in Asia are
impacting regional stability. increasingly finding themselves having to
• Shift in Power Dynamics: China's growing maneuver diplomatically between the
influence challenges the existing power interests of major powers, particularly China
structure in Asia, particularly the influence of and the United States.
the United States and its allies. This shift
creates a complex web of alliances and Causes of Decline of US
counter-alliances, impacting the regional • Economic Challenges: The U.S. has faced
balance of power. economic challenges, including growing
• Debt Diplomacy Concerns: China’s national debt, trade deficits, and competition
investments, while beneficial, have raised from emerging economies like China. These
concerns about debt sustainability in recipient challenges have questioned the sustainability
countries. Critics argue this could lead to a of its economic dominance.
dependency trap, impacting the sovereignty of • Military Overreach: Involvements in
these nations. prolonged conflicts, such as in Iraq and
• Military Modernization: China’s military Afghanistan, have strained U.S. military
modernization and expansion have raised resources and raised questions about the
security concerns among its neighbors and the strategic effectiveness of its military
broader international community, leading to interventions.
an arms race and heightened military tensions • Political Polarization: Increasing domestic
in the region. political polarization and governmental
• Human Rights and Democratic Values: China's gridlock have led to questions about the U.S.'s
approach to human rights and its political political stability and its ability to project a
system contrasts with the democratic values of unified foreign policy.
some Asian countries, creating ideological and • Shift in Global Power Dynamics: The rise of
political rifts. other powers, particularly China, has
challenged the unipolar world order
Its implications on Asian Political Order dominated by the U.S., leading to a more
• Altered Security Landscape: The region faces multipolar global power structure.
an altered security landscape, with countries • Technological Competition: Advances in
responding to China's rise through increased technology globally, especially in countries like
defense spending and strategic partnerships, China, have challenged U.S. technological
altering traditional security alignments. supremacy in areas like telecommunications
• Economic Dependency vs Strategic and artificial intelligence.
Autonomy: Asian countries grapple with
balancing economic dependency on China with Implications for International Order
the need to maintain strategic autonomy, • Multipolar World Order: The relative decline
leading to a nuanced and often cautious of U.S. hegemony paves the way for a more
approach to relations with Beijing. multipolar world, with several significant
• Regional Leadership and Influence: China's powers, including China, the European Union,
rise challenges the leadership role of other and Russia, exerting influence.
regional powers like Japan and India, leading to • Changes in Global Governance: U.S. decline
a more contested and multipolar regional may lead to changes in international
order. institutions and agreements, with new powers
seeking more significant roles and the U.S.

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 pg. 137

potentially less willing or able to enforce global capabilities, particularly in the South China
norms. Sea, are a concern for regional security.
• Geopolitical Shifts: Traditional alliances may o Arms Race: There's potential for a regional
shift or weaken, with countries realigning arms race, with nations seeking to balance
based on emerging powers' influence. This against perceived Chinese aggression or
shift could lead to regional instabilities or new American interventionism.
alliances. • Technological and Cyber Domains:
• Economic Rebalancing: The decline could lead o 5G Networks and Cybersecurity: The U.S.-
to a rebalancing of global economic power, China rivalry in technology, particularly
with emerging economies taking on more around 5G networks (Huawei vs. Western
significant roles in global trade and finance. alternatives), creates dilemmas for regional
• Impact on Global Issues: Addressing global countries in choosing technology partners.
challenges like climate change, pandemics, and o Cybersecurity Threats: Increased risk of
cybersecurity may become more complicated cyber espionage and cyber conflicts as part
without clear U.S. leadership, requiring new of strategic rivalry could affect regional
forms of international cooperation. digital infrastructure.
• Impact on Regional Organizations and Unity:
Impact of the Sino-American strategic rivalry on
South Asia region o ASEAN’s Role: The Association of Southeast
• Geopolitical Tensions and Alignments: Asian Nations (ASEAN) might find its unity
o Increased Polarization: Countries in South tested as member states have varying
and Southeast Asia may face pressure to degrees of economic and political ties with
align with either the U.S. or China, leading China and the U.S.
to regional polarization. o Regional Cooperation: The rivalry could
o Territorial Disputes: The South China Sea is either impede regional cooperation due to
a flashpoint, with China's territorial claims alignment pressures or encourage a more
clashing with those of Southeast Asian unified approach to maintain autonomy
nations and U.S. interests in freedom of and balance between the two powers.
navigation. • Climate Change and Pandemics: The rivalry
• Economic Dependencies and Dilemmas: might hinder collaborative efforts in
o Trade and Investment: Many countries in addressing transnational challenges like
the region rely heavily on trade and climate change and health crises, affecting
investment from both China and the U.S., regional cooperation on these fronts.
making them vulnerable to fluctuations in • Soft Power and Cultural Influence: Soft Power
Sino-American relations. Competition: Both China and the U.S. are likely
o Infrastructure Development: China’s Belt to ramp up efforts to expand their cultural and
and Road Initiative (BRI) has a significant ideological influence in the region, impacting
presence in the region, which could be local cultures and political perspectives.
challenged by U.S.-led alternatives, creating
strategic choices for these countries. Mr. X in international Politics
• Security Implications: In international politics, "Mr. X" refers to George F.
o Military Presence and Alliances: The U.S. Kennan, a key American diplomat and historian. He
has longstanding military alliances in the used the pseudonym "Mr. X" when he published
region (e.g., with the Philippines and the famous article titled "The Sources of Soviet
Thailand), while China’s growing military Conduct" in the July 1947 issue of "Foreign Affairs"

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 pg. 138

magazine. This article laid the foundation for the for regional or global dominance. These
U.S. foreign policy strategy known as rivalries prompt states to continuously
"containment," which became central to American upgrade their military capabilities to maintain
policy during the Cold War. or achieve superiority.
Key principles of Mr. X policy • Security Dilemma: In international relations,
• Containment: A strategy to limit Soviet the security dilemma plays a crucial role in
influence globally, focusing on consistent, firm arms races. When one nation builds up its
responses rather than direct military military, it often leads to perceptions of threat
confrontation. by other nations, who then respond by
• Political and Economic Measures: Combining increasing their own military capabilities,
political, economic, and military efforts to leading to a cycle of armament.
support governments against communist • Technological Advancements: Breakthroughs
insurgencies and promote economic recovery in military technology can trigger arms races,
in Europe, thereby reducing communism's as nations seek to not be left behind in
appeal. adopting new, more effective weapons
• Long-Term, Patient Strategy: Emphasizing a systems.
sustained, patient approach, believing in the • Domestic Factors: Internal political pressures,
inherent weaknesses of the Soviet system and the influence of the military-industrial
its eventual internal collapse. complex, and nationalistic sentiments can also
• Diplomatic Engagement: Advocating for drive arms races.
ongoing diplomatic negotiations with the
Soviet Union as a means to manage Cold War Examples of Arms Race
tensions. • Cold War (USA vs. Soviet Union): The most
• Cultural and Ideological Soft Power: famous example is the nuclear arms race
Promoting American values and ideals to during the Cold War, where the United States
counter Soviet propaganda and influence. and the Soviet Union amassed vast arsenals of
• Skepticism of Military Solutions: Later nuclear weapons, leading to a state of
expressing concerns over excessive reliance on Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).
military methods, criticizing actions like the • Naval Arms Race (Britain vs. Germany, Early
Vietnam War as deviations from his 20th Century): Prior to World War I, Britain and
containment strategy. Germany engaged in a naval arms race,
significantly building up their naval fleets,
Arms race
which was one of the factors contributing to
What is an Arms Race? the tensions leading to the war.
An arms race refers to a competition between • India-Pakistan Missile Race: Following their
nations for superiority in the development and nuclear tests in 1998, India and Pakistan have
accumulation of weapons. It's primarily driven by been involved in a missile and nuclear arms
the desire for military dominance and is often race, driven by longstanding regional rivalries.
characterized by rapid, competitive advancements • Current U.S.-China Military Developments:
in technology and armaments. This phenomenon The increasing military developments by China
typically occurs in the context of international in areas like the South China Sea have led to a
rivalries and geopolitical tensions. response by the United States, signaling a new
Why Arms Race Started? kind of arms race, particularly in naval and
• Geopolitical Rivalries: Arms races often missile capabilities.
emerge from rivalries between nations vying

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 pg. 139

Consequences of Arms Race • Monitoring and Verification: Various UN

• Increased Risk of Conflict: Arms races can bodies are involved in monitoring and verifying
heighten tensions and lead to conflicts, as compliance with disarmament agreements.
states with expanding military capabilities may For instance, the International Atomic Energy
be more inclined to resort to force. Agency (IAEA), an independent international
• Economic Burden: Significant resources are organization under the UN framework,
diverted to military spending, which could monitors nuclear programs to ensure they are
otherwise be used for societal development used only for peaceful purposes.
like education, health, and infrastructure. • Promoting Transparency: The UN encourages
• Security Deterioration: Rather than enhancing transparency in armaments, with initiatives
security, arms races can lead to insecurity, as like the UN Register of Conventional Arms,
the increasing capabilities of one state are which aims to promote confidence-building
perceived as threats by others. and transparency in military matters.
• Proliferation Risks: Arms races, especially • Advocacy and Education: The UN raises
those involving nuclear weapons, increase the awareness about the dangers of arms
risk of proliferation to other states or non-state proliferation and the benefits of disarmament
actors. through educational programs and advocacy
• Global Instability: The competitive nature of efforts.
arms races can contribute to global instability,
as the balance of power shifts and smaller Why is Disarmament Needed?
nations may feel compelled to align with • Preventing Conflict and War: Disarmament is
stronger powers for protection. essential for reducing the likelihood of armed
conflicts and wars, especially those that could
Disarmament
escalate to involve WMDs. By limiting the
Role of the United Nations (UN) availability and use of weapons, disarmament
The United Nations plays a crucial role in the global helps in maintaining international peace and
disarmament efforts, advocating for and security.
facilitating the reduction and elimination of • Humanitarian Reasons: The use of certain
weapons, particularly weapons of mass weapons, especially WMDs and landmines, has
destruction (WMDs) such as nuclear, chemical, and catastrophic humanitarian consequences.
biological weapons. Disarmament efforts aim to prevent such
• Negotiation Forums: The UN provides a humanitarian crises.
platform for international negotiations on • Reducing the Risk of Nuclear Catastrophe: The
disarmament agreements. Key treaties have proliferation of nuclear weapons poses a
been negotiated under its auspices, including significant threat to global security.
the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Disarmament, particularly nuclear
Weapons (NPT), the Chemical Weapons disarmament, is crucial to reduce the risk of
Convention (CWC), and the Biological nuclear war, accidents, and terrorism involving
Weapons Convention (BWC). nuclear materials.
• Setting Norms and Standards: The UN sets • Economic Benefits: The reduction in
international norms and standards for armaments can redirect national resources
disarmament and arms control. It works from military spending to social and economic
towards the establishment of universally development, addressing issues like poverty,
accepted norms against the proliferation of health care, and education.
WMDs.

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 pg. 140

• Environmental Protection: The production, Consequences of Not Implementing Disarmament

testing, and use of certain weapons can have and Arms Control:
severe environmental impacts. Disarmament • Risk of Nuclear Catastrophe: Without arms
contributes to the protection and preservation control, the risk of accidental or intentional use
of the environment. of nuclear weapons remains high, posing an
• Promoting International Stability and Trust: existential threat to humanity.
Disarmament fosters a sense of trust and • Escalation of Arms Races: The absence of arms
cooperation among nations, contributing to a control can lead to uncontrolled arms races,
more stable and peaceful international increasing the likelihood of military conflicts
environment. and international instability.
• Diversion of Resources: High military spending
Points in favor of Disarmament and Arms Control: on arms and weapon systems diverts resources
• Prevention of Nuclear War and Mass from crucial areas like health, education, and
Destruction: The primary goal of disarmament infrastructure.
and arms control is to prevent the catastrophic • Increased Tensions and Mistrust: Lack of arms
consequences of nuclear war. Limiting the control agreements can exacerbate tensions
proliferation and development of nuclear and mistrust among nations, hindering
weapons reduces the risk of their use. diplomatic relations and cooperation.
• Reducing Military Expenditures: Disarmament
allows states to reduce military spending. This Steps Taken to Control Arms Race:
financial resource can be redirected towards • Treaties and Agreements: Various
social, economic, and developmental international treaties aim at arms reduction
programs, improving the quality of life for and control, such as the Treaty on the Non-
citizens. Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), the
• Stabilizing International Relations: Arms Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
control agreements contribute to international (CTBT), and the Strategic Arms Reduction
stability by reducing the likelihood of arms Treaties (START I and II).
races and military escalations, which can lead • Establishment of International Organizations:
to conflicts. Bodies like the International Atomic Energy
• Enhancing Global Security: A reduction in Agency (IAEA) work to promote peaceful use of
arms, particularly weapons of mass nuclear energy and prevent the proliferation of
destruction, enhances global security and nuclear weapons.
makes the world a safer place. • Bilateral Agreements: The U.S. and Russia,
• Building Trust Among Nations: Arms control holding the largest nuclear arsenals, have
negotiations and treaties build trust among engaged in several bilateral agreements for
states, which is essential for peaceful arms reduction, such as the New START treaty.
international relations and cooperation. • Export Control Regimes: Multilateral export
• Environmental Protection: Disarmament, control regimes like the Missile Technology
especially of nuclear and chemical weapons, Control Regime (MTCR) aim to prevent the
reduces the environmental risks associated proliferation of missile technology.
with the production, testing, and potential use • Global Advocacy and Civil Society
of these weapons. Movements: International advocacy groups,
such as the International Campaign to Ban
Landmines and the International Campaign to

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 pg. 141

Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN), raise policy, has challenged the U.S.'s global
awareness and push for disarmament. supremacy.
• UN Initiatives and Resolutions: The United • Shift in Global Power: The shift from a unipolar
Nations General Assembly and Security Council world dominated by the U.S. to a more
have passed resolutions to promote multipolar world order, with China as a primary
disarmament and arms control. pole, has created conditions reminiscent of the
Cold War era.
Cold War 2.0
• Strategic Rivalry: The U.S. and China are
Cold War 2.0 refers to the current period of engaged in strategic competition across
heightened geopolitical tension, primarily between various domains, including trade, technology,
the United States and China, which many analysts and military capabilities.
compare to the original Cold War between the
United States and the Soviet Union. This new phase Assessment of Cold War 2.0:
is characterized by strategic rivalry, ideological • Economic Interdependence: Unlike the U.S.-
differences, and competition for global influence Soviet Cold War, the U.S. and China are
and technological dominance. economically interdependent, which
Similarity with Cold War 1.0: complicates their rivalry. The global economy
• Bipolar International System: Similar to the is more integrated, making decoupling
original Cold War, Cold War 2.0 features a challenging.
bipolar structure with two major powers, the
• Globalization and Multi-polarity: The current
U.S. and China, vying for global influence. international system is more globalized and
• Ideological Differences: Just as the U.S.-Soviet multipolar, with other significant players like
conflict was underpinned by ideological the European Union, Russia, and India
differences (capitalism vs. communism), the influencing international relations.
U.S.-China rivalry also includes ideological • Cyber and Space Domains: The competition
elements, with the U.S. representing liberal extends into new domains like cyberspace and
democratic values and China representing an outer space, which were not prominent
authoritarian model. battlegrounds during the original Cold War.
• Military and Technological Competition: Like • Absence of Direct Military Confrontation: So
the arms race of the Cold War, there is a far, the U.S.-China rivalry has not manifested in
significant military and technological direct military confrontation, and both powers
competition, particularly in areas like artificial have shown a degree of restraint to avoid
intelligence, 5G, and cybersecurity. escalation.
• Proxy Influence and Regional Tensions: The • Complex Global Challenges: The
two powers exert influence in various regions contemporary world faces complex global
and support different actors in regional challenges like climate change, pandemics, and
conflicts or political disputes, reminiscent of international terrorism, which require
the Soviet and American strategies during the cooperation between the U.S. and China.
Cold War. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
Reason for emergence of Cold War 2.0 Origin and Evolution:
Cold War 2.0 can be seen as the practical result of
• Bandung Conference (1955): The roots of NAM
the evolving dynamics between the USA and China.
trace back to the Bandung Conference in
Factors contributing to this include:
Indonesia, which saw the participation of Asian
• China's Rise: China’s economic and military and African countries. This conference
growth, along with its more assertive foreign emphasized principles like mutual respect for

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 pg. 142

sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference developing countries to articulate their

in internal affairs, and equality. perspectives on global issues, providing a
• Formation and the First Summit (1961): NAM counter-narrative to the dominant discourse
was officially established with its first summit from developed countries.
in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, in 1961. The context • Advocacy in Global Governance: NAM plays a
was the deepening Cold War, and the role in advocating for reform in global
movement provided a platform for countries governance structures, including the United
that did not want to align with either the U.S. Nations, to make them more democratic and
or the Soviet Union. representative of the developing world's
• Expansion and Influence: Over the years, NAM interests.
expanded to include numerous member • Promoting Multilateralism: In an increasingly
states, becoming one of the largest groupings multipolar world, NAM’s emphasis on
of states outside the United Nations. During multilateralism remains relevant, advocating
the Cold War, it played a significant role in for solutions through dialogue and
representing the interests and voice of the cooperation rather than through unilateral or
Global South. military means.
Objectives and Mission: • Focus on Sustainable Development: NAM has
• National Independence and Sovereignty: A increasingly focused on sustainable
core objective of NAM is to support the development, advocating for equitable
struggle for national independence, economic development and addressing
particularly in countries under colonial or environmental concerns.
imperialist rule.
• Anti-Colonialism and Anti-Imperialism: The Achievements of the Non-Aligned Movement
movement has consistently advocated against (NAM)
colonialism and imperialism, supporting The Non-Aligned Movement, established during
liberation movements and decolonization. the Cold War as an organization of states that did
• International Cooperation: NAM emphasizes not formally align with or against any major power
the importance of international cooperation, bloc, has achieved several milestones:
particularly amongst developing countries, to
promote economic and social development. • Promotion of Peace and Sovereignty: One of
• Peaceful Coexistence: One of its founding the fundamental achievements of NAM has
principles is the promotion of peaceful been its steadfast advocacy for peace,
coexistence among nations, regardless of their disarmament, and the sovereignty of nations.
political and economic systems. NAM provided a platform for countries to
assert their independence from the
Relevance in the Post-Cold War Era: superpowers and resist involvement in their
• Adapting to New Challenges: After the Cold global rivalries.
War, NAM's relevance was questioned as the • Voice for the Developing World: NAM has
bipolar global structure it was responding to been instrumental in giving a collective voice to
had dissolved. However, the movement developing nations. It has raised issues
adapted to address new international pertinent to the Global South, such as anti-
challenges like globalization, economic colonialism, anti-imperialism, economic
inequality, climate change, and terrorism. development, and the struggle against
• Voice for the Developing World: NAM apartheid and racial discrimination.
continues to be an important forum for

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 pg. 143

• Support for Decolonization Movements: NAM • Promoting South-South Cooperation: NAM

played a significant role in supporting can facilitate increased cooperation among
decolonization movements across Africa, Asia, developing countries (South-South
and Latin America. This support was crucial in cooperation), helping to share knowledge,
the eventual independence of several skills, and resources to address common
countries. challenges.
• Advocacy for Economic Equity: NAM pushed • Advocacy for Peace and Security: With
for a more equitable international economic conflicts and instability persisting in various
order. It advocated for fair trade practices, parts of the world, NAM's advocacy for peace,
debt relief, and greater economic cooperation disarmament, and non-intervention remains
among developing countries. significant.
• Nuclear Disarmament and Arms Control: The
movement consistently called for nuclear Relevance for India
disarmament and arms control, advocating for The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), established
a world free of nuclear weapons. during the Cold War to assert the independence of
• Cultural Exchange and Cooperation: NAM countries from the two dominant power blocs (the
facilitated cultural exchange and cooperation United States and the Soviet Union), continues to
among member states, fostering mutual hold relevance for India in various ways:
understanding and respect for diverse cultures • Maintaining Strategic Autonomy:
and traditions. o Historical Context: India was a founding
member of NAM, and the movement
Relevance of NAM in the Contemporary World historically allowed India to pursue a path
Despite changes in the global political landscape, of strategic autonomy without formally
NAM remains relevant for several reasons: aligning with either of the Cold War
• Multipolar World: As the world transitions superpowers.
from a unipolar to a multipolar structure, the o Contemporary Relevance: In the current
principles of NAM, such as sovereignty, non- global context, where power dynamics
intervention, and peaceful coexistence, are shifting (notably with the rise of China
continue to be pertinent. and the relative decline of traditional
• Voice Against Unilateralism: In a world where Western powers), NAM's principles allow
unilateral actions by powerful countries are India to maintain its strategic autonomy,
common, NAM provides a platform for making independent decisions in foreign
collective action and dialogue against such policy.
unilateralism. • Diversifying International Relations: NAM
• Advocacy for Developing Nations: NAM provides a platform for India to engage with a
continues to be an important advocate for the diverse range of countries. For instance, India's
interests and concerns of developing recent engagements in Africa for energy
countries, especially in international forums security and market access, as observed by
like the United Nations. scholar Ian Taylor in "India's Rise in Africa",
• Global Challenges: NAM's principles are demonstrate this diversification.
relevant in addressing global challenges such • Championing South-South Cooperation:
as climate change, terrorism, economic India's advocacy for South-South cooperation
inequality, and pandemics. The movement can is evident in its collaborations, such as the
play a role in fostering international India-Brazil-South Africa (IBSA) Dialogue
cooperation to tackle these issues.

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 pg. 144

Forum, as pointed out by scholar Oliver • Balancing Rising Powers: NAM 2.0 seeks to
Stuenkel in his work on emerging powers. manage the complexities of emerging global
• Counterbalance to Western Dominance: NAM powers while preserving the strategic
serves as a platform for India to offer a autonomy of its members.
collective voice against Western dominance. • Advocating for Multilateralism: The
India's stance in global forums on issues like movement supports a multilateral world order
trade and climate change reflects this, as noted and strives for greater representation of
by Harsh V. Pant in his analyses of India's developing nations in global institutions.
foreign policy. • Digital and Economic Collaboration: NAM 2.0
• Advocating for Multilateralism and encourages member states to collaborate in
Democratic International Order: India's areas of digital technology and economic
support for multilateralism and a democratic innovation.
order through NAM aligns with its foreign • Cultural and Educational Exchange: It aims to
policy goals, promoting a more equitable world foster cultural and educational ties among
order. member countries, enhancing unity and
• Addressing Global Challenges: NAM offers shared goals.
India a forum to tackle global issues. India's
role in international climate negotiations.
Unipolarity and American Hegemony
• Enhancing India's Soft Power: India's active
NAM participation boosts its soft power by Unipolarity
portraying it as a leader among developing Unipolarity in international relations refers to a
nations committed to non-aggression, as structure where one state (the pole) wields
discussed by Shashi Tharoor. predominant power and influence over global
• Economic Opportunities: Engagement with affairs. This structure emerged distinctly after the
NAM countries offers economic opportunities. Cold War, with the United States often regarded as
For example, India's technological the unipolar power.
collaborations with Latin American countries in Characteristics of Unipolarity:
IT and pharmaceuticals, showcase these • Dominant Global Influence: The unipolar state
opportunities. has unparalleled military, economic,
technological, and cultural influence.
• Setting International Agenda: It plays a
NAM 2.0 decisive role in international policymaking,
"NAM 2.0" modernizes the Non-Aligned shaping global norms and institutions.
Movement (NAM) for today's multipolar world, • Relative Peace and Stability: The absence of
transforming it from its Cold War-era focus to rival superpowers can lead to a reduction in
address contemporary challenges and major global conflicts, as there's no competing
opportunities. power to challenge the unipolar state directly.
• Adapting to New Global Challenges: NAM 2.0
is oriented towards current issues like climate
change, terrorism, cyber security, and global Criticism of Unipolarity:
health crises. • Unilateral Actions: The unipolar power may
• Promoting South-South Cooperation: It act without consensus, leading to criticisms of
advocates for stronger cooperation among unilateralism.
developing countries in technology, trade, and • Imbalance and Resentment: The dominance
sustainable development. of one power can create imbalances in the

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 pg. 145

international system and resentment among • Post-Cold War:

other states. o Emergence of Unipolarity: With the
• Overextension and Decline: The unipolar dissolution of the USSR, the U.S. emerged
power may face challenges due to as the sole superpower.
overextension of its resources and capabilities. o Global Leadership: The U.S. took on a
more assertive role in global leadership,
Hegemony promoting liberal democracy and free
Hegemony refers to the leadership or predominant markets.
influence one state exerts over others. In the
context of American hegemony, it implies the Scholars view on US hegemony
significant influence the U.S. has had in world • Joseph Nye argues that the U.S.'s ability to
affairs, particularly post-Cold War. shape global preferences and norms through
American Hegemony: its values and culture is a significant aspect of
• Military Supremacy: The U.S. possesses the its hegemony.
world's most powerful military, with a global • Susan Strange suggests that U.S. dominance in
network of bases and alliances. global economic institutions and policies is a
• Economic Influence: As the world’s largest central aspect of its hegemonic status.
economy, the U.S. plays a crucial role in global • Francis Fukuyama in his "End of History"
economic systems and institutions. thesis, Fukuyama argues that the end of the
• Cultural and Ideological Export: American Cold War and the spread of liberal democracy
culture and democratic ideals have widespread and free markets signify a pinnacle of
global influence. ideological evolution, with the U.S. as the
driving force of this global trend.
Factors Responsible for American Hegemony: • Samuel Huntington, in contrast to Fukuyama,
• Economic and Military Strength: Post-World warns of the "clash of civilizations," suggesting
War II, the U.S. emerged as an economic and that American cultural and ideological export
military powerhouse. might lead to conflicts with other major
• Political Stability and Innovation: Robust cultural-ideological blocs.
political institutions and technological • Robert Keohane's theory of hegemonic
advancements have supported U.S. leadership. stability posits that a dominant power, like the
• International Institutions: The U.S. has been U.S., is necessary to create and maintain the
instrumental in creating and leading major global order. He suggests that American
international institutions, which have often leadership has been crucial in establishing
reflected and supported its policies and international institutions and maintaining
interests. global economic stability.
During Cold War and Post-Cold War
• During the Cold War: Sole Power
o Bipolarity: The international system was As the sole superpower post-Cold War, the U.S. has
bipolar, with the U.S. and the USSR as had significant autonomy in pursuing its interests
competing superpowers. and shaping the global order. This period saw U.S.-
o Containment Strategy: The U.S. pursued a led interventions in various regions, increased
containment strategy to limit the spread focus on liberal internationalism, and a significant
of communism, engaging in various proxy role in addressing global challenges such as
wars and political maneuvers. terrorism, climate change, and financial crises.

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 pg. 146

However, the unipolar moment has faced o The U.S. withdrawal or reduced
challenges, including resistance from other rising participation in various international
powers, internal political and economic issues, and agreements and organizations under
questions about the sustainability of American different administrations has led to
hegemony. The evolving global order, with the rise questions about its commitment to the
of powers like China, indicates a potential shift international order it helped establish.
towards a more multipolar world. • Globalization and Interdependence: The
deepening of global economic
Corrosion of the U.S.-led international order interdependence has made unilateral actions
The concept of the corrosion of the U.S.-led by the U.S. less effective and sometimes
international order refers to the gradual decline or counterproductive.
weakening of the global system that has been o Globalization has facilitated the rise of
predominantly influenced and shaped by the non-state actors and transnational issues
United States, especially since the end of World that cannot be addressed solely through a
War II. This decline is attributed to various factors, U.S.-centric approach.
both internal and external to the U.S., and has • Shifts in Global Public Opinion: Anti-American
significant implications for global politics and sentiments in some parts of the world and
economics. criticisms of U.S. foreign policies, particularly in
• Rise of Other Global Powers: The emergence the Middle East and among its traditional
of countries like China and India as significant allies, have impacted America’s ability to lead.
economic and military powers challenges U.S. • Technological Changes: Rapid technological
dominance. China, in particular, with its advancements, particularly in information
growing economic might and assertive foreign technology, have democratized access to
policy, offers an alternative model of information and weakened traditional levers of
governance and development. power.
o Russia’s resurgence under Vladimir Putin o Cybersecurity threats and information
and its assertive policies in Eastern Europe, warfare present new challenges that the
the Middle East, and cyberspace also existing U.S.-led order is struggling to
challenge U.S. influence. address effectively.
• Internal Challenges in the U.S.: Political • Shift Toward Multipolarity: The international
polarization and domestic turmoil within the system is increasingly moving towards
U.S., including divisive politics and contentious multipolarity, where several major powers,
elections, have implications for its global rather than a single hegemon, exert significant
leadership role. influence.
o Economic challenges, such as the 2008
financial crisis and ongoing trade deficits,
have raised questions about the Implications of Corroding U.S.-Led Order
sustainability of the U.S. economic model. • Uncertain Global Leadership: The erosion of
• Changes in International Governance: There’s the U.S.-led order raises questions about who
a growing perception that international will shape global norms and rules in the future.
institutions, many of which were created • Potential for Increased Conflict: Without a
under U.S. leadership, are increasingly clear global leader or consensus on
inadequate to address contemporary global international norms, there is potential for
challenges like climate change, cyber threats, increased geopolitical instability and conflict.
and pandemics.

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 pg. 147

• Challenges in Global Governance: Addressing

transnational issues may become more The corrosion of the U.S.-led international order
complex without a cohesive leadership reflects significant changes in global power
structure. dynamics, internal challenges within the U.S., and
• Opportunity for New Models: This shift also evolving global challenges. While it marks the end
presents opportunities for new models of of a particular era of U.S. dominance, it also opens
international cooperation and governance, up possibilities for a more diverse and possibly
potentially leading to a more equitable and balanced international system.
multipolar world order.

Student Notes ✍

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Chapter - 8 pg. 148

Evolution of the International Economic System

Analysis of important dimensions from PYQ

1. Identify and evaluate the reasons for deadlock in the WTO negotiations on fisheries between the
developing and developed countries. [2022/20]
2. Critically evaluate the role of the United States of America in the World Trade Organization (WTO)
dispute settlement mechanism and its implications for the future of the WTO. [2020/15]
3. Explain the significance and importance of the demand raised by the developing countries for a New
International Economic Order (NIEO). Are they likely to achieve their objectives of NIEO in foreseeable
future? [2020/15]
4. How are the rising powers challenging the USA and Western dominance in the IMF and the World
Bank? [2019/20]
5. How far are the world governance mechanisms, dominated by IMF and world bank, legitimate and
relevant? What measures do you suggest to improve their effectiveness in global governance?
[2015/15]
6. Identify the role and place of Gender in the global economy. [2013/15]
7. Identify the major changes in the International Political economy in post-Cold War period. [2013/15]
8. "The IMF, World Bank, G-7, GATT and other structures are designed to serve the interests of TNCs,
banks and investment firms in a 'new imperial age'." Substantiate with examples of governance of
new world order. [2016/15]

Note: Things highlighted in Red are the important minimal government intervention, notably
dimensions which have been asked by UPSC in advocated by Adam Smith and David Ricardo.
Previous Year mostly repeatedly, that’s why it
becomes very important to study them and try to link
Bretton Woods System
them with the current developments. • Established in 1944, the Bretton Woods system
marked a pivotal moment in the formation of
International economic system the modern international economic system. It
The international economic system encompasses aimed to prevent the economic turmoil
the global network of economic relations, experienced in the interwar period by creating
institutions, policies, and practices that facilitate the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the
and regulate trade, investment, and financial flows World Bank to oversee financial stability and
among countries. It aims to promote economic provide development funding, respectively.
cooperation, stability, and growth on a global • This period also saw the establishment of the
scale, addressing challenges that transcend General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
national borders. (GATT), which later evolved into the World
Evolution and Background Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995, to promote
Origins international trade by reducing tariffs and
• The concept of an international economic other trade barriers.
system has roots in the mercantilist policies of Reasons for Establishment
the 16th and 17th centuries, where states The international economic system was
sought to accumulate wealth through trade established to:
surpluses. • Restore stability and rebuild the global
• The 18th and 19th centuries saw a shift economy post-World War II.
towards liberalism, emphasizing free trade and

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 pg. 149

• Facilitate international trade and investment Evolution of the International

by establishing common rules and norms. Economic System: From Bretton
• Prevent future economic crises by woods to WTO
coordinating international monetary policies
The evolution of the international economic
and providing mechanisms for financial
system from the Bretton Woods Conference to the
support.
establishment of the World Trade Organization
• Promote economic development and poverty
(WTO) is a multifaceted process shaped by
reduction, especially in less developed
significant geopolitical, geostrategic, and
countries.
geoeconomic considerations. This evolution
Aims and Objectives
reflects the changing dynamics of international
• Promote international trade and investment
relations, the balance of power, and the global
through liberalization and regulation.
economic landscape.
• Ensure global financial stability by providing a
Bretton Woods Conference (1944)
framework for monetary cooperation and
• In July 1944, representatives from 44 Allied
support.
nations met in Bretton Woods, New
• Support economic development and reduce
Hampshire, aiming to create a stable
poverty in developing countries.
framework for post-war global economic
• Facilitate economic cooperation and resolve
reconstruction. The devastation of World War
disputes among nations.
II had underscored the need for a new
Evolution Post-Bretton Woods
international economic order to prevent future
• The collapse of the Bretton Woods fixed
conflicts and economic crises.
exchange rate system in the early 1970s led to
Establishment of IMF and World Bank: The
greater emphasis on floating exchange rates
conference led to the creation of two pivotal
and macroeconomic policy coordination.
institutions:
• The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw
• The International Monetary Fund (IMF), tasked
increased globalization, driven by advances in
with overseeing the international monetary
technology, communication, and
system, providing financial assistance to
transportation, leading to more integrated and
countries facing balance of payments
interdependent global markets.
difficulties, and promoting exchange rate
• The financial crises of the late 1990s and 2008
stability.
highlighted the need for reform in financial
• The World Bank (initially the International
regulation and supervision, leading to
Bank for Reconstruction and Development),
initiatives like the Basel Accords on banking
focused on providing loans for the
supervision.
reconstruction of war-torn Europe and later
Key Institutions
for development projects worldwide.
• International Monetary Fund (IMF): Provides
o The Bretton Woods system reflected the
financial assistance and advice to member
United States' emergence as a global
countries facing balance of payments crises.
superpower. The dollar, convertible into
• World Bank Group: Focuses on long-term
gold, became the central currency,
economic development and poverty reduction.
underlying the new fixed exchange rate
• World Trade Organization (WTO): Deals with system. This arrangement institutionalized
the global rules of trade between nations. American economic dominance and laid
the groundwork for the US to influence
global economic and political affairs.

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 pg. 150

Decolonization and the Cold War Establishment of the World Trade Organization
• Shift in Global Power Dynamics: The post-war (1994)
period saw rapid decolonization, with many • From GATT to WTO: The General Agreement
African and Asian countries gaining on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), established in
independence. These new states sought to 1947 as a temporary framework for
assert their sovereignty in the international international trade negotiations, evolved into
economic system, often aligning with either the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995.
the US or the Soviet Union in the Cold War The WTO expanded its remit to include trade
context. in services, intellectual property rights, and
• Non-Aligned Movement: Emerging nations, dispute settlement mechanisms.
seeking to avoid entanglement in the o The creation of the WTO was a response to
superpower rivalry, formed the Non-Aligned the complexities of managing global trade
Movement, advocating for an alternative in a multipolar world, aiming to provide a
world order and more equitable economic stable and predictable international
policies. trading system. It reflected the balance of
Breakdown of Bretton Woods and Transition to power shifts, with emerging economies
Floating Exchange Rates like China, India, and Brazil playing
• End of Fixed Exchange Rates: By the early increasingly significant roles in global trade
1970s, the Bretton Woods fixed exchange rate negotiations.
system became unsustainable, culminating in
the US decision to suspend the dollar's • John Maynard Keynes, one of the key
convertibility into gold in 1971. This led to the architects of the Bretton Woods system,
adoption of floating exchange rates, marking a advocated for a global framework that
significant shift in the international monetary would balance national autonomy with
system. international economic cooperation. His
o The breakdown of Bretton Woods ideas underscore the importance of
reflected deeper issues within the global institutions in stabilizing the global economy
economy, including the challenges of and promoting recovery and growth.
managing international economic relations • Joseph E. Stiglitz has critiqued aspects of
in a world of growing economic globalization and the role of international
interdependence and diverging national economic institutions, arguing for reforms
interests. to make the global economy more equitable
Rise of Neoliberalism and Globalization and sustainable. Stiglitz's work highlights the
• Economic Policies: The late 20th century saw tensions between market liberalization and
the ascendancy of neoliberal economic the need for regulatory frameworks to
policies, emphasizing deregulation, address inequalities and environmental
liberalization of trade and investment, and the challenges.
role of the market in governing economic
Bretton Woods Institutions
activities.
• Technological Advances: Innovations in The IMF Mandate
technology and communication facilitated an • Main Function: The International Monetary
unprecedented level of globalization, with Fund (IMF) promotes international monetary
increased cross-border flows of goods, cooperation, offering policy advice, technical
services, capital, and labor. assistance, and financial support to help
countries build strong economies.

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 pg. 151

• Policy Advice: Provides loans and assists • High-Level Coordination: Includes Annual
countries in designing policy programs to Meetings of the Boards of Governors and the
address balance of payments problems when Development Committee meetings, where
they cannot secure affordable financing to strategies for addressing international
meet international payments. economic and financial issues are discussed.
• IMF Loans: Offers short to medium-term loans, • Management Consultation: The IMF's
primarily funded by member contributions. Managing Director and the World Bank's
President regularly consult on major issues,
The World Bank Mandate sometimes issuing joint statements or articles.
• Main Function: Focuses on long-term • Staff Collaboration: Staff from both
economic development and poverty reduction institutions closely work together on country
by providing technical and financial support for assistance, policy issues, and lending program
specific projects or sector reforms. conditionality, ensuring that their advice and
• Projects: Includes initiatives like building assessments are mutually informed and
schools, health centers, providing water and aligned.
electricity, fighting disease, and protecting the
environment. Collaboration of IMF and World Bank in Other
• World Bank Assistance: Offers long-term Areas
assistance, funded by member contributions • Reducing Debt Burdens: The IMF and World
and bond issuance. Bank collaborate under the Heavily Indebted
Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative and the
World Bank Group Components Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI) to
• International Bank for Reconstruction and alleviate the external debt burdens of the
Development (IBRD) & International poorest countries, aiming for sustainable
Development Association (IDA): Aim to foster development without future debt issues. They
economic and social progress to reduce conduct joint debt sustainability analyses using
poverty. the Debt Sustainability Framework (DSF).
• International Finance Corporation (IFC): • Reducing Poverty: Since 1999, both
Focuses on investing in commercial enterprises institutions have supported the Poverty
and supporting private sector initiatives in the Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) approach,
developing world. which aligns national policies, donor support,
• Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency and development outcomes to combat poverty
(MIGA): Encourages foreign investment by in low-income countries. PRSPs are central to
offering protection against non-commercial HIPC and concessional lending activities.
risks. • Monitoring Progress on MDGs: Since 2004,
the IMF and World Bank have jointly produced
the Global Monitoring Report (GMR) to track
Cooperation between IMF and World Bank progress towards the UN Millennium
• Framework for Cooperation: Although they Development Goals (MDGs), assessing
have independent mandates, the IMF and contributions from developing countries,
World Bank work collaboratively, developed countries, and international
complementing each other's efforts in financial institutions.
assisting member countries. • Assessing Financial Stability: The Financial
Sector Assessment Program (FSAP), initiated in
1999, focuses on strengthening financial

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 pg. 152

sectors by identifying system strengths and • Promotion of Good Governance: Emphasis on

vulnerabilities and recommending policy governance has significantly influenced global
responses. policies, with discussions on sovereignty and
equity implications.
Achievements of Bretton Woods Institutions • Standard and Precedent Setting: BWIs set
• Economic Growth and Trade Expansion: Post- global economic standards and frameworks,
World War II era saw significant economic guiding recovery and development strategies
growth and expansion of international trade, post-World Wars.
partly credited to the Bretton Woods • Specialized Research and Training:
institutions. World trade notably grew faster Contributions to fields like International
than world production from 1950 to 1975, Economic Law support global governance.
fostering international money and capital • Addressing Global Economic Issues: Their role
markets. in global economic challenges reflects power
• Order in International Monetary Affairs: The dynamics, with developed nations often
IMF contributed to international monetary benefiting.
stability by enforcing exchange-rate rules and • Implementing Positive Actions: BWIs' broad
providing short-term credit to countries facing authority has stabilized global economies,
balance of payments challenges, thereby inspiring new institutions and agreements.
avoiding detrimental economic measures.
• Long-term Financial Support: The World Bank Criticisms of Operational Mechanisms
provided long-term credit for reconstruction • Rule of Law and Human Rights: Critiques focus
and development, facilitating growth in war- on overlooking rule of law and human rights in
devastated and developing areas, a role not engagements with multinational corporations.
typically filled by private markets. • Loan Conditionality: Conditionalities are
• Trade Liberalization: GATT facilitated tariff criticized for leading to increased poverty and
reduction rounds, significantly lowering tariffs inequality in recipient countries.
on manufactured goods and promoting • Bias Towards Developed Nations: Policies and
principles of non-discrimination and market governance structures are seen as favoring
integration among industrialized nations. developed nations, creating an uneven
• Adaptation to New Challenges: The Bretton international economic landscape.
Woods institutions have evolved to address • Lack of Fair Representation: Governance
new global challenges such as environmental structures criticized for not reflecting equitable
issues, data flows, and policy problems beyond representation of member nations.
traditional national boundaries, promoting • Sovereignty Compromise: The impact on
multilateralism and transparency. national policy-making raises debates on the
implications for national sovereignty.
Impact on International Economic Development Evolution of the World Trade Organization (WTO)
• Guidance for Global Actors: TNCs, under BWIs' • Early Attempts: Efforts to establish an
influence, play pivotal roles in global organization for trade and commercial policy
economics, reshaping policy and development. date back to 1947.
• Adaptation to Global Markets: BWIs have • Charter for the International Trade
evolved to address global market integration, Organization (ITO): Drafted at the Havana
with ongoing debates on effectiveness for the Conference but never ratified due to
global south.

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 pg. 153

disagreements over trade system preferences • Exclusion of Agriculture: Initially, agriculture,

and full employment policies. crucial for developing countries, was largely
• Acceptance of the American Proposal: The excluded from the GATT framework.
proposal for a General Agreement on Tariffs • Bias Against Developing Countries: GATT was
and Trade (GATT) was accepted and signed by perceived as favoring the interests of
many nations, leading to the formation of developed and industrialized countries, often
GATT without a formal organization. neglecting the needs of developing nations.
• Emergence of WTO: Through increasing
liberalization and GATT negotiations, the Uruguay Round and Formation of the World Trade
World Trade Organization was established in Organization (WTO)
1995. Uruguay Round Highlights
Features of GATT • Key Issues:
• Non-Discrimination: Members agreed to apply o Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights
the Most Favored Nation (MFN) principle to all (TRIPS)
import and export duties. o Trade-Related Investment Measures
• Reciprocity: Aimed to promote fair and free (TRIMS)
international trade among members. o Trade in Agricultural Commodities
• Economic Integration: GATT allowed for • Third World Countries' Perspective: Concerns
economic integration like free trade areas or over competing with advanced countries and
customs unions, provided they facilitated trade transnational companies, especially in
between constituent territories without raising intellectual property rights, which could harm
barriers to other parties' trade. indigenous technology and nascent industries
• Trade Liberalization: Several rounds of like pharmaceuticals.
negotiations aimed at reducing tariffs and non- • Service Sector and Agriculture: Inclusion of
tariff barriers, significantly lowering duties on service sectors under TRIMS raised
global trade. employment concerns for developing
Success Under GATT countries. Agriculture remained contentious,
• Trade Growth: Eight rounds of multilateral with disagreements between the USA,
negotiations led to a rapid growth in trade, advocating for free trade and subsidy
especially between 1950 and the first oil shock withdrawal, and the EEC, especially France,
in 1973, with an average growth rate of nearly favoring state subsidies.
8 percent a year.
• Increased Trade Share: Despite fluctuations, Dunkel Draft and WTO Formation
trade consistently grew faster than output, • Deadlock Resolution: Arthur Dunkel, Director
increasing trade's share in global output. General of GATT, proposed the Dunkel Draft
Reasons for GATT's Limitations (DDT) to break negotiation deadlocks, calling
• Reduced Growth Rate: Post-1973, trade for subsidy reductions and tariff replacements
growth slowed, affected by economic shocks for non-tariff barriers.
and crises, though it recovered to around 6 • Significance: Required changes in national
percent a year between 1990 and 2002. legislation, including India, to align with
• Unequal Barrier Reduction: Trade barriers of international conventions.
interest to developing countries were not • WTO Establishment: Ratified in December
reduced as significantly as those primarily 1994, the Uruguay Round agreements led to
concerning developed countries. the establishment of the WTO, superseding
GATT.

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WTO Functioning 2001, aimed to address these disparities but

• Authority: The WTO is a powerful legislative has been largely stalled due to disagreements
and judicial body, enforcing rules through over the extent to which subsidies should be
sanctions, surpassing the authority of national cut.
governments and other international • Market Access: Developing countries have
organizations. been advocating for greater access to the
• Negotiation-Based: Born from the Uruguay markets of developed countries, particularly
Round, the WTO's work continues under the for agricultural products and textiles. However,
Doha Development Agenda launched in 2001. developed countries often protect their
markets through tariffs and non-tariff barriers,
Developing vs. Developed Countries in WTO arguing the need to protect their industries
• US Pressure: The US has urged the WTO to and maintain standards. This has led to a
revise developing country designations, deadlock, as developing countries see these
targeting China for perceived preferential barriers as a significant hindrance to their
treatment amidst a trade war. economic development.
• Proposed Exclusions: The US suggests • Special and Differential Treatment (S&DT):
excluding OECD and G-20 members, high- Developing countries demand stronger
income countries, and significant trade provisions for Special and Differential
contributors from self-declared developing Treatment (S&DT) to acknowledge their
status. economic vulnerabilities and development
• Rebuttal by Developing Countries: China, needs. S&DT provisions are meant to give
India, and others advocate for per capita developing countries more flexibility in
indicators in development assessments, implementing agreements and commitments,
highlighting the importance of self-declaration longer transition periods, and more technical
in the WTO context. assistance. However, developed countries
• Global Supply Chain Disruption: The Great have been cautious about broadening S&DT
Lockdown revealed vulnerabilities in global provisions, fearing they could be used to
trade, fueling arguments for protectionist circumvent trade liberalization commitments.
policies, which challenge the global trade • Intellectual Property Rights: The Agreement
regime and impact economic factors on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
worldwide. Property Rights (TRIPS) has also been a point of
contention. Developing countries have called
Reasons for deadlock in the WTO negotiations for more flexibility in the TRIPS agreement to
between the developing and developed countries access affordable medicines for public health
• Agricultural Subsidies: One of the most and to facilitate technology transfer.
contentious issues has been agricultural Developed countries, with strong
subsidies. Developed countries, notably the pharmaceutical and technology sectors,
United States and the European Union, have emphasize strict intellectual property rights
historically provided substantial subsidies to enforcement to protect investments and
their agricultural sectors, which they have innovation.
been reluctant to reduce significantly. • Non-Agricultural Market Access (NAMA):
Developing countries argue that these Negotiations on Non-Agricultural Market
subsidies distort global agricultural markets, Access (NAMA) focus on reducing tariffs on
making it difficult for their farmers to compete. industrial goods. Developing countries are
The Doha Development Round, initiated in concerned that steep tariff reductions could

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 pg. 155

harm their emerging industries by exposing • Reducing Inequalities: By applying a single set
them to premature competition. They of rules to all members, the WTO simplifies the
advocate for the principle of "less than full trade regime, giving smaller countries a
reciprocity" in tariff reductions, while stronger voice and simplifying negotiations for
developed countries push for broader market major powers.
access. • Increasing Consumer Choices: Reductions in
• Environmental and Labor Standards: subsidies and trade barriers under WTO
Developed countries often advocate for the agreements have expanded consumer choices
inclusion of environmental and labor standards and improved product quality.
in trade agreements, arguing that trade should • Balanced Trade Policy: The WTO system helps
be both free and fair. Developing countries, governments defend against lobbying from
however, view these standards as veiled narrow interest groups, promoting policies
protectionism, aimed at limiting their that benefit the broader economy.
competitive advantage of lower labor and • Global Representation: The WTO represents a
environmental costs. significant portion of the global population and
trade, with its members comprising around 85
Achievements of the WTO Over the Years percent of the world’s population and 95
• Main Function: The WTO aims to ensure a percent of world trade.
smooth and free flow of global trade, • Non-Trade Issues: The success of the WTO has
administering trade agreements, resolving led various groups to seek its platform for
disputes, monitoring trade policies, and enforcing non-trade rules related to labor,
supporting developing nations. environment, and competition policy.
• Eradication of Trade Barriers: It has • Supervision of Global Trade: As the only
successfully reduced tariff and non-tariff international organization overseeing 95% of
barriers, enhancing both the value and volume global trade, the WTO provides developing and
of global trade. least-developed countries with special rights
• Expansion of Trade Governance: The WTO has and leniency, emphasizing the importance of
broadened the scope of trade governance to special and differential treatment.
include investment, services, and intellectual
property, surpassing the achievements of its Dispute Settlement Mechanism
predecessor, GATT. The World Trade Organization's (WTO) Dispute
• Enhanced Institutional Framework: It has Settlement Mechanism (DSM) is widely regarded
become a more comprehensive institution as one of the central pillars of the international
than GATT by expanding its agenda to include trading system, designed to provide a structured
development policies and improving dispute process for resolving trade disputes between
settlement and monitoring through the Trade countries. This mechanism is underpinned by the
Policy Review and the World Trade Report. Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU), which
• Promotion of Sustainable Trade: The WTO establishes the rules and procedures for resolving
encourages sustainable trade development disputes.
practices.
• Effective Dispute Settlement: The WTO's Role of Various Players/Countries in DSM
dispute settlement system helps resolve trade • Developed Countries: Developed countries,
disputes peacefully, reducing international with their significant legal and economic
trade tensions. resources, have been active users of the DSM.
They have the capacity to initiate and sustain

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 pg. 156

complex disputes, which can sometimes Challenges and Way Forward

disadvantage smaller or less developed • Appellate Body Crisis: As of my last update in
countries. The United States and European April 2023, one of the most pressing
Union, for example, have been involved in challenges facing the DSM is the deadlock in
numerous disputes, both as complainants and the Appellate Body, caused by certain WTO
respondents. members blocking the appointment of new
• Developing Countries: Developing countries judges. This has significantly hampered the
have increasingly participated in the DSM, system's ability to resolve disputes in a timely
using it to defend their interests and challenge manner.
the trade practices of both developed and • Need for Modernization: The DSM needs to
other developing countries. However, their evolve to address modern trade issues,
participation is often limited by resource including digital trade, environmental
constraints. Countries like Brazil, India, and concerns, and state-owned enterprises.
South Africa have been notably active, Modernizing the rules and procedures could
showcasing the DSM's accessibility to a make the system more relevant to current
broader range of members. global trade challenges.
• Least Developed Countries (LDCs): LDCs' • Capacity Building for Developing and Least
participation in the DSM has been minimal, Developed Countries: Enhancing the legal
largely due to the high costs of litigation and capacity of developing and LDCs to
lack of legal expertise. Efforts have been made participate effectively in the DSM is crucial.
to provide these countries with technical This could involve more comprehensive
assistance and capacity-building support to technical assistance and the creation of a
encourage their participation. support fund to help cover litigation costs.
Achievements of the DSM • Improving the Speed of Dispute Resolution:
• Providing a Rule-Based System: The DSM has Efforts should be made to expedite the
been successful in establishing a rule-based dispute resolution process, making it more
order for international trade disputes, efficient and less costly for all members.
reducing the reliance on power-based • Enhancing Transparency and Participation:
resolution mechanisms. Increasing transparency in the DSM
• Reducing Unilateral Actions: By offering a processes and allowing greater participation
formal avenue for dispute resolution, the from civil society could improve the
DSM has helped decrease the incidence of legitimacy and public understanding of the
countries taking unilateral actions against system.
their trading partners, which could escalate
into trade wars. Critique and Challenges of the WTO
• Enhancing Stability and Predictability: The • Democratic Principles and Transparency
mechanism has contributed to the stability o Democratic Deficit: The WTO is criticized
and predictability of the international trading for its lack of democratic transparency,
system by providing a consistent and with negotiations often perceived as
transparent process for resolving disputes. benefiting corporations with insider
• Creating Jurisprudence: The body of rulings access.
and reports from resolved disputes has o Policy Laundering: Enables countries to
created a significant corpus of international bypass domestic democratic processes,
trade law, clarifying various aspects of WTO imposing internationally negotiated
agreements.

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 pg. 157

regulations under the guise of increased international and intra-country

harmonization. inequalities.
• Bias Towards Developed Nations • Agricultural Policies
o Protectionist Measures: Developed o Market-Driven Policies: The emphasis on
countries retain high import duties and market forces in agriculture under the
quotas, particularly affecting products WTO has led to food dumping,
from developing countries. undermining local production and
o Non-Tariff Barriers: An increase in exacerbating hunger in poor countries.
measures such as anti-dumping against • Limited Opportunities for Poor Nations
developing countries. o Unequal Participation: Developing
o Agricultural Protectionism: While countries often have limited involvement
developed countries maintain high in negotiations and decision-making,
agricultural subsidies, developing lacking the resources to fully participate.
countries face pressure to liberalize their • Dispute Resolution Challenges
markets. o Ineffective Dispute Settlement: The
• Intellectual Property Rights Dispute Settlement Body has been
o TRIPS Agreement: Limits developing rendered inactive due to disagreements,
countries' access to foreign technology, particularly the US veto over the
especially affecting pharmaceuticals and appointment of new judges, questioning
agriculture, potentially harming the body's efficacy and fairness.
indigenous industries.
• Labor and Human Rights
Socialist Economies and the CMEA
o Corporate Interests vs. Human Rights: (Council for Mutual Economic
WTO rules prioritize corporate profits over Assistance)
labor and human rights, encouraging a • Formation: Established in January 1949 under
'race to the bottom' in wages and Soviet influence to promote economic
conditions. development within the Eastern European
• Privatization of Public Services Soviet bloc.
o GATS: Threatens the privatization of • Members: Started with the Soviet Union,
essential services like healthcare and Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and
education, impacting the most vulnerable Romania, expanding to include Albania, East
communities. Germany, Mongolia, Yugoslavia (cooperation),
• Environmental Concerns Cuba, and Vietnam.
o Environmental Degradation: The WTO's Role and Evolution
rulings and policies have been accused of • Motivation: Formed due to Stalin's coercion
undermining national environmental rather than genuine belief, aiming to keep
protections in favor of trade liberalization. Eastern Europe under Soviet economic
• Non-Agricultural Market Access (NAMA) influence.
o Resource Exploitation: Aims to reduce • Reforms: The USSR led reforms from the 1950s
tariffs and environmental protections, to the 1970s to enhance competitiveness
potentially leading to increased against the West, but foundational ideologies
exploitation of natural resources. resisted change.
• Global Inequality • Outcome: By the late 1970s, the economic
o Widening Inequalities: The era of rapid burden of supporting Eastern Europe
trade and investment growth has seen

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 pg. 158

outweighed benefits for the USSR, signaling debates issues like economic inequality and
CMEA's failure to meet objectives. environmental protection. The field draws on
Impact on Russia theories such as liberalism, mercantilism, and
• Economic Role: Russia, as the dominant Marxism to explore the dynamics of the global
member, aimed to bind Eastern Europe economy and its implications for political and social
economically to the Soviet Union. structures worldwide.
• Trade Dynamics: Engaged in bilateral trade,
exporting raw materials for manufactured Major changes in the International Political
goods, a reversal of traditional colonial trade economy in post-Cold War period.
flows. • End of Bipolarity and the Unipolar Moment
• Challenges: Russia received low-quality o Geopolitical Shifts: The Cold War's end
machinery in return and failed to capitalize on led to the United States emerging as the
global oil price increases. sole superpower, entering what Charles
Breakdown of CMEA Krauthammer termed the "unipolar
• Market Shift: Post-1989, Eastern Europe moment." This shift had profound
moved towards market systems and began implications for international relations
making trade payments in convertible and economic policies, with the U.S.
currencies. promoting liberal democratic governance
• Transformation: In 1991, Comecon was and free-market capitalism as global
rebranded, marking a shift towards more norms.
independent economic policies among former o Expansion of NATO and EU: The European
members. Union and NATO expanded eastward,
Achievements and Challenges integrating many former Warsaw Pact
• Achievements: Infrastructure development, countries. This not only reshaped Europe's
financial cooperation through the political landscape but also its economic
International Bank for Economic Cooperation, integration and security architecture.
and energy infrastructure like the “Friendship” • Rise of Globalization
oil pipeline. o Increased Economic Interdependence:
• Challenges: Price system incompatibility The post-Cold War era saw a dramatic
leading to reliance on barter and the failure to increase in global trade and investment
achieve deeper economic integration. flows, facilitated by liberalization policies
and technological advancements. This era
International Political Economy was marked by the reduction of trade
International Political Economy (IPE) is an barriers, leading to a more interconnected
interdisciplinary field that analyzes how political global economy.
actions and economic policies intersect on a global o Technological Revolution: The
scale. It delves into the interaction between states, Information and Communication
markets, and institutions to understand global Technology (ICT) revolution transformed
trade, finance, development, and the impact of economies, reducing the cost of
globalization. Key areas include trade policies, information exchange and enabling the
global finance, economic development, regulation globalization of production and services.
of international markets, and environmental • Emergence of New Economic Powers
sustainability. IPE evaluates the balance of power o Rise of BRICS: Countries like Brazil, Russia,
between nations and markets, the role of India, China, and South Africa (BRICS)
international bodies in economic governance, and emerged as significant economic entities,

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 pg. 159

challenging the traditional dominance of advocacy networks gained prominence,

Western economies and demanding a influencing international policy on issues
greater say in international economic ranging from human rights to
institutions. environmental protection.
o Shift in Economic Power: The economic o Transnational Challenges: Issues such as
rise of Asia, particularly China, marked a terrorism, cyber-security, and pandemics
significant shift in global economic power underscored the limitations of traditional
dynamics, with China becoming a central state-centric models of international
hub for manufacturing and a major player relations, requiring coordinated global
in global trade. responses.
• Changes in International Economic
Institutions and Policies Role or Gender in Global Economy
o Reform of International Financial • Labor Market Participation
Institutions: The post-Cold War period o Gender Gaps: Globally, there are
saw calls for reform in international significant gender gaps in labor market
financial institutions like the IMF and the participation rates, with women often
World Bank to better represent the having lower participation rates than men.
interests of developing countries and This gap is influenced by factors such as
emerging economies. cultural norms, caregiving responsibilities,
o Trade Agreements and Regionalism: The and access to education and vocational
establishment of the World Trade training.
Organization (WTO) in 1995 and the o Sectoral Segregation: Women and men
proliferation of regional trade agreements tend to be concentrated in different
(RTAs) reshaped international trade sectors of the economy, a phenomenon
policies, aiming to create a more known as occupational segregation.
integrated and rules-based global trading Women are often overrepresented in
system. sectors like healthcare, education, and
• Challenges of Globalization service industries, and underrepresented
o Inequality and Backlash: While in STEM (Science, Technology,
globalization spurred economic growth, it Engineering, and Mathematics) fields and
also led to increased inequality within and leadership positions.
between countries, fueling a backlash • Economic Empowerment and
against globalization, as evidenced by the Entrepreneurship
rise of populist movements in the West o Entrepreneurship: Women face various
and elsewhere. barriers to entrepreneurship, including
o Environmental Concerns: The rapid limited access to capital, networks, and
economic expansion brought to the fore markets. Despite these challenges, women
the environmental costs of growth, entrepreneurs are increasingly recognized
leading to increased international for their contributions to innovation and
cooperation on environmental issues, economic growth.
exemplified by the Paris Agreement on o Economic Policies: Policies aimed at
climate change. promoting gender equality, such as equal
• Non-State Actors and Transnational Issues pay legislation, parental leave policies, and
o Rise of Non-State Actors: Multinational programs supporting women
corporations, NGOs, and transnational entrepreneurs, can enhance economic

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 pg. 160

empowerment and contribute to more economic growth is inclusive and benefits

inclusive economic growth. all segments of society.
• Global Supply Chains o Social Protection: Social protection
o Gendered Impact: Global supply chains schemes that consider gender-specific
have a gendered impact, with women needs can mitigate the impact of economic
disproportionately represented in low- downturns on vulnerable populations and
wage manufacturing and agricultural jobs, support a more equitable recovery.
often under poor working conditions.
The legitimacy and relevance of global
Initiatives aimed at promoting ethical
sourcing and labor standards seek to governance mechanisms
address these issues. The legitimacy and relevance of global governance
o Empowerment through Trade: mechanisms, particularly those dominated by the
International trade can offer opportunities International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World
for women's economic empowerment, but Bank, are subjects of ongoing debate among
realizing these benefits requires scholars and policymakers. These institutions were
addressing structural barriers and ensuring established in the mid-20th century to promote
that trade policies are gender-inclusive. international financial stability and economic
• Informal Economy development. Their roles have evolved, but their
o Prevalence of Women: The informal governance structures have often been criticized
economy, which includes unregulated and for being dominated by a few wealthy countries,
unprotected jobs, is a significant source of notably the United States and European nations,
employment for women in many which arguably undermines their legitimacy and
developing countries. Women working in effectiveness in addressing global challenges.
the informal sector face challenges such as
Legitimacy and Relevance
lack of social protection, low incomes, and
vulnerability to economic shocks. • Legitimacy: The IMF and World Bank's
o Policy Attention: Recognizing the legitimacy is often questioned due to their
importance of the informal economy and perceived lack of representation and equity in
the role of women within it is crucial for decision-making processes. Critics argue that
designing policies that support economic their governance structures favor wealthier
inclusion and resilience. nations through a voting system based on
• Financial Inclusion financial contributions, which can marginalize
o Access to Financial Services: Gender the voices of developing countries. This
disparities in access to financial services critique is highlighted in works by scholars like
limit women's economic participation and Joseph Stiglitz, who in his book "Globalization
and Its Discontents" points out the
entrepreneurship opportunities. Initiatives
aimed at enhancing women's financial shortcomings of these institutions in
literacy and access to credit are essential addressing the needs of the less developed
countries.
for promoting economic empowerment.
• Gender-responsive Economic Policy • Relevance: Despite criticisms, the relevance of
o Integrating Gender in Economic Analysis: the IMF and World Bank remains significant.
There is a growing recognition of the need They play crucial roles in providing financial
to integrate gender considerations into resources, policy advice, and technical
economic policy-making to ensure that assistance to countries facing economic
instability or seeking development. The World

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 pg. 161

Bank's role in funding and implementing of crisis. Expanding the financial resources
development projects and the IMF's in available for emergency lending and making
providing emergency funding to countries in the criteria for assistance more flexible can
financial distress are clear indicators of their help the IMF and World Bank respond more
continued importance in the global economy. effectively to future crises.
However, the changing nature of global • Promoting Debt Sustainability: With rising
challenges, including climate change, global global debt levels, particularly in developing
health crises, and digital transformation, countries, these institutions can play a critical
demands that these institutions adapt and role in promoting debt sustainability. This
evolve. includes offering debt relief initiatives and
Suggestions for Improving Effectiveness improving the architecture for sovereign debt
• Governance Reform: There is a broad restructuring.
consensus on the need for governance reform • Encouraging Innovation and Technology
to make decision-making more inclusive and Adoption: Encouraging innovation and
representative. This includes adjusting quota supporting countries in adopting new
systems to better reflect the global economic technologies can help address development
landscape and ensuring that developing challenges more effectively. This includes
countries have greater influence in decision- leveraging digital technologies to improve
making processes. Scholars like Raghuram financial inclusion, governance, and service
Rajan and Luiz Awazu Pereira da Silva have delivery.
discussed the importance of reforming global
financial governance structures to enhance Conclusion
legitimacy and effectiveness. While the IMF and World Bank face criticism
• Focusing on Sustainable Development and regarding their legitimacy and relevance, they
Climate Change: The IMF and World Bank can continue to play crucial roles in the global
improve their relevance by prioritizing economy. Implementing reforms to make these
sustainable development and climate finance. institutions more inclusive, transparent, and
Integrating climate change into their lending responsive to contemporary challenges can
policies, projects, and economic analyses could enhance their effectiveness in global governance.
make them pivotal players in the global effort Engaging with a wide range of stakeholders,
to combat climate change. The World Bank's including scholars, policymakers, and civil society,
"World Development Report" and IMF's is essential in these reform efforts. Examples of
research on "Finance and Climate Change" successful reforms and innovations within these
contribute valuable insights into how these institutions can serve as models for future actions.
institutions can lead on these fronts.
Third World demand for a New
• Enhancing Transparency and Accountability:
Improving transparency in operations and International Economic Order (NIEO)
decision-making processes would help build The Third World demand for a New International
trust and legitimacy. This involves more open Economic Order (NIEO) emerged as a collective call
dialogues with stakeholders, including civil to action from developing countries, aimed at
society organizations, and clearer reporting on reforming the global economic system to address
project outcomes and impacts. systemic inequalities and promote equitable
• Strengthening Crisis Response: The COVID-19 development. This initiative sought to reshape
pandemic highlighted the need for global international economic policies and practices to
institutions to be agile and responsive in times better accommodate the needs and aspirations of

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 pg. 162

the Global South. Understanding the NIEO requires by multinational corporations and developed
an exploration of its origins, the motivations nations.
behind its demand by developing countries, and • Fair Trade Practices: Demanding changes to
the implications it had for international relations trade practices that disadvantaged developing
and economic policy. countries, including better access to markets
Introduction and more equitable terms of trade.
• The NIEO was not merely a policy proposal but • Financial Flows and Debt Relief: Seeking
a broader movement for economic justice, increased financial flows, including aid,
reflecting the aspirations of newly investment, and debt relief, under more
independent countries to assert their favorable conditions.
sovereignty over their economic futures. It • Technological Transfer: Calling for access to
represented an effort to challenge and modern technology under fair and reasonable
transform a global economic framework that terms to support their development agendas.
was seen as perpetuating colonial-era
inequalities. The NIEO was articulated through Economists like Raúl Prebisch and Samir Amin
key United Nations resolutions and became a emphasized the structural imbalances in the global
rallying point for debates on development, economy and advocated for changes that would
sovereignty, and global inequality. allow developing countries to pursue autonomous
Origin of NIEO development strategies. Prebisch, in particular,
• The genesis of the NIEO can be traced back to was instrumental in shaping the economic theories
the early 1970s, a period marked by significant that underpinned the demand for NIEO, arguing for
geopolitical and economic shifts. The a greater focus on the economic diversification of
decolonization process had resulted in the developing countries and the importance of
emergence of new states eager to overcome industrialization.
economic marginalization. The Non-Aligned
Movement (NAM), comprising countries that Contemporary examples of the enduring legacy of
sought to avoid alignment with either the US the NIEO include initiatives like the G77 (a coalition
or the Soviet Union during the Cold War, of developing countries in the UN) continuing to
played a pivotal role in articulating the demand advocate for economic justice and sustainable
for a NIEO. The oil crisis of 1973 and the development. The BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India,
collapse of the Bretton Woods system China, and South Africa) grouping represents
highlighted the vulnerabilities of the global another form of economic cooperation among
South within the international economy, developing countries, seeking to create alternative
accelerating calls for a new economic order. institutions that reflect their interests more
effectively than traditional Western-dominated
Developing Countries Calling for NIEO ones.
Developing countries, often referred to as the
"Third World," called for the NIEO as a means to Why there is demand for NIEO by developing
achieve economic independence, sustainable countries ?
development, and a fairer role in the global
economy. They sought to address issues such as: The demand for a New International Economic
• Control over Natural Resources: Advocating Order (NIEO) by the Third World countries
for the right to exercise sovereignty over their emerged primarily in the 1970s, driven by a
natural resources, which were often exploited combination of economic, political, and social
factors. The NIEO was envisioned as a way to

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 pg. 163

address the unequal global economic structures This solidarity was instrumental in articulating
that disadvantaged developing nations. and pushing forward the demand for the NIEO.
• Economic Inequality and Exploitation: Many • Influence of Development Theories: Theories
Third World countries felt that the existing of economic development, such as
international economic system was heavily dependency theory, which emphasized the
biased in favor of developed nations. This need for developing countries to break free
system perpetuated their status as primary from the economic structures that kept them
commodity exporters, subject to fluctuating in a state of dependency, also played a role in
prices and economic instability, while shaping the demand for the NIEO.
developed countries benefited from higher- • Calls for Fair Trade Practices: Developing
value manufactured goods and stable countries were seeking fairer terms of trade,
economies. greater access to international markets, more
• Colonial Legacy: The historical context of significant technology transfer, and increased
colonialism left many developing countries aid and investment flows. The NIEO was seen
with economies that were heavily dependent as a pathway to achieving these objectives.
on a limited number of commodities and • Desire for Economic Sovereignty and Self-
integrated into the global economy in ways Reliance: The NIEO was also driven by the
that served the interests of their former desire of developing countries to have greater
colonial rulers. The NIEO was seen as a means control over their natural resources, to
to overcome the economic structures that develop their industries, and to pursue
perpetuated dependency and economic policies that were suited to their
underdevelopment. own needs and contexts, free from external
• Global Economic Crises: The 1970s witnessed domination or interference.
several global economic shocks, including the
oil crisis of 1973, which highlighted the Objectives of the NIEO
vulnerabilities of the global economic system • Fairer Terms of Trade: To improve the terms of
and the interdependence between developed trade for developing countries to ensure that
and developing countries. These crises they could obtain fair prices for their exports
prompted calls for a more equitable economic relative to the imports from developed
order that could ensure stable and sustainable countries.
development for all nations. • Increased Development Assistance: To secure
• Rise of Non-Aligned Movement: The Non- a greater amount of development assistance
Aligned Movement, which consisted of from developed countries, including financial
countries that did not formally align with or aid, technology transfers, and increased
against any major power bloc, gained foreign direct investment, under more
momentum during this period. It provided a favorable conditions.
platform for Third World countries to voice • Sovereignty over Natural Resources: To affirm
their demands for a more just and equitable the right of countries to exercise sovereignty
international order, including the call for the over their natural resources and control
NIEO. foreign investment, including the
• Increased Awareness and Solidarity among nationalization of foreign-owned assets where
Developing Countries: There was a growing necessary, without facing retaliatory
awareness among developing countries of measures.
their shared challenges and the potential • Economic Diversification: To promote
strength of their collective bargaining power. industrialization and diversification of

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 pg. 164

economies in developing countries to reduce • Strengthening South-South Cooperation: By

their dependence on the export of a few enhancing collaboration among themselves,
primary commodities. developing countries can share knowledge,
• Stabilization of Commodity Prices: To resources, and technologies to reduce
establish mechanisms for stabilizing dependence on the North.
commodity prices to protect developing • Diversifying Economies: By diversifying their
countries from the volatile swings in the prices economies, developing countries can reduce
of their exports. their vulnerability to commodity price
• Access to Markets: To secure better access to fluctuations and create sustainable
markets in developed countries for the development paths.
products of developing nations, including the • Enhancing Negotiating Capacity: Developing
reduction of tariff and non-tariff barriers. countries need to enhance their capacity to
• Debt Relief: To provide debt relief measures negotiate as a unified bloc in international
for developing countries to alleviate the forums to push for reforms that align with the
burden of external debt. objectives of the NIEO.
• Promoting Regional Integration: Regional
Program of Action for the NIEO economic integration can help developing
The program of action for the NIEO included countries create larger markets, improve
several key initiatives: economies of scale, and enhance their
• Establishment of Commodity Agreements: To bargaining power in the global arena.
stabilize commodity prices and ensure fair • Leveraging International Platforms: Actively
earnings for developing countries. participating in international platforms like the
• Creation of the Common Fund for UN, World Trade Organization (WTO), and
Commodities: To finance the stabilization of other multilateral institutions to advocate for
commodity prices and support the the NIEO principles.
development of alternative sources of income • Implementing Good Governance Practices:
in developing countries. Ensuring transparency, accountability, and
• Implementation of the Generalized System of efficient use of resources to create a conducive
Preferences (GSP): To allow for preferential environment for sustainable development and
tariff rates for exports from developing attract foreign investment.
countries into developed countries' markets.
• Conducting North-South Dialogues: Engaging Challenges to NIEO
in dialogues between developed (North) and • Stiff Opposition from Industrialized States:
developing (South) countries to negotiate the Developed countries resisted changes
terms of international economic cooperation. proposed by the NIEO, viewing them as threats
• Promotion of Technology Transfer: to their economic interests and the existing
Encouraging the transfer of technology from global order that favored them. They argued
developed to developing countries on the current system was adequate and saw little
favorable terms to support their incentive to modify a structure that provided
industrialization and economic development. economic benefits through access to cheap
raw materials and markets for their goods.
What Developing Countries Can Do to Secure • Lack of Economic and Military Power:
NIEO Developing countries lacked the power to
enforce changes, with their attempts often
resisted by more powerful nations. Their

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 pg. 165

economic dependence on developed countries Way Forward

for exports, aid, and investment made The New International Economic Order (NIEO)
significant changes challenging without risking aims to reshape global economic relations to
economic retaliation. better serve developing countries' interests.
• Presence of Insecurity Dilemma among Post- • Expand South-South Cooperation: Enhance
Colonial Societies: Internal conflicts, political collaboration among developing countries by
instability, and interstate conflicts, often sharing resources, technology, and knowledge
rooted in colonial legacies, undermined the to reduce dependence on the developed
ability of these societies to present a united world.
front and effectively pursue economic • Utilize the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM):
development strategies. Leverage NAM as a platform to unify and
• Declining Significance of NAM and Lack of amplify the voices of the Global South in
Unity: The Non-Aligned Movement's advocating for equitable global policies and
effectiveness as a unified advocate for the reforms.
NIEO waned over time due to diverging • Advocate for UNSC Expansion: Push for the
interests and priorities among its members, reform and expansion of the United Nations
leading to a lack of unity and fragmented Security Council to ensure more representative
solidarity. and fair global governance, particularly for
• Rise of Regional Trading Blocs: The emergence developing nations.
of trading blocs like TPP, NAFTA, and APEC • Adopt Coordinated Policies: Develop and
focused on deepening economic integration implement harmonized strategies among
among member states, often sidelining the developing countries for stronger collective
broader goals of the NIEO and having bargaining in international forums, addressing
exclusionary effects on non-member trade, environmental standards, and more.
developing countries.
• Poor Regional Cooperation: Political rivalries The international economic world order is in a
and economic disparities, as seen in state of flux, driven by a confluence of factors
organizations like SAARC, hindered effective including the rise of new powers, technological
regional integration and cooperation among change, environmental imperatives, and global
developing countries, limiting their collective crises. Moving forward, the ability of nations to
bargaining power on the global stage. adapt to these changes, embrace multilateralism,
• Lack of Solidarity: The diversity in economic and pursue policies that promote inclusivity,
structures, levels of development, and political sustainability, and resilience will be crucial in
systems among developing countries led to shaping a fair and robust global economic system.
varied interests and priorities, making it The evolution of this order will depend on the
difficult to maintain solidarity and a unified collective will of the international community to
stance on international economic issues. address these challenges and opportunities,
External economic pressures, such as debt fostering a world economy that benefits all.
obligations and the need for foreign
investment, further undermined solidarity as
countries might prioritize bilateral agreements
with developed nations over collective action.

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Chapter - 9 pg. 166

United Nations
Analysis of important dimensions from PYQ
1. What is the structure and functions of International Court of Justice? [2023]
2. Discuss the structure and functions of UN Security Council. [2023]
3. Describe the composition of the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Discuss its voluntary jurisdiction.
[2022]
4. What measures have been undertaken by the United Nations for its reforms? [2021]
5. Discuss the significance and urgency of the UN Security Council reforms. Explain the relevance of the
reform proposals made by the UN Secretary General António Guterres for the developing countries.
[2020]
6. In what way does the predominance of the USA in the UN funding affect its decision-making? [2019]
7. Do you think that sustainable development goals are really attainable by 2030? [2019]
8. Evaluate the role of the International Court of Justice in inter-State disputes. [2019]
9. Discuss the relevance of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on the security of women in conflict
zones. [2018]
10. Do you agree with the view that despite the limitations in the functioning of the UN, it has
distinguished and unique achievements to its credit? [2017]
11. Do you endorse that the United Nations needs major changes in its structure and functioning?
Suggest changes for efficient improvements. [2016]
12. What are the real objectives of Millennium Development Goals (MDG)? Do you think that MDGs have
been able to achieve the desired goals of poverty alleviation and sustainable development? [2015]
13. Has the reform of the economic and social arrangements of the United Nations been effective?
[2015]
14. Argue a case for UN reform in the context of changing global milieu. [2014]
15. Bring out the objective of India seeking a permanent seat in the Security Council. [2013]

The United Nations (UN) is a quintessential disputes led to calls for a more effective global
representation of the liberal model of collective organization.
security, established with the primary goal of • Foundation: The concept of the United Nations
maintaining international peace and preventing was a brainchild of U.S. President Franklin D.
the recurrence of global conflicts like the World Roosevelt. The term “United Nations” was first
Wars. Its formation marks a significant milestone in used in the Declaration by United Nations on
the history of international relations, embodying January 1, 1942, during the Second World War,
the collective desire for peace, respect for human as an alliance against the Axis powers.
rights, and global cooperation. • San Francisco Conference: The UN Charter was
drafted at the San Francisco Conference held in
History of the United Nations
April-June 1945. Representatives from 50
• Background: The UN was established in the nations participated in drafting the UN Charter,
aftermath of World War II, a period marked by which was subsequently ratified on October
unprecedented destruction and the failure of 24, 1945, marking the official establishment of
the League of Nations (LoN) to prevent the the United Nations.
war. The shortcomings of the LoN in ensuring
collective security and resolving international

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 pg. 167

Objectives of the United Nations politics is governed more by anarchy and

The objectives of the United Nations, as articulated power than by international institutions like
in its Charter, are comprehensive and address the UN.
various dimensions of global peace and • Stephen M. Walt: A realist scholar, Walt is
development: critical of the UN's ability to maintain peace
• Prevent conflicts and wars, maintaining and security, suggesting that its effectiveness
international peace and security. is often overstated and that its success
• Promote and protect human rights globally. depends largely on the interests and actions
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) of powerful states. He views the UN more as
establishes fundamental human rights. an arena for state interaction rather than an
• Upholding International Law: Develop independent actor in international politics.
international law, establish norms, and • Chandra Lekha Sriram has critiqued the UN’s
facilitate dispute resolution. Provides a forum effectiveness in peacekeeping and conflict
for addressing legal issues between states. resolution, particularly in regards to its
• Promoting Social Progress and Better Living mandates and the execution of peace
Standards: Advance global socio-economic operations. She points to issues of insufficient
development. resources, lack of coordination, and
o Focus Areas: Address poverty, health, sometimes flawed mandates.
education, and environmental Need of reforms
sustainability. • Kofi Annan often spoke about the need for
reform within the UN, particularly the Security
Scholars analysis of UN Council, to reflect the realities of the 21st
Proponents century.
• Joseph S. Nye Jr has highlighted the role of the • Thomas G. Weiss often critiqued the UN for its
UN in providing a platform for international bureaucratic inefficiencies and the paralysis in
cooperation. He argues that while the UN has the Security Council due to the veto power of
its flaws, it plays a crucial role in addressing its permanent members. He advocates for
global issues that no single nation can solve significant reforms to improve the UN’s
alone. Nye also emphasizes the UN’s role in responsiveness and effectiveness, especially in
setting global norms and agendas. peacekeeping and humanitarian interventions.
Critic of UN • Bruce Russett: A proponent of the liberal
• Noam Chomsky has been critical of the UN, institutionalist perspective, Russett sees the
particularly pointing out how it has been used UN as a key instrument for fostering
by powerful member states, especially the international cooperation and peace. He
U.S., to advance their own interests rather argues that, despite its flaws, the UN provides
than genuinely working for global peace and a platform for conflict resolution and dialogue
security. He has highlighted the discrepancies that would be difficult to replicate.
between the UN's ideals and its actions in • Shashi Tharoor discusses the UN's
various conflicts. achievements in maintaining international
• John J. Mearsheimer views the UN with peace and promoting development but also its
skepticism, arguing that it is often ineffective in failures, particularly in preventing genocides
preventing conflicts or enforcing peace, as and major conflicts. Tharoor argues for the
powerful states will follow their own need to democratize the UN, especially
interests. He contends that international reforming the Security Council.

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 pg. 168

UN Organ Aims and Structure and Functions Achievements and

Objectives Composition Contributions
General Main Comprises all 193 Oversees the budget, Passed the Universal
Assembly deliberative, UN member appoints non- Declaration of
(GA) policymaking, states. Each permanent members to Human Rights (1948),
and member has one the Security Council, promotes sustainable
representative vote. makes development,
organ. recommendations addresses global
through resolutions. issues like climate
change.
Security Maintains 15 members: 5 Determines threats to Successful
Council international permanent (China, peace, imposes peacekeeping
(UNSC) peace and France, Russia, UK, sanctions, authorizes missions (e.g.,
(Discussed in security. USA) with veto military action, Liberia, East Timor),
detail below) power, and 10 oversees peacekeeping critical role in conflict
non-permanent operations. resolution, though
members. sometimes limited by
veto power.
Economic and Central forum for 54 member states Coordinates economic, Promotes
Social Council discussing elected by the GA social, and related work Sustainable
(ECOSOC) international for three-year of 15 UN specialized Development Goals
economic and terms. agencies, commissions, (SDGs), facilitates
social issues. and five regional cooperation among
commissions. various UN agencies
and commissions.
International Settles legal 15 judges elected Adjudicates disputes Influential rulings
Court of disputes for 9-year terms between countries, shaping international
Justice (ICJ) submitted by by the GA and provides advisory law, including
Discussed in states, gives Security Council. opinions to authorized decisions on
detail below) advisory opinions No two judges UN organs and territorial disputes
on legal may be from the specialized agencies. and the legality of use
questions. same country. of force.
Secretariat Provides studies, Headed by the Carries out day-to-day Coordinates
information, and Secretary- work of the UN, humanitarian relief
facilities needed General, staffed administers programs efforts (e.g., Syrian
by the UN. by international and policies, Civil War), manages
civil servants. coordinates logistical peacekeeping
and administrative operations,
support to other UN instrumental in
organs. implementing UN’s
policies globally.
Trusteeship To oversee the Originally Supervised Facilitated the
Council administration of composed of administration of Trust process of
Trust Territories those members Territories, prepared decolonization,

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 pg. 169

and ensure their administering them for self- leading to

self-government. Trust Territories government or independence for
and permanent independence. many countries.
members of the Suspended operation
Security Council. in 1994.

inability to prevent or effectively manage various

conflicts:
Note: The Trusteeship Council suspended its • Continuation of Wars: Despite its mandate,
operations after completing its mandate, with the the UN has seen ongoing wars, like in Syria and
last Trust Territory (Palau) attaining independence Yemen.
in 1994 • Resource Reluctance: Key members like the
Institutional challenges USA often hesitate to fully fund or support UN
• Outdated Principles and Provisions: The UN's operations.
principles sometimes reflect a bygone era. For • Multipolar Instability: Rising tensions in
example, its charter still refers to Germany and regions like the South China Sea reflect the
Japan as 'enemy states', a holdover from WWII. complexities of a multipolar world.
• Lack of Transparency: There's criticism • Peacekeeping: UN peace missions vary in
regarding the opaque operations of UN effectiveness, sometimes hampered by limited
institutions. resources.
• Financial and Human Resource Limitations: o In Mali, the UN mission faces
The UN often struggles with inadequate challenges due to limited resources
funding and staffing, impacting its and complex security situations
effectiveness. • Human Rights: The UN promotes human rights
• Western Dominance in Bureaucracy: The but relies on member state cooperation for
organization's bureaucracy is perceived as enforcement. The Rohingya crisis in Myanmar
disproportionately influenced by Western demonstrates the difficulty in enforcing human
countries. rights without full cooperation from member
• Cumbersome Amendment Process: Changing states
the UN's charter is a complex process requiring • Health and Humanitarian Aid: WHO and
a 2/3rd majority, consent from the P5 UNICEF face funding and access challenges.
(permanent members of the Security Council), The WHO's struggle with COVID-19 response,
and ratification by member states. partly due to funding and political pressures.
• Complexity and Size: Dag Hammarskjöld • Environmental Protection: The UN leads major
described the UN as a 'Weird Picasso environmental pacts but faces uneven
abstraction' due to its unwieldy structure. implementation. Exa. Paris Agreement goals.
• Differences Between UNSC and UNGA: The • Economic and Social Development: The UN's
UNSC, criticized for being non-representative development goals depend on global
due to the veto power of the P5, contrasts with collaboration. The uneven progress of
the more decentralized UNGA, where each Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) across
member state has one vote. different regions.
The performance of the United Nations
The performance of the United Nations in
maintaining global peace and security has been
subject to criticism, particularly considering its Case for UN reform

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 pg. 170

• Reflecting Contemporary Power Dynamics: call for representation highlighting the urgency for
Scholars like Anne-Marie Slaughter and change.
Thomas G. Weiss advocate for UN reform to
mirror current global power shifts, Structural and functional reforms UN needs
emphasizing the rise of nations like India, • Security Council Reform: Include countries like
Brazil, and South Africa. India or Brazil as permanent members of the
o The unchanged structure of the UNSC UNSC, providing them with a say in global
since 1945 fails to represent modern global decisions.
power distribution, contradicting realist o Revise the veto system to ensure that a
theories that highlight the importance of single country cannot unilaterally block
power dynamics in global governance. resolutions, promoting a more democratic
• Multipolarity and Regional Influence: John and representative decision-making
Ikenberry highlights the shift towards a process.
multipolar world, necessitating a more • Enhanced Peacekeeping: Establish a standing
inclusive UN system that accommodates UN peacekeeping force, ready to be deployed
emerging powers and regional groupings like rapidly in crisis situations, similar to the rapid
the African Union and ASEAN. deployment forces of NATO. Ensure this force
• Non-Traditional Security Threats: Jessica is well-trained and equipped to deal with
Tuchman Mathews underscores the need for diverse conflict scenarios.
the UN to address non-traditional security • Bureaucratic Streamlining: Adopt electronic
threats such as climate change, pandemics, processing for documentation and
and cyber-attacks, as exemplified by the global communication, similar to e-government
challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. models, to reduce paperwork and accelerate
• Democratic Legitimacy and Transparency: decision-making processes. Implement lean
Scholars David Bosco and Chandra Lekha management strategies to improve the
Sriram call for enhancing the democratic efficiency of UN operations.
legitimacy and transparency of the UN, • Financial Transparency: Conduct annual,
particularly the UNSC, aligning with liberal independent audits of UN finances, similar to
international relations theories advocating for public company audits, and publish the results
transparent and democratic governance for public review. Introduce transparent,
structures. itemized budgeting processes to track and
• Humanitarian and Human Rights Issues: justify expenditures.
Samantha Power advocates for a more • Focus on Climate and Health: Create
proactive UN role in addressing humanitarian specialized agencies or expand the roles of
crises and human rights issues, as seen in the existing ones like the UNEP or WHO to
ongoing situations in Syria and Yemen. specifically address climate change and global
• North-South Economic Divide: Amartya Sen health issues. Establish dedicated funds and
and Joseph Stiglitz discuss the crucial role of cooperative frameworks for these issues, akin
the UN in addressing the North-South to the Green Climate Fund.
economic divide, a perspective supported by • Human Rights Enforcement: Introduce stricter
dependency theories in international relations. sanctions or intervention mechanisms for
Security Council Reform: Figures like Kofi Annan countries violating human rights, akin to the
and Shashi Tharoor stress the need for UNSC EU's human rights sanctions regime. This could
reform, with proposals like the G4 nations seeking involve travel bans or asset freezes against
permanent membership and the African Union’s

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 pg. 171

individuals responsible for human rights • Promoting Human Rights: The UN has been a
violations. significant force in promoting human rights
• Technology and Cybersecurity: Form a globally. The Universal Declaration of Human
specialized UN agency for cybersecurity and Rights (UDHR), adopted in 1948, is a landmark
technology ethics, similar to the European achievement that has shaped human rights
Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA), to discourse worldwide.
address digital threats and ethical concerns of • Environmental Conservation: The UN's role in
emerging technologies. environmental protection and sustainable
• Inclusive Decision-Making: Include NGOs, civil development, particularly through the United
society, and private sector representatives in Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), is
advisory roles or as part of special committees, notable. Agreements like the Paris Agreement
similar to the UN Economic and Social Council's on climate change, facilitated by the UN,
engagement with non-state actors, to broaden showcase its capability in driving global
perspectives in decision-making. cooperation on critical issues.
• Youth and Gender Representation: • Global Health Initiatives: The World Health
Implement quotas or dedicated youth and Organization (WHO), a UN agency, has been
gender representative positions in UN bodies, pivotal in addressing global health challenges.
akin to the Youth Delegate Program in the UN Its successful campaign against smallpox,
General Assembly, to ensure diverse leading to its eradication in 1980, is a
representation. prominent example. The WHO's ongoing
• Non-Traditional Security Threats: Establish a efforts in managing the COVID-19 pandemic
dedicated task force or expand the mandate of further highlight the UN's role in global health.
existing bodies to address non-traditional • Norm and Standard Setting: Theoretical
threats like pandemics and cyber attacks, frameworks like Constructivism in
similar to the role of the World Health international relations emphasize the UN's role
Organization during health crises or in norm-setting and shaping state behavior
INTERPOL's cybercrime unit. through its conventions and treaties.
• Conflict Resolution and Mediation: The UN
Achievements of UN has a long history of mediating in conflicts and
• Peacekeeping Successes: The UN's negotiations. For example, its role in the Iran
peacekeeping missions have been Nuclear Deal negotiations and the ongoing
instrumental in mitigating conflicts and mediation in the Syrian conflict demonstrates
maintaining peace in various regions such as in its importance in international diplomacy.
Liberia and East Timor, where they played a • Promoting Development Goals: The
crucial role in stabilizing the regions post- Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
conflict. adopted by the UN, have set a global agenda
• Humanitarian Aid: The UN, through agencies for development, with measurable targets and
like the World Food Programme (WFP) and a broad scope covering poverty, education,
UNICEF, has provided vital humanitarian health, and environmental sustainability.
assistance in crisis situations. The WFP, for
instance, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize UNSC
in 2020 for its efforts to combat hunger and The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one
improve conditions for peace in conflict- of the six principal organs of the United Nations
affected areas. (UN), charged with ensuring international peace
and security, recommending the admission of new

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 pg. 172

UN members to the General Assembly, and • Representation and Legitimacy: The current
approving any changes to the UN Charter. Its composition of the UNSC, especially the
decisions, including the imposition of sanctions permanent membership, is often criticized for
and authorization of military action, are binding on not reflecting the contemporary global power
all UN member states. structure. Countries like India, Brazil, Germany,
Structure and Japan have been advocating for
• Membership: The UNSC consists of 15 permanent seats to better represent the
members: current global dynamics.
• Permanent Members (P5): China, France, • Ineffectiveness and Political Deadlocks: The
Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United UNSC is sometimes seen as ineffective,
States. These countries have special voting especially when P5 members have conflicting
power, known as the 'veto', allowing them to interests, leading to political deadlocks. For
block substantive resolutions. instance, disagreements between the P5 have
• Non-Permanent Members: 10 non-permanent led to inaction on critical issues like the Syrian
members elected by the General Assembly for Civil War.
two-year terms. These seats are allocated on a • Criticism of Selective Engagement: The
regional basis. Council has been accused of selective
• Presidency: The Council's presidency rotates engagement and inconsistency in addressing
monthly among its 15 members. global crises, often influenced by the political
Functions and strategic interests of its members,
• Peacekeeping and Security: The UNSC is particularly the P5.
responsible for maintaining international • Transparency and Democratic Deficit: The
peace and security. It can deploy peacekeeping working methods of the UNSC, including
missions, establish international sanctions, and closed-door meetings and the lack of a formal
authorize military action. public record for some of its decisions, have
• Conflict Resolution: It often plays a role in been criticized for lacking transparency and
conflict resolution, mediating disputes and democratic accountability.
formulating peace plans.
• Recommendations for UN Membership: The UNSC Reform: Why India Wants It?
Council recommends new members to the The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one
General Assembly and approves changes to the of the principal organs of the UN, charged with
UN Charter. maintaining international peace and security.
• Enforcement Measures: It can take However, its structure has remained largely
enforcement measures, including economic unchanged since 1945, leading to calls for reform,
sanctions, arms embargoes, financial particularly from countries like India.
penalties, travel bans, and military action. • Representation and Equity: The current
composition of the UNSC, particularly its
Issues with the UNSC permanent membership, reflects the post-
• Veto Power: The veto power of the P5 World War II power structure. India argues
members is a significant point of contention. It that this structure is outdated and does not
can be used to block the adoption of any represent the current global realities, where
substantive resolution, including the countries like India play a significant role in
condemnation of their own actions or those of international affairs.
allies. • Global South Representation: India's inclusion
in the UNSC is seen as a step towards rectifying

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 pg. 173

the underrepresentation of the Global South in this expansion. They argue that new
global governance structures. This is crucial for permanent seats would deepen the
a more balanced and equitable international democratic deficit within the UNSC and
order. prefer adding non-permanent seats for
• Economic and Demographic Significance: wider accessibility and rotation. Influenced
India is one of the world's largest economies by regional rivalries (e.g., Pakistan opposing
and the second-most populous country. Its India), the Coffee Club advocates for
economic and demographic stature is seen as equitable geographic representation and a
warranting a more significant role in global more democratic and diverse UNSC
decision-making forums like the UNSC. reflective of all member states.
• Peacekeeping Contributions: India has been
one of the largest contributors to UN Arguments for India’s Inclusion in the UNSC
peacekeeping missions. Its longstanding • Democratic Credentials: India's democratic
commitment to peacekeeping is cited as a system of governance adds to its credibility as
justification for a greater role in the Council, a responsible actor in international affairs. It is
where peacekeeping decisions are made. often presented as a counterweight to
• Nuclear Power Status: As a nuclear-armed authoritarian states in Asia.
state, India’s participation in the UNSC would • Economic Growth and Potential: India's
add to the Council's credibility in dealing with rapidly growing economy and its role in
nuclear proliferation and disarmament issues. international trade and investment make it an
• Regional Stability: India's inclusion is argued to essential player in global economic stability
bring a more balanced perspective to the and development.
Council's deliberations on Asian issues, • Active International Engagement: India has
contributing to regional stability. been actively involved in various international
platforms, including the G20, BRICS, and the
• The G-4 countries, Brazil, Germany, India, Non-Aligned Movement. Its active diplomacy
and Japan, advocate for United Nations demonstrates its commitment to
Security Council (UNSC) reform, pushing for multilateralism.
permanent seats to better reflect 21st- • Diverse and Pluralistic Society: India’s diverse
century geopolitical realities. They argue the and pluralistic society is seen as a microcosm
current UNSC structure, established in 1945, of the world, making it well-equipped to
fails to represent today's global power understand and address a variety of global
balance. As significant economic and issues.
regional powers, G-4 nations believe their • Counter-Terrorism: India’s experiences with
contributions to international affairs justify cross-border terrorism and its initiatives in
their bids for permanent membership. They counter-terrorism are cited as valuable for the
represent diverse global regions and UNSC’s role in addressing global security
mutually support each other's aspirations challenges.
for permanent seats, a unique aspect of • Support from Other Countries: India has
their campaign. garnered support for its bid from several
countries, including the United States, Russia,
• Contrastingly, the Coffee Club or Uniting for the United Kingdom, France, and many others,
Consensus (UfC) group, including Italy, reflecting its global standing.
Pakistan, Mexico, and South Korea, opposes

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 pg. 174

Scholars view on UNSC reform given its consistent engagement with UN

• Expansion of Permanent Membership: C. Raja missions and initiatives.
Mohan have argued for the inclusion of India
as a permanent member of the UNSC, citing International Court of Justice
India's significant role in global affairs, both The International Court of Justice (ICJ), also known
economically and strategically. Mohan and as the World Court, is the principal judicial organ of
others also point to India's extensive the United Nations (UN). Its composition and the
contributions to UN peacekeeping missions as concept of voluntary jurisdiction are crucial aspects
further justification for its inclusion. of its functioning.
• Veto Power: Rajesh Rajagopalan have
discussed the contentious nature of the veto Composition of the ICJ
power. They often advocate for either its • Number of Judges: The ICJ is composed of 15
abolition or limitation to democratize the judges.
Council's decision-making process. • Election of Judges: These judges are elected by
• Regional Representation: Hardeep Singh Puri, the United Nations General Assembly and the
a former diplomat and current scholar, Security Council, voting independently.
emphasizes the need for better regional • Term Duration: Each judge is elected for a
representation. This includes not just India, but term of nine years.
also other underrepresented regions like Africa • Nationality Requirement: No two judges may
and Latin America. be nationals of the same country. This
• Reform in Working Methods: Experts like requirement ensures the court's
Meena Singh Roy have called for more representation of the major legal systems of
transparency and inclusivity in the UNSC’s the world.
working methods. The criticism often revolves • Qualifications: Judges must possess high moral
around the Council being opaque and character and meet the qualifications required
dominated by a few major powers. in their respective countries for appointment
• Addressing Contemporary Challenges: to the highest judicial offices, or be
Happymon Jacob highlight the need for the jurisconsults of recognized competence in
UNSC to evolve in addressing contemporary international law.
global challenges like terrorism, cyber threats, • Re-election: Judges can be re-elected for
and climate change. This perspective subsequent terms.
underscores the need for the Council to adapt
its scope and approach to remain relevant. Voluntary Jurisdiction of the ICJ
• Equitable Geopolitical Representation: • Consent-Based Jurisdiction: The ICJ can only
Experts like S. Y. Quraishi argue for a UNSC hear cases when the states involved accept its
structure that reflects the current geopolitical jurisdiction, either through prior treaty
landscape, accommodating the rise of new commitments or on a case-by-case basis.
powers and the relative decline of some • Compromissory Clauses: International treaties
traditional powers. often include clauses that automatically confer
• India's Role and Contributions: Srinath jurisdiction to the ICJ for disputes related to
Raghavan often highlight India's long history of the treaty.
contributions to the UN. They argue that this • Optional Clause: States can declare
legacy justifies a greater role for India in the acceptance of the ICJ's jurisdiction as
UNSC's decision-making processes, particularly compulsory in advance under Article 36(2) of

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 pg. 175

the ICJ Statute, although such declarations Mexico, leading to a review of cases of Mexican
typically contain reservations. nationals on death row in the U.S.
• Limitations and Challenges: This system • Precedent-Setting: ICJ decisions serve as
respects state sovereignty but limits the ICJ's important precedents. The ruling in the North
capacity to adjudicate disputes without states' Sea Continental Shelf cases (1969) significantly
consent. influenced the law of maritime boundaries.
• Recent Example: A recent case under this • Promoting International Law: The ICJ
jurisdiction is Ukraine vs. Russia, concerning promotes the use of legal mechanisms over
the Terrorism Financing Treaty, where Russia's military or unilateral actions in dispute
court appearance signified its acceptance of resolution. This role enhances the application
the ICJ's jurisdiction. and respect for international law.
• Theoretical Perspectives: In international Challenges
relations theory, the voluntary jurisdiction • Voluntary Jurisdiction: The court’s reliance on
underscores state sovereignty (realist states’ consent limits its ability to hear certain
perspective) and the role of international cases. The U.S.’s withdrawal from compulsory
institutions in dispute resolution (liberal jurisdiction in 1986 following the Nicaragua
perspective). case is a notable instance of this limitation.
Role in Inter-State Disputes • Political Considerations: ICJ rulings can be
• Legal Adjudication: The ICJ acts as a formal influenced by international politics, as seen in
venue for legal dispute resolution between cases involving major powers. For example, the
states. For instance, in the landmark case U.S. rejected the ICJ's ruling in the Nicaragua v.
concerning maritime delimitation in the Black United States case (1986) due to geopolitical
Sea (Romania v. Ukraine, 2009), the ICJ played interests.
a crucial role in resolving a long-standing • Enforcement Difficulties: Without direct
dispute by delineating maritime boundaries. enforcement power, the ICJ relies on the
• Mediation and Arbitration: The ICJ has political will of states for its decisions to be
mediated in disputes, offering a less implemented, which can be problematic in
adversarial approach than courtroom cases involving powerful countries.
litigation. One example is the mediation role it • Access and Representation: Smaller states
played in the Temple of Preah Vihear case might find it challenging to engage with the ICJ,
(Cambodia v. Thailand, 1962 and 2011), where either due to limited resources or perceived
it contributed to a peaceful resolution. biases towards more influential nations. This
• Normative Influence: The ICJ influences can affect the perception of the court's
international norms and standards. Its advisory impartiality and accessibility.
opinions, like the Legality of the Threat or Use
of Nuclear Weapons (1996), have contributed Is the United Nations toothless in ending wars?
significantly to the development of Assessing whether the United Nations (UN) is
international law. "toothless" in ending wars requires a nuanced
Effectiveness understanding of its capabilities, limitations, and
• Binding Judgments: The ICJ's judgments are the complexity of contemporary conflicts.
legally binding. However, enforcement
depends on the UN Security Council and the Capabilities of the UN in Ending Wars
cooperation of states. An example of • Peacekeeping Operations: The UN has had
compliance is the Avena case (Mexico v. United success in deploying peacekeeping forces to
States, 2004), where the ICJ ruled in favor of conflict zones to maintain ceasefires and

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 pg. 176

support peace processes. These missions, like • Yemen and Syria Conflicts: In conflicts like
those in Liberia and Sierra Leone, have been Yemen and Syria, the UN has struggled to bring
crucial in stabilizing regions post-conflict. about a lasting resolution. Political
• Diplomatic Mediation: The UN often plays a complexities, regional rivalries, and the
key role in mediating peace talks. For instance, involvement of various armed factions have
the UN's involvement in the Colombia peace posed significant challenges to peace efforts.
process, which led to a 2016 agreement ending
a decades-long conflict, is a testament to its • Myanmar and Tigray Conflict: In cases like the
diplomatic capabilities. Rohingya crisis in Myanmar and the Tigray
• Humanitarian Aid and Support: In conflict conflict in Ethiopia, the UN has faced criticism
zones, the UN, through its agencies like UNICEF for not being able to effectively intervene or
and the World Food Programme, provides prevent humanitarian crises.
crucial humanitarian assistance, which is • Ukraine Conflict: The Russian invasion of
essential in mitigating the impacts of war. Ukraine in 2022 is a notable example where
• Setting International Norms: The UN the UN's ability to respond has been limited,
contributes to the development of largely due to Russia's position as a permanent
international laws and norms that guide member of the Security Council and its veto
conflict resolution, such as regulations around power.
war crimes, which can deter the escalation of The UN is not entirely "toothless" in ending wars,
conflicts. as it plays a significant role in peacekeeping,
Limitations in Ending Wars diplomatic mediation, humanitarian assistance,
• Reliance on Member States: The UN's and setting international norms. However, its
effectiveness in conflict resolution is often effectiveness is often constrained by the lack of
contingent on the cooperation and consensus consensus among major powers, limited
of its member states, particularly the enforcement capabilities, and the complex nature
permanent members of the Security Council of modern conflicts. While the UN remains an
(P5), who hold veto power. important platform for international diplomacy
• Political Deadlocks: The differing interests of and conflict resolution, its capacity to end wars is
P5 members can lead to stalemates. For frequently hindered by geopolitical realities and
example, in the Syrian conflict, divisions within internal structural challenges.
the Security Council have hindered decisive UN
action. More about UN in news
• Lack of Enforcement Power: The UN lacks its (Will be covered these in PSIR bulletin
own military force and relies on contributions December 2023)
from member states for peacekeeping. This 1. UN Security Council reform is a song in a
dependency can limit its response capability loop
and the enforcement of its resolutions. 2. UN apparatus, especially Security Council, is
• Complex Nature of Modern Conflicts: crumbling under weight of 21st century
Contemporary conflicts often involve a mix of geopolitical realities: India
state and non-state actors, including terrorist 3. Angry with reform delays, India calls U.N.
groups and private militias, making them more system ‘anachronistic’
complex and harder to resolve through 4. U.K. calls for U.N. reform with permanent
traditional means. Security Council seat for India
Recent Context 5. If not reformed, U.N. will be overtaken by
other organisations: Indian envoy Kamboj

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Chapter - 10 pg. 177

Regionalization of world politics: EU,

ASEAN, APEC, SAARC, NAFTA

Analysis of important dimensions from PYQ

1. Russian-Ukraine crisis has cast a dark shadow on the energy needs of the member states of the
European Union (EU). Comment. (2022)
2. Explain India’s relations with the European Union in the context of Brexit. (2021)
3. Explain the success of ASEAN as a regional organisation. (2021)
4. Critically analyze the role of ASEAN in the promotion of regional peace and security through
economic cooperation and trade. (2020)
5. Since its inception the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) has failed to deliver
on its promise. What initiatives should be taken to reinvigorate the organisation? (2018)
6. American President Donald Trump’s proposal to withdraw from NAFTA would bring unforeseen
consequences to the regionalisation of world politics. Elaborate. (2017)
7. Has the BREXIT affected the regionalisation process initiated by European Union? And what could be
its likely impact in the regionalisation process of world politics? (2017)
8. How does regionalism shape world politics? Explain with examples. (2016)
9. The European Union has become the most politically influential, economically powerful and
demographically diverse regional entity in the world. Discuss. (2015)
10. Despite so many agreed areas of cooperation, innumerable institutional mechanisms and a
permanent secretariat, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) has not taken off
as a meaningful regional grouping. Discuss. (2014)
11. Give reasons for regionalisation of world politics. (2013)
12. Substantiate APEC as a regional economic and trade arrangement. (2013)

In global politics, regionalism refers to the political Southeast Asia, bringing together
and economic cooperation and integration among countries such as Thailand, Vietnam, and
countries within a specific geographic region. Indonesia that share proximity and
Regionalism involves the formation of regional historical ties.
organizations, alliances, or agreements that • Cooperation and Integration: Regional
facilitate collaboration and coordination among organizations promote cooperation among
neighboring nations. These arrangements aim to member states, leading to various forms of
address common challenges, promote economic integration, such as economic unions, free
development, enhance security, and foster trade agreements, and political alliances.
political cooperation within the defined Member countries work together to achieve
geographical area. shared objectives and address regional issues.
o Example: The European Union (EU)
Features of regionalism in global politics include: represents a high level of economic and
• Geographic Focus: Regionalism centers political integration. It has a common
around a specific geographic region, bringing currency (Euro), a single market, and
together countries that share proximity and institutions that make decisions
often have common historical, cultural, or impacting member states collectively.
economic ties. • Issue-Specific Collaboration: Regional
o Example: The Association of Southeast organizations often focus on addressing
Asian Nations (ASEAN) focuses on particular challenges that are more relevant at

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 pg. 178

the regional level than the global one. These and collaboration among countries within a
issues may include economic development, specific geographic region. It involves the
security, environmental concerns, or cultural creation of regional economic agreements,
exchange. such as free trade zones, customs unions, and
o Example: The Gulf Cooperation Council common markets.
(GCC) addresses security and economic o The primary aim is to foster economic
issues specific to the Gulf region. It cooperation, enhance trade relations,
includes countries like Saudi Arabia, the and promote shared economic
United Arab Emirates, and Qatar, development within the region. Economic
collaborating on matters such as defense regionalism often involves the removal of
and economic integration. trade barriers, tariffs, and quotas among
• Sovereignty Considerations: While member states, facilitating the flow of
participating countries collaborate on regional goods, services, and investments.
matters, they typically maintain their o Examples include the European Union's
sovereignty. Regional organizations may not single market, the Association of
have the same level of authority as Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
supranational entities like the European Union, Economic Community, and the North
and member states often retain control over American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA,
their domestic policies. replaced by the United States-Mexico-
o Example: The North American Free Trade Canada Agreement, USMCA).
Agreement (NAFTA), now replaced by the • Security Regionalism: Security regionalism
United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement focuses on collaborative efforts among
(USMCA), aimed at economic integration countries in a specific region to address shared
without compromising the sovereignty of security challenges and threats. This can
the member countries, the U.S., Canada, involve the establishment of regional security
and Mexico. organizations, joint military exercises, and
• Flexible Arrangements: Regionalism allows for mutual defense agreements.
flexible arrangements that suit the diverse o The goal is to enhance regional stability,
needs and preferences of member states. It prevent conflicts, and respond
can range from loose forums for consultation collectively to security concerns. NATO
to more tightly integrated structures with (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) is an
shared institutions and decision-making example of security regionalism, where
processes. member states commit to collective
o Example: The Asia-Pacific Economic defense against external aggression. In
Cooperation (APEC) forum provides a the Asia-Pacific region, the ASEAN
platform for economic cooperation Regional Forum (ARF) serves as a platform
among member economies in the Asia- for dialogue and cooperation on security
Pacific region. It operates as a loose, issues among member states.
voluntary forum without legally binding • Political Regionalism: Political regionalism
commitments, showcasing a flexible involves political cooperation and coordination
arrangement. among countries within a particular region. It
goes beyond economic and security aspects to
Types of regionalism include diplomatic collaboration, political
• Economic Regionalism: Economic regionalism dialogue, and shared governance structures.
refers to the integration of economic activities

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 pg. 179

o Political regionalism aims to promote governance is essential for addressing

peace, stability, and democratic issues such as climate change and
governance within the region. Regional financial stability.
organizations may have political bodies • Functionalism: Functionalism emphasizes the
that facilitate discussions on regional functional benefits of regional cooperation. It
policies, dispute resolution, and argues that collaboration should start with
diplomatic initiatives. addressing specific functional needs and then
o The European Union exemplifies political gradually lead to broader cooperation in other
regionalism through its institutions like areas. The focus is on addressing practical
the European Parliament, Council of the issues that necessitate joint efforts.
European Union, and the European o Functionalism suggests that regional
Commission, which collectively cooperation begins with solving practical
contribute to political integration and problems, and this approach is relevant in
decision-making in the region. the global context where countries face
common challenges. By addressing
Theories of Regionalism in Global Politics functional issues, regions can build trust
• Federalism: Federalism in the context of and momentum for broader
regionalism involves the creation of a collaboration. In a globalized world,
supranational authority or institution that functional cooperation becomes a
holds powers over member states. It envisions pragmatic way to navigate shared
a regional structure akin to a federal state challenges, making regionalism a valuable
where some authority is centralized, and strategy for addressing interconnected
member states delegate certain powers to this problems.
central body. o David Mitrany: Emphasized addressing
o Federalism is seen as a response to the technical problems to foster functional
need for stronger and more centralized cooperation and promote peace.
governance to address global challenges. Advocated for solving practical issues as a
In a world where issues like climate starting point for building trust and
change, economic interdependence, and collaboration among nations.
transnational threats require coordinated o Ernst B. Haas highlighted that functional
responses, a federalist approach to collaboration in one area could lead to
regionalism aims to establish a unified broader cooperation in other sectors.
authority capable of making and enforcing • Neofunctionalism: Neofunctionalism builds on
decisions on behalf of the region. functionalism but introduces the idea that
o Jean Monnet: Advocated for economic integration can lead to spill-over
supranational institutions to consolidate effects, pushing countries to deepen
authority gradually, fostering economic cooperation in other areas. It suggests that
and political integration. Believed that cooperation in one domain (e.g., economic)
integrating key sectors, especially coal can trigger integration in other sectors.
and steel, would create interdependence o In the global context, neofunctionalism
and prevent war. suggests that regions can harness
o Richard N. Cooper: Supports global economic cooperation as a catalyst for
federalism as a response to economic and broader integration. Economic
environmental challenges on a worldwide interdependence is a significant feature of
scale. Cooper argues that global the global landscape, and by focusing on

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 pg. 180

economic collaboration, regions can o ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian

potentially spur cooperation in security, Nations, representing regional strategic
political, and social domains. alliances)
Neofunctionalism offers a pathway for • Response to Globalization: In some cases,
regions to address multifaceted regionalism can be seen as a response to the
challenges through incremental and challenges and pressures of globalization.
interconnected integration. Regions may seek to preserve their unique
o Leon N. Lindberg: Coined the term cultural identities and economic interests in
"neofunctionalism," focusing on spillover the face of global homogenizing forces.
effects as a driver of regional integration. o Eurozone (regions within Europe
Lindberg saw economic cooperation as a responding collectively to globalization)
catalyst for broader integration, with • Security Concerns: Security concerns, both
increased cooperation across various traditional and non-traditional, can also drive
domains. regionalism. Regions may collaborate for
collective security reasons, especially when
Reasons for Regionalism they face common threats.
• Cultural Affinity and Historical Ties: Regions o NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
often share common cultural, linguistic, and Organization, reflecting regional security
historical ties that foster a sense of identity and collaboration)
solidarity. This shared identity can be a • Influence of External Powers: Sometimes,
powerful force in uniting people within a external powers may encourage regionalism as
region against perceived external threats or in a part of their broader geopolitical strategies.
pursuit of common goals. For instance, a powerful country might support
o Francophonie (referring to French- regional alliances that align with its own
speaking regions sharing cultural and interests.
historical ties) o Balkans (historically influenced by
• Economic Interests: Economic factors play a external powers in their regional
significant role in regionalism. Regions may dynamics)
seek to protect and promote their economic • Subnational Movements: Regionalism can be
interests, which can sometimes differ influenced by subnational movements seeking
significantly from those of the nation as a autonomy or self-determination. Regions with
whole or from global economic trends. distinct identities or aspirations may pursue
Regional trade agreements, for instance, are a regional cooperation as a means to address
form of economic regionalism. their unique concerns.
o NAFTA (North American Free Trade o Kurdistan (a region with a distinct
Agreement, exemplifying regional subnational movement)
economic interests) • Globalization's Impact: The effects of
• Geopolitical Strategies: Regions may form globalization, while promoting global
alliances or blocs as a strategic move to interconnectivity, have also led to a reassertion
increase their collective bargaining power in of regional identities. Regional cooperation
international affairs. This is often seen in allows countries to navigate the challenges and
international organizations where regional opportunities posed by globalization
blocs vote together or support each other's collectively.
positions.

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 pg. 181

o Mercosur (South American trade bloc, role in Middle Eastern politics. Similarly,
formed partly in response to organizations like the Union of South American
globalization) Nations (UNASUR) reflect the political and
• Policy Coordination: Regionalism facilitates cultural solidarity of South American countries.
policy coordination on various issues, including • Response to Globalization: Regionalism can be
economic policies, infrastructure a response to the challenges of globalization.
development, and healthcare. This The EU's stringent data protection laws, such
coordination can enhance the effectiveness of as the General Data Protection Regulation
policies within a specific geographic area. (GDPR), exemplify how regional entities can
o Schengen (European region coordinating set standards that have a global impact,
policies on border control and free especially in areas like digital privacy and
movement). consumer rights.
• Geopolitical Influence: Regional powers often
How does the regionalism shape the world exert significant influence on world politics.
politics? For example, China's Belt and Road Initiative
• Formation of Economic Blocs: Regional (BRI) aims to connect Asia with Africa and
economic blocs like the European Union (EU), Europe through land and maritime networks,
the North American Free Trade Agreement significantly impacting global trade and
(NAFTA), and the Association of Southeast geopolitics.
Asian Nations (ASEAN) have reshaped global • Environmental and Health Policies: Regional
trade and economic policies. These blocs cooperation can be crucial in addressing
facilitate trade among member countries, set environmental and health challenges. The
common economic policies, and negotiate as a Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization
unified entity in global trade discussions. For (ACTO) works towards the preservation of the
example, the EU's collective bargaining power Amazon basin and its resources. In health,
in trade negotiations has substantial impacts regional cooperation has been evident in
on global trade norms and standards. managing health crises, such as the European
• Security Alliances: Regional security alliances Medicines Agency's (EMA) role in coordinating
such as NATO (North Atlantic Treaty the COVID-19 vaccine response in Europe.
Organization) and the African Union's • Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding:
peacekeeping missions have a profound Regional organizations often play critical roles
impact on global security dynamics. These in conflict resolution and peacebuilding. The
alliances often determine regional responses African Union has been involved in conflict
to conflicts, participate in peacekeeping resolution and peacekeeping efforts in various
operations, and influence global security African countries, highlighting the importance
policies. For instance, NATO's role in collective of regional approaches to peace and security.
defense and crisis management in the North • Human Rights and Democracy Promotion:
Atlantic region significantly affects Regional entities like the Council of Europe
international security strategies. promote human rights, democracy, and the
• Cultural and Political Identity: Regions like the rule of law. The European Court of Human
Middle East and Latin America have unique Rights, an organ of the Council of Europe,
cultural and political identities that influence significantly influences human rights standards
global politics. The Arab League, for instance, and practices not only in Europe but also
unites countries with shared linguistic, globally.
cultural, and historical ties, playing a significant

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 pg. 182

Globalisation and Regionalisation of World o Cultural and Economic Challenges: The

Politics pervasive influence of global culture and
Impact of Regionalisation on Globalisation economic practices can challenge regional
• Complementary to Globalisation: identities and autonomy.
o Facilitating Global Trade: Regional blocs o Policy Influences: Global policies and
often create harmonized trade policies and agreements may sometimes conflict with
standards, making it easier for member regional priorities and regulations.
countries to engage in global trade. • Technological and Information Exchange:
o Testing Ground for Global Policies: o Facilitating Regional Communication:
Regional groups can experiment with Advances in technology, a product of
policies (like environmental standards or globalisation, make it easier for regional
digital regulations) that could later be partners to communicate and collaborate.
adopted globally. o Spreading Ideas: The global flow of ideas
• Counterbalance to Globalisation: can inspire regional initiatives and
o Protecting Regional Interests: cooperation.
Regionalisation allows groups of countries • Global Issues Prompting Regional Responses:
to protect and promote their own o Environmental and Health Issues: Global
interests, which might be overlooked in a challenges like climate change and
purely global framework. pandemics often require regional
o Cultural and Political Identity: By fostering cooperation for effective responses.
a strong regional identity, regionalisation o Security Concerns: Global security threats
can act as a counterforce to the can lead to regional alliances focusing on
homogenizing effects of globalisation. collective defense and intelligence sharing.
• Inter-regional Competition and Cooperation: Regionalisation and globalisation are not mutually
o Trade Agreements: Inter-regional trade exclusive but rather dynamically interact with each
agreements can influence global trade other. While regionalisation can act as a
patterns and negotiations. counterbalance and a complement to
o Diplomatic Influence: Regional blocs can globalisation, globalisation also drives regional
wield collective diplomatic influence in integration and shapes regional responses to
global forums, impacting global global challenges. The interplay of these forces
governance and policy-making. shapes the evolving landscape of world politics.

Impact of Globalisation on Regionalisation Does the advance of regionalism threaten global

• Driving Regional Integration: order and stability?
o Economic Interdependence: Globalisation Arguments Suggesting Regionalism Threatens
has increased economic interdependence, Global Order and Stability:
encouraging countries to form regional • Fragmentation of Global System: Critics argue
blocs for better negotiation power and that regionalism can lead to the fragmentation
economic security. of the international system. By prioritizing
o Standardization and Harmonization: The regional over global interests, regional blocs
global spread of standards and practices like the EU, ASEAN, or NAFTA might undermine
can lead to regional efforts to harmonize global institutions like the United Nations or
policies to remain competitive. the World Trade Organization. For example,
• Challenges to Regional Identity and regional trade agreements can sometimes
Autonomy:

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 pg. 183

contradict or complicate global trade norms stability by creating a more balanced and
established by the WTO. interconnected international economy.
• Creation of Rival Blocs: Some scholars fear Balanced Perspective:
that regionalism can lead to the creation of • Many scholars, like Andrew Hurrell, argue for a
rival blocs, potentially leading to geopolitical more nuanced view. They suggest that while
tensions. This concern is reminiscent of the regionalism can sometimes challenge global
Cold War era, where the world was divided order, especially if it turns into regional
into opposing blocs. The current tension hegemony or protectionism, it can also
between Western countries and Russia, with significantly contribute to global governance
NATO's expansion often cited by Russia as a by addressing issues that global institutions are
threat, exemplifies this concern. too broad or too slow to handle effectively.
• Economic Protectionism: Regionalism might The impact of regionalism on global order and
encourage economic protectionism, where stability, therefore, depends on how it is
regions focus on internal trade at the expense implemented and how it interacts with global
of global trade relationships. This can lead to institutions and norms.
global trade imbalances and conflicts, as seen
European Union
in various trade wars where regional blocs
impose tariffs against external countries or • The European Union (EU) is a supranational
blocs. organization consisting of 27 member states.
Supranationalism involves member states
Arguments Suggesting Regionalism Supports voluntarily ceding some of their sovereign
Global Order and Stability: powers to common institutions, such as the
• Building Blocks for Global Governance: European Commission, the European
Proponents argue that regionalism can act as a Parliament, and the European Court of Justice.
building block for global governance. Regions • Neo-functionalism, as a theory shaping the
often serve as testing grounds for new ideas EU's development, draws inspiration from
and policies, which can later be adopted Immanuel Kant's idea of "perpetual peace." It
globally. The European Union’s progress in envisions that economic interdependence and
regional integration and policy harmonization cooperation can lead to peaceful relations
is often cited as a positive example. among states, fostering a sense of shared
• Conflict Resolution at Regional Level: Regional interest that transcends national boundaries.
organizations can be more effective in • Pooled sovereignty in the EU refers to member
managing and resolving local conflicts. They states pooling certain aspects of their
have a better understanding of the regional sovereignty to address common challenges
context and can provide tailored solutions. The collectively. Disaggregated sovereignty implies
role of the African Union in mediating conflicts that states retain control over specific policy
in Africa is an example of regionalism areas while cooperating with others in areas
contributing to stability. where sovereignty has been pooled. The EU
• Economic Development and Stability: exemplifies this dual concept through shared
Regional economic integration can lead to decision-making and policy implementation.
economic development and stability within • The Eurozone crisis prompted the EU to
regions, which in turn contributes to global enhance economic governance and
stability. ASEAN’s role in Southeast Asia has coordination among member states. This led
not only enhanced regional economic growth to increased alignment of fiscal policies, with
but also contributed to global economic measures such as the Fiscal Compact and the

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 pg. 184

European Semester aiming to coordinate • Crisis Response Mechanisms: The EU's

economic policies and ensure fiscal discipline response to crises, such as the migration crisis,
to prevent future crises. has highlighted its capacity for policy
adaptation. The EU seeks coordinated
Copenhagen Criteria for Membership:
responses involving multiple member states to
• The Copenhagen criteria are the standards address challenges that transcend national
established for countries seeking EU borders.
membership. These criteria include:
o Market Economy: Prospective members Achievements of EU
must have a functioning market economy • Economic Integration: The creation of the
capable of withstanding competitive Eurozone, which includes 19 of the 27 EU
pressures within the EU. member states using the euro as their official
o Democracy: Countries must demonstrate currency, facilitates easier cross-border
a commitment to democratic principles, business and reduces currency exchange costs.
including free and fair elections and • Promotion of Peace and Stability: The EU's
protection of individual rights. role in the reconciliation process in the
o Protection of Minorities: Ensuring the Balkans, particularly in stabilizing regions and
rights and protection of minority groups supporting countries like Croatia and Slovenia
within the country. in their path to EU membership.
o Protection of Human Rights: Compliance • Environmental Leadership: The EU's
with fundamental human rights standards commitment to the Paris Agreement and its
as outlined in international agreements. own ambitious Green Deal, aiming to become
o Rule of Law: A commitment to a legal climate-neutral by 2050.
framework based on the rule of law and an • Human Rights and Democracy: The
independent judiciary. Copenhagen Criteria, which are the rules that
o Ability to Implement EU Policies: define whether a country is eligible to join the
Prospective members must demonstrate EU, emphasize the respect for human rights,
the capacity to implement and adhere to democracy, and the rule of law.
EU policies and regulations. • Global Trade and Diplomacy: The
• Enlargement Policy and Conditionality: The Comprehensive Economic and Trade
EU's enlargement policy is based on the Agreement (CETA) between the EU and
principle of conditionality. Countries seeking Canada, which eliminates most trade barriers
membership must meet the established between the parties.
criteria, and the EU monitors their progress. • Crisis Management and Humanitarian Aid :
This process ensures that new members align The EU's rapid response to humanitarian
with EU values and standards before gaining crises, such as providing aid and support to
full membership. Syrian refugees during the Syrian Civil War.
• Multi-Level Governance: Neo-functionalism • Research and Innovation: The Horizon 2020
emphasizes multi-level governance, where program, which was the biggest EU Research
decisions are made at various levels—local, and Innovation program ever with nearly €80
national, and supranational. In the EU, this is billion of funding available over 7 years (2014
evident through the involvement of local and to 2020).
regional authorities in decision-making • Mobility and Education: The Erasmus+
processes alongside national governments. program, which has enabled over 3 million

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 pg. 185

students to study abroad at other European Europe' (more conservative, Eastern European
universities since its inception. countries, often former communist states)
• Expanding Membership: The accession of particularly in terms of immigration policies,
Croatia in 2013, which demonstrated the further complicate EU cohesion.
ongoing appeal of the EU to European • Oversizing and Integration Issues: The rapid
countries seeking economic growth and expansion of the EU, exemplified by the
political stability. inclusion of countries like Greece, has posed
• Influence in Global Governance: The EU's role challenges in maintaining coherent
in the Iran nuclear deal (Joint Comprehensive integration. This enlargement has sometimes
Plan of Action), where it played a significant led to overlooking crucial aspects like fiscal
coordinating role in the negotiations. policies of new member states, creating
economic strains within the union.
Issues faced by EU
• Western Neo-Liberal Ideology Criticism: The
Regionalism, particularly within the European EU's policies, such as the Copenhagen and
Union (EU), faces a complex array of internal and Convergence criteria, have been critiqued for
external challenges. These challenges have reflecting a Western neo-liberal ideology. This
significant implications for the coherence, criticism extends to the EU's enlargement
integration, and future direction of regional policy, notably in the case of Turkey, whose
entities like the EU. membership has been a contentious issue.
Internal Challenges • Realist Critique of Functionalism: From a
• Complex Union Structure: As noted by Harold realist perspective, the idea that nation-states
James, the EU's structure is marked by a mix of will surrender significant sovereignty and
consensus and qualified majority voting, functions for the sake of integration is seen as
reflecting both supranationalism and inter- unrealistic. This is evident in the EU's less
governmentalism. This complexity is evident in integrated approach to political and security
different levels of integration among member matters.
states, such as participation in the Schengen • Economic Challenges and Populism: The EU's
Area, the Eurozone, the EU itself, and other economic slowdown and high unemployment
agreements like the European Free Trade rates have fueled discontent, contributing to
Association (EFTA). The Lisbon Treaty's opt-out events like Brexit. Rising right-wing
clause further adds to this complexity, allowing conservative ideology, as noted by Mark
member states to selectively participate in Leonard, challenges the EU's liberal values and
certain EU policies. supranationalism. Figures like Marine Le Pen in
• Fissures in the EU: Brexit highlighted France and Geert Wilders in the Netherlands
significant divisions within the EU, with some exemplify this trend.
member states (like the UK and Denmark) External Challenges
being more Europhobic, and others (such as • Resurgent Russia: Russia's assertive foreign
France and Italy) being more Europhilic. policy poses a strategic challenge to the EU,
Economic disparities between core economies particularly in Eastern Europe and in energy
(like Germany and France) and peripheral security matters.
countries (such as Spain and Portugal), as well • Islamic Fundamentalism: The rise of Islamic
as the North-South divide, exacerbate these fundamentalism poses security challenges,
fissures. Additionally, cultural and political impacting EU's internal security dynamics and
differences between 'Old Europe' (liberal, immigration policies.
Western European countries) and 'New

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• US Protectionism and Belligerence: The sources, such as coal, negatively impacting

protectionist policies of the United States, global efforts to combat climate change.
particularly under the Trump administration, Current Aspects (as of 2023)
created tensions in transatlantic relations. • EU's Response to COVID-19: The pandemic
Issues like demands for increased European posed significant challenges to the EU,
funding for NATO, withdrawal from the Paris particularly in coordinating health responses
Climate Agreement, and differences in G7 and managing economic recovery. The EU's
summits illustrate these challenges. vaccine procurement and distribution
• NATO and EU Security Community: The strategies reflected both the strengths and
evolving dynamics of NATO, with the U.S. weaknesses of regional cooperation.
demanding more financial contribution from • Digital Transformation and Regulation: The
EU member states, have raised questions EU is at the forefront of regulating digital
about the future of the transatlantic security markets and tech giants, with policies like the
alliance and the trust that underpins it. Digital Markets Act (DMA) and Digital Services
Act (DSA) setting global standards.
Impact of Russia Ukraine War on EU
• Climate Change Initiatives: The European
• Loss of Russian Gas: In response to the EU's Green Deal and the EU's commitment to
support for Ukraine, Russia curtailed most of becoming carbon-neutral by 2050 highlight its
its gas supplies to Europe in 2022. This led to role in addressing global climate change.
low gas storage levels and a scramble to find • Migration Crisis and Border Control: Ongoing
alternative energy sources, exacerbating migration challenges, particularly from the
concerns about energy rationing, surging Middle East and Africa, continue to test the
electricity and fuel prices, and a potential EU's internal solidarity and border policies.
recession. • Rising Geopolitical Tensions: The EU faces
• Policy Response and Energy Security: The EU's ongoing geopolitical challenges, including the
approach included conservation measures, conflict in Ukraine, tensions with China, and
significant investment in diversifying energy the complex relationship with the UK post-
sources, and flexibility in energy policy. Brexit.
Germany, for example, responded by leasing India – EU post Brexit
mobile gasification terminals to process India's relations with the European Union (EU) in
imported LNG. The crisis highlighted the risks the context of Brexit have undergone significant
of overreliance on a single energy source and changes, with both economic and strategic
underscored the importance of diversity in implications:
energy security. • Shift in Strategic Partnerships: Post-Brexit,
• Economic and Global Impact: To offset the loss India moved to strengthen its strategic ties
of Russian natural gas, EU countries spent over with key European countries, particularly
$800 billion on energy-related measures in Germany and France. Previously, the UK
2022, a substantial increase from the previous served as a primary gateway for India into the
year. This included purchasing LNG on spot EU, but with Brexit, India sought to deepen
markets and increasing natural gas stockpiles relations with other major EU economies.
from alternative suppliers like Norway. o Germany has emerged as India's largest
However, these actions disrupted the global economic partner within the EU, and
LNG market, leading to a surge in prices and there has been an emphasis on enhancing
compelling some low-income countries to bilateral economic ties, especially in
revert to more carbon-intensive energy

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 pg. 187

sectors like renewable energy and India trade. The EU is also a leading foreign
technology. investor in India, and thousands of European
o India also engaged in substantial research companies operate in India, providing
initiatives with Germany, such as the joint significant employment.
Indo-German Max Planck Centre for • Negotiations on Trade and Investment
Computational Sciences. Agreement: India and the EU have been
• Limited Political and Geostrategic Impact: The working on a Broad-based Trade and
overall political and geostrategic impact of Investment Agreement (BTIA) since 2007.
Brexit on the EU-India relationship has been o While several rounds of negotiations have
limited. In fact, relations between the EU and been completed, differences on various
India have intensified in recent years, with issues such as FDI, market access, and
increased cooperation in areas such as environmental concerns have stalled the
counter-terrorism, security, and bilateral agreement. However, negotiations
consultations. restarted in 2022 with an aim to conclude
o Notable initiatives include the adoption of them by 2024.
a joint declaration on counter-terrorism • Cooperation in Other Areas: The EU and India
and the establishment of regular high- have also collaborated in critical areas like
level contacts for mutual understanding. maritime security, climate change, and digital
o These efforts were further bolstered by transformation. They have emphasized
joint communications and strategies maritime cooperation, freedom of navigation,
aimed at consolidating the international and development of the blue economy.
order based on multilateralism and o In climate change, they have worked
addressing global challenges and security together on international agreements like
threats. the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris
• Trade Dynamics Post-Brexit: Following Brexit, agreement, and the EU has invested in
the EU became India's third largest trading various programs in India. Additionally,
partner, accounting for a significant portion of there is cooperation on data protection,
India's global trade. The relative share of ICT standardization, and technology,
India's trade with the EU experienced a slight reflecting the evolving nature of their
decline due to the UK's exit. relationship.
o However, the overall trade between the Impact of BREXIT on Regionalism of world Politics
EU and India has grown considerably, Brexit, the United Kingdom's decision to leave the
with EU exports to India increasing European Union (EU), has indeed had a significant
substantially between 2000 and 2016. impact on the process of regionalization both
o The UK's share in India-EU trade has within the EU and in the broader context of world
remained comparatively stagnant, politics.
indicating that the UK did not capture Impact on EU Regionalization
much of the bilateral increase in trade • Economic Integration: Brexit represents a step
between India and the EU over time. back from economic integration within the EU.
• Continued Trade and Economic Partnership: The UK was a major economy in the bloc, and
The EU remains a significant trading partner for its exit disrupts economic ties and supply
India, with substantial trade in goods and chains. This can lead to a reevaluation of the
services. As of 2021, the EU was India's third extent and depth of economic integration
largest trading partner, with France and among remaining EU members.
Germany representing major parts of the EU-

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 pg. 188

• Political Unity: The departure of the UK, a process in other parts of the world, where
significant member state, challenges the nations might prioritize national interests over
notion of ever-closer union in the EU. It raises regional commitments.
questions about the political cohesion of the • Migration and Movement of People: The UK’s
EU and might encourage other member states exit affects the freedom of movement, one of
to consider their position within the Union. the central tenets of the EU. This could have a
• Policy Reassessment: Brexit necessitates a ripple effect on migration policies and the
reassessment of various EU policies, movement of people within Europe and
particularly in areas like trade, immigration, possibly influence similar policies in other
and regulation. The EU has to navigate these regions.
changes while maintaining stability and Conclusion
coherence among its members. Brexit has had a complex and profound impact on
• Budgetary Adjustments: The UK's contribution the regionalization process initiated by the
to the EU budget was substantial. Its departure European Union and has implications for global
creates a financial gap that other member regionalization trends. It represents a shift towards
states have to fill, potentially leading to nationalism and sovereignty over regional
budgetary and funding reallocations within the integration, influencing economic, political, and
EU. social dynamics both within Europe and globally.
Impact on Global Regionalization The long-term impact of Brexit will continue to
• Trade Dynamics: Brexit reshapes trade unfold and shape the regional and global political
dynamics, not just in Europe but globally. It landscape.
forces the creation of new trade agreements
ASEAN
and partnerships, affecting global supply
chains and economic relations. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations
• Geopolitical Shifts: The UK's decision to leave (ASEAN), founded with the Bangkok Declaration in
the EU can be seen as part of a broader trend 1967, is often regarded as one of the most
of skepticism towards multilateral institutions successful examples of regional cooperation,
and regional blocs. This could influence other particularly in the developing world. Its evolution
regions and countries to reassess their and comparison with the European Union (EU)
participation in similar arrangements. offer insights into different models of regionalism.
• Precedent for Other Movements: Brexit might ASEAN's Evolution
embolden other separatist or nationalist
• Founding and Purpose: ASEAN was
movements within Europe and globally. This
established during the Cold War era, partly as
can lead to increased political fragmentation
a response to the spread of communism in
and challenges to existing regional unions.
Southeast Asia. Its primary goals were to foster
• Shift in Global Influence: The EU, with the UK
regional stability, economic growth, and social
as a member, had a certain level of global
progress.
influence. Post-Brexit, both the EU and the UK
• Security Regionalism: Initially, ASEAN's focus
might find their ability to influence global
was more on political and security
affairs independently altered, which could shift
cooperation, particularly to counter
the balance of power in international relations.
communist influences. Over time, it has
• Reinforcement of Sovereignty: Brexit
expanded its scope to include economic
emphasizes the importance of national
integration, socio-cultural cooperation, and
sovereignty over regional integration. This
sentiment might influence the regionalization

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 pg. 189

more recently, environmental issues and • Top-Down Approach and Regionalism: Both
cybersecurity. the EU and ASEAN demonstrate top-down
• Economic Growth: ASEAN countries have seen regionalism, with ASEAN being more flexible
significant economic growth and development, than the EU's structured approach.
with the region becoming a vital part of the
Achievements of ASEAN
global economy. The ASEAN Economic
Community (AEC), established in 2015, aims to • Regional Peace and Stability: ASEAN has
create a single market and production base effectively managed regional conflicts,
within Southeast Asia. particularly in the South China Sea, through
• Diplomatic Platform: ASEAN serves as an diplomacy and conflict resolution.
important diplomatic platform in Asia, • Economic Integration and Growth: The ASEAN
engaging with major global powers through Free Trade Area (AFTA) has significantly
forums like the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) reduced trade barriers, boosted intra-regional
and the East Asia Summit (EAS). trade, and improved the region's economic
Comparison with the European Union competitiveness.
• Constitutional Framework: The EU operates • Cultural and Educational Exchange: Initiatives
based on treaties akin to a constitution, while like the ASEAN University Network (AUN)
ASEAN lacks a formal constitution, relying on encourage academic collaboration and student
declarations and agreements. mobility across member states.
• Supranationalism vs. Inter-Governmentalism: • Disaster Management and Humanitarian
The EU has supranational authority in certain Assistance: The ASEAN Agreement on Disaster
areas, whereas ASEAN functions inter- Management and Emergency Response
governmentally with consensus-based (AADMER) coordinates regional responses to
decisions. natural disasters, focusing on risk reduction
• Domestic Policy Regulation: The EU can and preparedness.
regulate member states' domestic policies, • Socio-Cultural Development: The ASEAN
unlike ASEAN, which follows non-interference Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC) promotes
principles. activities to enhance the quality of life,
• Decision-Making Process: The EU combines prioritizing people-oriented and
consensus and majority voting for decisions; environmentally friendly approaches.
ASEAN exclusively uses consensus. • Political-Security Collaboration: ASEAN
• Currency and Economic Integration: The EU encourages political and security cooperation,
has a common currency (Euro), whereas establishing platforms like the ASEAN Regional
ASEAN focuses on financial stability through Forum for dialogue and conflict resolution.
currency swaps without a shared currency. • Global Diplomatic Engagement: ASEAN has
• Inclusivity and External Relations: The EU is expanded its global role, participating in
perceived as more exclusive with strict border forums like the East Asia Summit and ASEAN
controls, while ASEAN actively engages Plus Three, involving major powers like China,
external partners. Japan, South Korea, India, and the USA.
• Diversity: ASEAN exhibits more political, • Infrastructure and Connectivity: The ASEAN
economic, and cultural diversity among its Infrastructure Fund (AIF) aids in regional
members compared to the EU. infrastructure development, enhancing
• Outward-Looking Blocs: Both blocs actively connectivity and economic growth.
engage in global peace and security efforts. • Environmental Conservation and
Sustainability: ASEAN addresses

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 pg. 190

environmental challenges through initiatives code of conduct, there is little progress,

such as the ASEAN Agreement on indicating the complexity and sensitivity of the
Transboundary Haze Pollution. issue.
• Regional Identity and Community Building: • Geopolitical Rivalries: The competition for
Ongoing efforts are made to foster a unified influence in the Indo-Pacific region, especially
ASEAN identity and build a cohesive regional between the United States and China, affects
community. ASEAN's internal dynamics and unity. The
• Diplomatic Platform and Peaceful different diplomatic postures of member
Engagement: ASEAN provides a vital platform states, such as Thailand's approach towards
for diplomatic engagement among great Myanmar, further strain the bloc's cohesion.
powers, fostering a culture of peace through • Economic Pressures: ASEAN's economic
consultation and consensus. This has been growth in 2023 is expected to slow slightly due
instrumental in moderating regional tensions to global economic conditions and tightening
and facilitating dialogue on global issues. monetary policies. However, the region
• Influence Beyond Southeast Asia: ASEAN's remains one of the fastest-growing globally
principles and norms have influenced other and is expected to attract consistent foreign
regional organizations, like the Shanghai direct investment despite these challenges.
Cooperation Organisation (SCO), promoting • US-China Rivalry: The intensifying rivalry
mutual trust and cooperation beyond between the US and China offers ASEAN a
Southeast Asia. unique geopolitical position. Both
superpowers are seeking to deepen ties in the
Challenges faced by ASEAN
region, which could contribute positively to
• Response to Global Crises: ASEAN's response ASEAN's growth, particularly through trade
to the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on agreements like RCEP and CPTPP.
regional economic integration is a current • Timor-Leste's Admission: ASEAN is working on
focus, with efforts to coordinate health finalizing the roadmap for Timor-Leste's full
strategies and economic recovery plans. membership. This process involves helping
• Digital Transformation: ASEAN is increasingly Timor-Leste meet the necessary requirements
focusing on digital transformation and for membership, including economic reforms.
connectivity as key areas for regional • ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific (AOIP):
cooperation. ASEAN's commitment to the AOIP aims to
• Myanmar's Political Crisis: The ongoing reinforce regional architecture and facilitate
political crisis in Myanmar presents a cooperation in the Indo-Pacific. This includes
significant challenge for ASEAN. Despite developing concept papers for defense and
efforts, including the "five-point consensus" of maritime perspectives and hosting forums and
April 2021, there has been no significant events related to digital development and the
progress in resolving the crisis. This situation creative economy.
has drawn international condemnation and • Limited Progress on South China Sea's Code of
raised questions about ASEAN's diplomatic Conduct (CoC): There has been little
credibility and effectiveness. advancement in resolving the territorial
• South China Sea Dispute: This dispute involves conflicts in the South China Sea, despite efforts
territorial claims by several ASEAN member to negotiate a CoC since 2002. Indonesia's
states and China, creating tensions and focus on bilateral maritime boundary
threatening regional stability. Despite negotiations suggests limited confidence in
discussions on accelerating negotiations on a multilateral resolutions for these disputes.

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 pg. 191

• Global Economic Slowdown: The global culture, health, and social issues. It has
economic slowdown is expected to impact facilitated a sense of regional identity among
ASEAN nations, particularly those with its member countries - Afghanistan,
domestic demand-led economies. Challenges Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal,
such as rising global interest rates, capital Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. These efforts are
outflows, currency depreciation, and inflation crucial in addressing mutual concerns and
are significant concerns for the region. creating a more prosperous and harmonious
region.
Conclusion • Economic Agreements and Integration:
ASEAN exemplifies a successful regional o South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA):
organization that has significantly contributed to Established to increase internal trade and
the economic, political, and social fabric of reduce trade gaps among member
Southeast Asia. Its achievements in promoting countries. This agreement focuses on
regional cooperation, stability, and development reducing customs duties on all traded
are noteworthy. While challenges remain, ASEAN's goods by 2016.
approach of consensus-building, non-interference, o South Asia Preferential Trading
and gradual integration has proven effective, Agreement (SAPTA): Implemented in
making it a model for regionalization in world 1995 to encourage trade among member
politics. Its future endeavors will likely continue to countries.
shape the regional and global landscape, o SAARC Agreement on Trade in Services
reinforcing its role as a key player in international (SATIS): This follows a GATS-plus ‘positive
relations. list’ approach to liberalize trade in
services.
SAARC
• Socio-Cultural Development: SAARC promotes
The South Asian Association for Regional cultural exchanges and interactions, aiming to
Cooperation (SAARC) is a regional deepen mutual understanding among member
intergovernmental organization and geopolitical states. These initiatives contribute significantly
union in South Asia. Founded in Dhaka on to enhancing the quality of life in the region.
December 8, 1984, SAARC aims to promote • Educational Initiatives:
economic and regional integration. o SAARC University: Established in India,
SAARC's main objectives are to: this university offers higher education and
• Enhance the welfare and quality of life of South research opportunities to students from
Asia's people. SAARC nations.
• Accelerate economic growth, social progress, • Economic and Demographic Significance:
and cultural development. SAARC countries collectively comprise 3% of
• Promote and strengthen collective self- the world's land area, 21% of the world's
reliance among South Asian countries. population, and contribute 5.21% (US$4.47
• Contribute to mutual trust, understanding, and trillion) of the global economy as of 2021.
appreciation of one another's problems. • Common Challenges and Solutions: Member
• Members countries share common problems such as
poverty, illiteracy, and natural calamities.
Importance and achievements of SAARC
SAARC provides a platform to address these
• Regional Cooperation and Identity: SAARC challenges collectively.
promotes regional cooperation across various
• Promotion of Peace and Stability: SAARC
sectors like agriculture, trade, environment, seeks to foster a peaceful environment in

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 pg. 192

South Asia, resolving conflicts through • External Influences and Rivalries

dialogue and promoting understanding among o Influence of External Powers: The
its member states. influence of external powers, particularly
China and the United States, in South
The current challenges faced by SAARC
Asian affairs has sometimes undermined
• Infrequent Meetings and Summits: The SAARC’s role and relevance in the region.
annual SAARC foreign minister's meeting was o China’s Growing Presence: China’s
canceled in 2023, and the last SAARC summit growing economic and strategic presence
took place in 2014. These cancellations are in South Asia, though not a SAARC
symptomatic of the organization's declining member, has presented an alternative to
engagement and effectiveness. regional countries for economic and
• Limited Economic Integration: Intra-regional infrastructural cooperation.
trade among SAARC countries is minimal, • Lack of Cohesive Vision and Leadership
accounting for only 5% of their total trade. This o Divergent Priorities: Member states have
lack of integration has been a significant often had divergent priorities, making it
barrier to the organization's effectiveness in difficult to arrive at a cohesive regional
fostering regional economic cooperation. strategy or vision.
• Political Rivalries: The India-Pakistan rivalry, o Inadequate Leadership and
particularly since the 2016 Uri attack, has Commitment: There has been a lack of
significantly hampered SAARC's functionality. strong leadership within SAARC to drive
India's shift towards alternative regional the agenda forward, coupled with varying
organizations like BIMSTEC and BBIN indicates levels of commitment from member
a reduced interest in SAARC, affecting the states.
organization's prospects and activities. • Economic Disparities and Competing Interests
• Need for a Regional Body: Despite shared o Varying Economic Sizes and Interests:
cultural and geographic attributes, the South The economic size and power of member
Asian region's trade potential remains largely countries vary widely, with India's
unexploited. This unfulfilled potential suggests economy dominating the group. This
a need for a regional body, but SAARC’s disparity often leads to unequal influence
challenges indicate that the region may not be and competing national interests,
ready for such a political organization. The hindering collective economic initiatives.
suggestion is that technical collaborations o Limited Economic Integration: Despite
within subregional groups might be more the potential for economic cooperation,
effective. SAARC has made limited progress in
• Security Concerns reducing trade barriers and enhancing
o Terrorism and Security Issues: The region regional connectivity compared to other
faces significant security challenges, regional blocs like the European Union or
including terrorism and border disputes, ASEAN.
which have often taken precedence over Solutions
regional cooperation efforts. • Enhancing Political Will: Increasing regular
o Lack of a Unified Security Framework: summits and diplomatic engagements to
SAARC has struggled to develop a unified foster political cooperation.
approach to address these security • Addressing Bilateral Issues Separately:
concerns, further impeding its Resolving disputes like those between India
effectiveness. and Pakistan outside the SAARC framework.

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 pg. 193

• Fostering Economic Integration: marketplace. The agreement eliminated most

Implementing SAFTA effectively and reducing tariffs on products traded among the three
non-tariff barriers to boost regional trade. countries, liberalized the trading of services, and
• Focus on Common Challenges: Collaborating established rules on intellectual property, e-
on issues like poverty, climate change, and commerce, and labor and environmental
public health. standards.
• Strengthening SAARC Institutions: Enhancing Achievements of NAFTA
the capabilities of SAARC's institutional
framework. • Trade Growth: Regional trade rose sharply
from $290 billion in 1993 to more than $1.1
• People-to-People Contact: Promoting cultural
trillion in 2016. U.S. foreign direct investment
exchanges and tourism to build mutual
(FDI) in Mexico increased from $15 billion to
understanding.
more than $100 billion during this period.
• Leveraging Technology: Using innovation for
• Economic Integration: Trade between the
common challenges in health care, education,
United States and its North American
and disaster management.
neighbors more than tripled, outpacing U.S.
• Engaging with Observers and Stakeholders:
trade growth with the rest of the world.
Active engagement with observers and
Canada and Mexico became the two largest
international stakeholders for additional
destinations for U.S. exports, accounting for
expertise and investment.
more than one-third of the total.
• Counter-Terrorism Cooperation:
• Investment Boost: U.S. and Mexican
Strengthening counter-terrorism and regional
investments in Canada tripled since 1993, with
security efforts to build trust among member
U.S. investment growing from $70 billion to
nations.
more than $368 billion by 2013.
• Job Creation: NAFTA is estimated to have
Conclusion:
created some fourteen million U.S. jobs
Despite challenges, the organization plays a crucial
dependent on trade with Canada and Mexico.
role in addressing shared issues, promoting
Nearly two hundred thousand export-related
stability, and influencing global geopolitics. SAARC
jobs created annually by NAFTA paid 15 to 20
exemplifies the potential benefits of regional
percent more on average than the jobs that
collaboration in an interconnected world,
were lost.
emphasizing the importance of collective efforts
for sustainable development and peace within the • Agricultural Exports: U.S. agricultural exports
South Asian region and beyond. saw substantial growth. For example, Canadian
agricultural trade with the United States more
NAFTA than tripled since 1994.
NAFTA, the North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement, • Automotive Industry: NAFTA significantly
is actually a misnomer. The correct name is the boosted the auto manufacturing sector in
North American Free Trade Agreement. It is an Mexico, creating hundreds of thousands of
agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the jobs. The agreement increased productivity
United States, creating a trilateral trade bloc in and lowered consumer prices in Mexico.
North America. • Consumer Benefits: Consumers in all three
Scope countries benefited from a greater variety of
NAFTA's main aim was to reduce trading costs, goods at lower prices due to reduced trade
increase business investment, and help North barriers.
America be more competitive in the global

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Disputes and controversies about NAFTA • Addressing NAFTA Criticisms: The USMCA was
NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) formed partly in response to criticisms of
faced several disputes and controversies during its NAFTA. It includes new provisions aimed at
tenure: addressing issues related to labor rights,
• Job Losses in Manufacturing: Critics in the U.S. environmental protection, digital trade, and
argued that NAFTA led to the loss of intellectual property. Notably, it requires a
manufacturing jobs due to factories moving to higher percentage of North American-made
Mexico where labor was cheaper. parts in cars for duty-free treatment and
includes a sunset clause, meaning the
• Environmental Concerns: There were
agreement will expire after 16 years unless
concerns that NAFTA contributed to
renewed.
environmental degradation, particularly in
Mexico, due to lax enforcement of • Enhanced Dispute Resolution and Continuity:
environmental regulations. The USMCA provides continent-wide rules,
norms, and problem-solving processes that are
• Impact on Mexican Farmers: NAFTA impacted
designed to continue and enhance the trade
small Mexican farmers, as they struggled to
and investment relationship developed under
compete with large-scale American
NAFTA. It also introduces enhanced dispute
agricultural imports.
resolution mechanisms to ensure timely and
• Income Inequality: Some believed NAFTA
fair resolution of conflicts.
exacerbated income inequality in member
• Potential Expansion with Costa Rica: Costa
countries, benefiting large corporations at the
Rica has expressed interest in joining the
expense of smaller businesses and workers.
USMCA, indicating a potential expansion of the
• Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: NAFTA's
trade pact. Joining the agreement would
dispute resolution mechanisms were
require Costa Rica to comply with USMCA’s
controversial, with concerns about their
standards in labor, environmental protection,
efficacy and fairness.
and intellectual property
• Intellectual Property Rights: There were
debates about the strength and enforcement
Key features of the USMCA include:
of intellectual property rights within the
• Automotive Sector: Stricter rules of origin for
agreement.
automotive manufacturing, requiring more
Future of NAFTA vehicle components to be manufactured in
The future of NAFTA (North American Free Trade North America.
Agreement) has been significantly reshaped with • Labor and Environmental Standards:
the introduction of the United States-Mexico- Improved labor protections and environmental
Canada Agreement (USMCA), which officially standards.
replaced NAFTA on July 1, 2023. • Digital Trade: Provisions for digital trade to
• End of NAFTA and Rise of USMCA: NAFTA, address the modern digital economy, which
which facilitated trade among the United was not a focus in NAFTA.
States, Canada, and Mexico for nearly three • Intellectual Property Protections: Enhanced
decades, officially came to an end in 2023. It protections for intellectual property rights.
was replaced by the USMCA, which includes • Dairy Market Access: Increased U.S. access to
updated provisions on labor, environmental Canada's dairy market.
protection, digital trade, and dispute
resolution.

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• Dispute Resolution: Revised mechanisms for made it cheaper, easier, and faster to do
resolving trade disputes between member business in the Asia-Pacific region.
countries. • Customs Procedures: The Single Window
• Sunset Clause: A 16-year expiration period initiative has streamlined export-import
with a review every six years, giving the processes, accelerating cross-border
countries a chance to assess and potentially movement of goods.
renegotiate terms. • Structural Reform: APEC has worked towards
regulatory reform, improving governance, and
APEC strengthening legal infrastructure across the
The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a region.
regional economic forum established in 1989. Its • Physical and Institutional Connectivity: Efforts
primary goal is to leverage the growing have been made to improve infrastructure,
interdependence of the Asia-Pacific region. people mobility, and institutional ties across
Objectives the Asia-Pacific.
• Promoting Free and Open Trade and • APEC Business Travel Card: This initiative
Investment: APEC aims to reduce tariffs and provides visa clearance and fast-track entry at
other trade barriers across the Asia-Pacific major airports for pre-approved business
region in pursuit of free and open trade and travelers.
investment. • Supply Chain Connectivity: APEC has
• Facilitating Economic Growth, Cooperation, addressed 'chokepoints' in supply chains,
Trade, and Investment: APEC focuses on improving efficiency in logistics and transport
supporting sustainable economic growth and networks.
prosperity in the Asia-Pacific region. • Environmental Goods List: Tariffs on
• Enhancing Regional Economic Integration: environmental goods were reduced to
Encouraging the integration of economies encourage the development of clean
within the region is a central goal. technologies and greener growth.
• Strengthening Member Economies: APEC • Energy Efficiency and Renewables:
works towards improving the economic and Commitments have been made to reduce
social well-being of member economies. energy intensity and increase the share of
Achievements of APEC renewables in the energy mix.
• Green Towns Initiative: APEC has assisted in
• Economic Growth and Trade: APEC has been a
developing low-carbon model town plans for
dynamic engine of economic growth, with its
cities in the Asia-Pacific.
member economies representing about 62% of
• Support for Small Businesses: Various
world GDP and 48% of world trade in 2021.
initiatives have been launched to stimulate
Since 1989, the region's real GDP has increased
SME development in the region.
significantly, and per capita income has nearly
quadrupled. Challenges Faced by APEC
• Trade Facilitation: APEC’s initiatives have • Uneven Growth and Risks: There is
significantly reduced trade barriers and costs, uneven economic growth across the
leading to a substantial increase in trade and region, with challenges like stubborn
investment flows since 1994. inflation, higher debt levels, climate
• Ease of Doing Business: The Ease of Doing change, and geopolitical tensions.
Business Action Plan launched in 2009 has • Inflation: An increase in inflation, driven by
factors like higher energy prices and supply

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 pg. 196

chain disruptions, is affecting economic efforts to promote economic growth, integration,

recovery. and cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region have not
• Trade Contraction: Merchandise trade has only benefited its member economies but also
contracted, influenced by global economic contributed to the broader narrative of global
uncertainties and trade protectionism. economic development.
• Aging Population: The growing elderly
population presents challenges such as The regionalisation of world politics underscores
increased healthcare costs, pension the importance of regional identities and interests
burdens, and a shrinking workforce. in the global arena. It provides a framework for
• Navigating Complex Global Economic understanding how countries collaborate to
Terrain: APEC needs a balanced mix of address common challenges and opportunities,
monetary and fiscal policies, along with balancing the forces of global integration with the
multilateral cooperation, to address need to maintain regional distinctiveness and
economic impacts and demographic shifts. autonomy. As the global landscape continues to
Conclusion: APEC stands as a testament to the change, the role and impact of regionalisation in
power of regional cooperation in shaping a more world politics will likely continue to be a subject of
interconnected and prosperous world. Its ongoing significant interest and importance.

Student Notes ✍

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Chapter - 11 pg. 197

Contemporary Global Concerns

Analysis of important dimensions from PYQ

1. Discuss the efficacy of global conventions to combat international terrorism. (2022)
2. Discuss the importance of personal data protection in the context of human rights. (2019)
3. Critically examine the notion of Asian values in the context of the ongoing debates on human rights.
(2018)
4. Why does global human security need to be emphasised along with economic security? Explain with
examples. (2016)
5. Discuss the five proposals made by India in the recent COP-26 conference held in Glasgow. (2021)
6. Examine the role of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and other
major efforts by the UN to address the global environmental crisis. (2020)
7. Would you agree that the ongoing debates on international environmental politics continue to be
marred by a new North-South ideological divide over historical responsibility and developmental
model? Illustrate your answer with suitable examples. (2018)
8. Recent move of the USA to withdraw from the Paris climate agreement is a setback in the consensus
achieved on protecting the world environment. In this context, assess the future prospects on climate
control. (2017)
9. Examine the main problems and challenges involved in looking after environmental concerns in world
politics. (2016)
10. Critically evaluate the approaches of the global south towards addressing environmental concerns.
(2014)
11. Compare and contrast Sino-India approaches to global environmental concerns. (2013)
12. Global commons belong to global society and requires global attention. Comment. (2013)
13. Give an assessment of the feminist critique of contemporary global issues. (2017)
14. Do you endorse that the conventional discourse on human rights has failed to include women’s rights?
Explain in the context of feminist theories. (2015)
15. State the place of gender justice in global political agenda. (2013)
16. Discuss the evolution of the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons in the post Cold War period. (2016)
17. What rules do norms, taboos and epistemic communities play in the context of nuclear proliferation?
(2013)

Introduction Environmental concerns, particularly climate

Contemporary global concerns encompass a broad change, biodiversity loss, and pollution, pose
spectrum of issues that transcend national significant challenges to sustainable development.
borders, impacting societies and governments Gender justice focuses on achieving equality and
worldwide. These include the state and practice of equity among genders, tackling issues like gender-
democracy, which is crucial for ensuring effective based violence and discrimination. Terrorism, with
governance and participation of citizens in political its evolving nature and global reach, continues to
processes. Human rights issues remain at the be a significant security threat.
forefront, addressing the fundamental freedoms
and rights of individuals globally.

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 pg. 198

Lastly, nuclear proliferation remains a critical inclusivity helps address the needs and
concern, given its implications for global peace and concerns of various societal groups.
security. Each of these areas requires concerted • Democratic Peace Theory:
efforts from international communities, o Peaceful International Relations:
governments, and civil societies to develop According to the democratic peace
effective strategies and solutions. theory, democracies are less likely to
engage in armed conflict with each other.
Democracy
This promotes a more peaceful
Joseph Schumpeter: "Democracy means that international order and reduces the
institutional arrangements for arriving at political likelihood of war between democratic
decisions in which individuals acquire the power to nations.
decide by means of a competitive struggle for the o Diplomacy and Negotiation:
people's vote." Democracies tend to prefer diplomatic
means and negotiations to resolve
Robert A. Dahl: "A political system in which disputes. This emphasis on dialogue
individuals acquire the power to decide by means contributes to a more cooperative and
of a competitive struggle for the people’s vote." less confrontational international
environment.
Significance of Democracy o Shared Democratic Norms: Democratic
• Political Stability: Democracy often states share common norms and values
contributes to political stability by providing that prioritize peaceful conflict
mechanisms for the peaceful transfer of resolution. This shared democratic
power. This stability is crucial for the overall culture serves as a foundation for mutual
functioning of a state. understanding and cooperation.
• Protection of Individual Rights: Democratic • Democracy and Protection of Human Rights:
systems emphasize the protection of individual o Inherent Human Rights Protection:
rights and liberties. The existence of Democracy inherently places importance
constitutional frameworks ensures citizens' on the protection of human rights.
freedoms, fostering a society based on Democratic institutions and legal
principles of justice and equality. frameworks are designed to safeguard
• Social Cohesion: Democracies promote social individual freedoms and prevent human
cohesion by allowing diverse voices to be rights abuses.
heard. Inclusive decision-making processes o Accountability and Rule of Law:
help build a sense of shared identity and Democratic systems emphasize
purpose among citizens. accountability, ensuring that leaders are
• Economic Prosperity: While not a guarantee, answerable for their actions. The rule of
democracies often correlate with economic law serves as a mechanism to hold
prosperity. Open and accountable governance individuals, including government officials,
can contribute to a favorable economic accountable for human rights violations.
environment, attracting investments and • Amartya Sen's Perspective:
promoting growth. o Intrinsic Value: Amartya Sen argues that
• Pluralism and Inclusivity: Democracy democracy has intrinsic value. The ability
encourages pluralism, where diverse opinions of individuals to participate in decision-
and perspectives are considered. This making processes and express their

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 pg. 199

opinions is valuable in itself, contributing • Black Lives Matter (USA, Global): Advocates
to a sense of agency and dignity. for racial justice and democratic reforms in
o Educative Value: Democracy, according to policing and criminal justice.
Sen, has educative value. Participating in • Anti-Corruption Movements: Global
democratic processes helps individuals movements, such as India's 2011 and
develop a deeper understanding of Romania's 2017 protests, demanding
societal issues, fostering a more informed government transparency and anti-corruption
and engaged citizenry. reforms.
o Institutional Value - Accountability: Sen • Belarus Pro-Democracy Protests (2020):
highlights the institutional value of Protests against President Lukashenko's
democracy, particularly in terms of disputed re-election, demanding democratic
accountability. Democratic institutions freedoms.
ensure that those in power are • Occupy Movement (Global, 2011): Started in
accountable to the people, preventing New York, addressing economic inequality,
unchecked authority and fostering corruption, and corporate influence on
responsible governance. government.
• Sudan Pro-Democracy Movement (2019):
Various movements for democracy Overthrew ruler Omar al-Bashir, aiming for a
Various movements for democracy have emerged civilian-led government and democratic
globally, reflecting the diverse contexts and reforms.
challenges in different regions. These movements, • Russia Pro-Democracy Protests (2011-2012,
often grassroots in nature, seek to promote 2021): Protests against electoral fraud and
democratic ideals, human rights, and political Vladimir Putin's political system, demanding
reforms. Some notable examples include: fair elections and reforms.
• Arab Spring (2010-2012): Anti-government
protests across the Arab world aiming to end
autocracy and achieve democracy; outcomes
Contemporary global concerns for Democracy
varied by country. Clash of Civilizations
• Hong Kong Pro-Democracy Protests (2014, Proposed by Samuel P. Huntington, it contends
2019): Movements, including the 2014 that cultural and religious identities will drive post-
Umbrella Revolution, opposing Chinese Cold War conflicts, emphasizing clashes between
influence and demanding democratic different civilizations rather than nation-states.
freedoms in Hong Kong. Huntington argued that, post-Cold War, the world
• Color Revolutions (Early 2000s): Nonviolent reverted to a norm of cultural conflicts after the
movements in post-Soviet states, like Georgia's end of the ideological age.
Rose Revolution (2003), Ukraine's Orange Major Civilizations as per Huntington:
Revolution (2004), and Kyrgyzstan's Tulip • Western Civilization: Encompasses the United
Revolution (2005), focused on overthrowing States, Canada, Europe, Australia, and
authoritarian regimes for democracy. Oceania. Traditional viewpoint associates it
• Myanmar Pro-Democracy Movement (2021): with Western Christian (Catholic-Protestant)
Civil disobedience against the military coup, countries.
demanding democracy restoration and leader • Latin American Civilization: Includes South
release. America, Central America, Mexico, Cuba, and
the Dominican Republic. Considered part of

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 pg. 200

Western civilization by some due to shared o Example: In countries transitioning from

cultural elements. autocratic rule to democracy, such as
• Orthodox Civilization: Comprises Bulgaria, Myanmar, cultural differences and
Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Romania, parts of the historical contexts have made it
former Soviet Union, and Yugoslavia. challenging to establish stable,
• Eastern World: Encompasses Buddhist, democratic governance, often leading to
Chinese, Hindu, and Japonic civilizations. conflicts and military interventions.
Includes Sinic civilization, Hindu civilization, • Tensions in Multicultural Democracies: In
and Japan. multicultural democracies, there is potential
• Muslim World: Covers the Greater Middle for tension among diverse cultural groups. This
East, northern West Africa, parts of the requires careful management to ensure social
Balkans, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the cohesion and equality.
southern Philippines. o Example: India, with its vast diversity in
Concerns for democracy religions, languages, and ethnicities, faces
• Cultural Relativism: Different civilizations have ongoing challenges in balancing the
distinct values and norms, which can challenge interests of different groups, as seen in
the universal application of democratic the tensions regarding citizenship laws
principles. What is considered a democratic and religious freedoms.
norm in one culture may not align with the • Global Diplomacy and Cooperation:
values or practices of another. Civilizational fault lines can significantly impact
o Example: The debate on individual rights international cooperation, especially on issues
versus collective rights in China. The related to democracy promotion.
Chinese governance model emphasizes o Example: The U.S.-China relationship is
collective societal harmony, which often often strained by differing political
leads to different interpretations and ideologies and governance models,
implementations of what Western impacting their cooperation on global
societies consider individual human issues like climate change or trade.
rights. • Impact on Democratic Institutions: Clashes
• Democracy as a Western Concept: Democracy between civilizations may lead to a
is often perceived as a Western concept, which reassessment of democratic institutions, with
can hinder its acceptance in non-Western a possible shift towards prioritizing security
societies that view it as an imposition of over freedoms and rights.
foreign values. o Example: Post 9/11, many Western
o Example: In some Islamic countries like democracies, including the United States,
Saudi Arabia, democracy is often seen as faced debates over the balance between
a Western concept that doesn't align with national security and individual freedoms,
their traditional monarchy and Islamic leading to controversial measures like the
law (Sharia). This perception can lead to Patriot Act.
resistance against adopting democratic • Cultural Sensitivity in Democracy Promotion:
structures. Promoting democracy in different civilizations
• Challenges to Democratic Governance: requires an understanding and respect for
Cultural differences can create barriers to cultural differences.
establishing democratic systems, especially in o Example: Western efforts to promote
societies where democratic principles are not democracy in Afghanistan faced
historically ingrained. significant challenges due to cultural

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 pg. 201

differences, particularly in terms of Challenges and Criticisms:

gender roles and tribal structures, leading • Sovereignty Concerns: Interventions are often
to mixed results and ongoing conflict. criticized for infringing on the sovereignty of
Addressing Clash of Civilizations concerns requires the targeted nation. Critics argue that external
a nuanced, culturally sensitive approach that actors should respect a country's right to
respects diversity while upholding universal determine its political system without
democratic principles. interference.
o Example: The U.S. intervention in Iraq in
Democratic intervention 2003 faced international criticism for
Intervention in a country to democratize is a bypassing the United Nations and acting
contemporary global concern for democracy that unilaterally, raising concerns about the
involves external actors, such as international violation of Iraq's sovereignty.
organizations, foreign governments, or coalitions, • Selective Intervention: Interventions are
taking active measures to promote democratic sometimes perceived as selective, with
principles within a nation. powerful nations choosing to intervene based
• Human Rights and Governance Issues: on their strategic interests rather than a
Interventions are often prompted by genuine commitment to democracy.
widespread human rights abuses, lack of o Example: The lack of intervention in
political freedoms, and poor governance countries with strategic importance to
within a country. External actors may feel powerful nations, despite democratic
compelled to intervene when there is evidence deficits, raises questions about the
of authoritarianism, corruption, suppression of consistency of motives.
political opposition, or violations of basic • Unintended Consequences: Interventions may
human rights. lead to unintended consequences, including
• International Norms and Values: The power vacuums, internal conflicts, and
promotion of democracy is often rooted in increased instability. These outcomes can
shared international norms and values that undermine the original goals of promoting
prioritize individual freedoms, rule of law, and democracy.
representative governance. o Example: The intervention in Libya in
• Global organizations, such as the United 2011, while aimed at preventing human
Nations, may view democratization as a way to rights abuses, resulted in a power
uphold these shared values and ensure a more vacuum, contributing to ongoing
stable and just world order. instability and conflict.
• Regional Stability and Security: The spread of • Cultural and Contextual Sensitivity:
democracy is sometimes seen as a means to Interventions often struggle to account for the
enhance regional stability and security. Stable cultural and contextual nuances of a nation.
democracies are thought to be less prone to Implementing a specific democratic model
conflict and more likely to engage in peaceful without considering local dynamics can lead to
relations with neighboring states. resistance and failure.
• Support for Self-Determination: Intervention o Example: The imposition of a Western-
to democratize can be framed as supporting style democracy in Afghanistan faced
the right to self-determination for the people challenges due to cultural differences and
of a country. External actors may argue that historical complexities, hindering the
they are helping the local population achieve a nation-building process.
form of governance that reflects their will.

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 pg. 202

• Lack of Popular Support: Interventions may o Example: Foreign military presence in

lack genuine grassroots support within the Afghanistan faced challenges in balancing
targeted country, making it challenging to the need for security with the risk of
sustain democratic reforms. A lack of local buy- becoming a focal point for local
in can lead to resistance and backlash. resistance.
o Example: The toppling of the • Lack of International Consensus: Interventions
democratically elected government in may lack broad international consensus,
Iran in 1953 by foreign powers leading to divided opinions and weakened
contributed to a negative perception of efforts. A united front is often crucial for the
foreign intervention and shaped Iranian success of interventions.
politics for decades. o Example: Disagreements within the UN
• Geopolitical Interests: Critics argue that Security Council over intervention
interventions are driven by geopolitical strategies in Syria have hindered
interests, such as securing access to resources coordinated international efforts to
or countering rival powers, rather than a address the ongoing crisis.
genuine commitment to promoting
democracy. Democratic Deficit at Global Governance
o Example: The Cold War era saw The concept of a "democratic deficit" in global
interventions driven by ideological governance refers to the perceived lack of
competition between the United States democratic representation, accountability, and
and the Soviet Union, sometimes at the transparency in international institutions and
expense of democratic principles. decision-making processes. This concern arises
• Inadequate Post-Conflict Planning: Successful particularly in the context of how global decisions
democratization requires comprehensive post- are made, who makes them, and the extent to
conflict planning, institution-building, and which they reflect the will of the people they
socio-economic development. Inadequate affect.
preparation for the aftermath can lead to a • United Nations (UN): Scholars like Thomas G.
relapse into instability. Weiss have critiqued the UN's structure,
o Example: The aftermath of the especially the disproportionate power of its
intervention in Iraq lacked sufficient Security Council's permanent members (USA,
planning for governance and UK, France, Russia, China) who possess veto
reconstruction, contributing to ongoing power, challenging the principle of democratic
challenges in the country. representation.
• Short-Term Focus: Interventions may be • International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World
criticized for having a short-term focus, seeking Bank: Joseph Stiglitz and others have pointed
quick results without addressing long-term out that decision-making in these institutions,
challenges. Sustainable democratization tied to financial contributions, favors wealthier
requires a more extended and patient countries, often marginalizing poorer nations
commitment. and their interests.
• Security Dilemmas: Interventions may face • World Trade Organization (WTO): According
security dilemmas, where the presence of to scholars like Amrita Narlikar, the WTO's
external forces intended to stabilize the decision-making processes tend to favor richer
situation can inadvertently exacerbate nations with more negotiating power, thereby
tensions and contribute to insecurity. influencing global trade policies in ways that
can disadvantage smaller economies.

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 pg. 203

• European Union (EU): Prominent analysts like • Interference in Elections: Democracies are
Andrew Moravcsik have debated the EU’s increasingly threatened by foreign
democratic nature, focusing on key institutions interference through cyberattacks and
like the European Commission and the disinformation, undermining electoral
European Central Bank, which are not directly integrity.
elected, thus raising concerns about their o Russian alleged cyberattacks and
democratic legitimacy. disinformation in the 2016 U.S.
• Global Environmental Governance: Scholars presidential election, influencing its
such as Frank Biermann and Philipp Pattberg outcome.
have critiqued international environmental • Undermining International Institutions:
agreements, including the Paris Agreement, Actions of member states against democratic
for their lack of transparency and unequal principles can challenge the efficacy of
representation, particularly affecting smaller international bodies like the UN and EU.
or less powerful nations. o The U.S. withdrawing from international
agreements under Trump, challenging its
The undermining of democracy role in global democratic institutions.
The undermining of democracy at the global level • Weakened Commitment to Human Rights: As
is a significant and multifaceted global concern democracies decline, global focus on human
that threatens the health and vitality of democratic rights can diminish, with powerful nations
systems worldwide. prioritizing political or economic interests.
• Contagion Effect: The decline of democracy in o China's limitedly challenged treatment of
one nation can trigger similar trends in Uighurs in Xinjiang, reflecting its global
neighboring countries, leading to wider influence.
democratic erosion. • Impact on Global Stability: Weakening
o The Arab Spring's spread from Tunisia to democracies contribute to regional conflicts
Egypt, Libya, Yemen, and Syria, showing and instability, leading to global consequences
how democratic movements in one like refugee crises.
country can inspire others regionally. o The Syrian civil war, a result of the Arab
• Global Democratic Backsliding: Democracies Spring, causing regional instability and a
globally face backsliding as leaders exploit legal major refugee crisis.
systems to weaken checks and balances, often • Challenges to Multilateralism: The erosion of
exacerbated by disinformation and global democracy in influential nations can impede
networks. global cooperation on issues like climate
o Hungary and Poland's undermining of change and pandemics.
judicial independence and media o The U.S. exiting the Paris Climate
freedom, part of a wider democratic Agreement under Trump, signaling a
decline in Europe. move away from global cooperative
• Authoritarian Alliances: Authoritarian regimes efforts.
form global alliances to mutually support • Diminished Soft Power: The undermining of
suppression of democracy and civil society, democracy can reduce a nation's global
challenging international democratic efforts. influence and ability to shape international
o China and Russia's strategic UN norms and policies through soft power.
partnerships, countering Western o Turkey's reduced democratic appeal in
influence and supporting their the Middle East due to Erdogan's
authoritarian models.

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 pg. 204

authoritarianism, weakening its regional • Cultural Exchange vs. Homogenization:

influence. Globalization fosters cultural exchange but
Democracy and globalisation also risks cultural homogenization, affecting
• Economic Interdependence: Globalization local democratic practices and identities.
increases economic ties between nations,
fostering growth but also creating disparities The declining value of democracy
and dependencies that can centralize The declining value of democracy, often
economic power, impacting democratic manifested through democratic backsliding,
governance. erosion of democratic norms, and rising
• Spread of Democratic Ideals: Globalization authoritarianism, has significant impacts across
aids the spread of democracy and human various spheres:
rights, encouraging democratic movements • Political Instability: Erosion of democratic
worldwide through cross-border idea values can lead to political polarization, social
exchange. unrest, and potentially civil conflict, with
• Challenges to Sovereignty: Increased global regional and global impacts.
interconnectivity can diminish individual • Human Rights Violations: Declining
governments' policy-making autonomy, democracies often see increased human rights
potentially undermining democracy with abuses, including suppression of freedoms and
external influences. heightened surveillance.
• Rise of Multinationals: The growing influence • Economic Consequences: Reduced democratic
of multinational corporations in the globalized values can cause economic instability and
era challenges the accountability and discourage investment, with corruption more
democratic influence of governments. prevalent in non-democratic systems.
• Information Technology: IT promotes • Reduced Global Cooperation: As democratic
democratic ideas and citizen engagement but values wane, international cooperation and
also poses risks like misinformation, digital alliances can weaken, affecting trade and
surveillance, and cyber threats to democracies. security agreements.
• Increased Migration: Globalization leads to • Erosion of Institutional Trust: Declining
higher migration, offering diversity benefits democracy often results in reduced public trust
but also integration challenges and potential in institutions, lowering civic participation and
impacts on democratic discourse due to enabling authoritarian power consolidation.
xenophobia. • Social Cohesion Impact: The decline in
• Economic Inequality: Globalization can democratic norms can intensify social
exacerbate economic inequality, potentially divisions, with minority scapegoating and
leading to social discontent and political divisive political rhetoric.
polarization, weakening democratic unity. • Environmental Impacts: Weakening
• Environmental Challenges: Global democracies may prioritize economic growth
environmental issues require cooperative over environmental protection, leading to
governance, posing dilemmas in aligning global weaker environmental policies.
needs with local democratic decisions. • Challenges to International Law: Declining
• Global Governance Deficit: International democracies may show less adherence to
bodies crucial in globalization often lack direct international law and humanitarian norms,
accountability, creating a perception of a creating a more unpredictable global
democratic deficit in global decision-making. environment.

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• Technology and Privacy Concerns: In declining • Economic Implications: Zimbabwe's economic

democracies, technology is often used for instability and mismanagement tied to
surveillance, raising privacy issues and limiting democratic decline under Mugabe.
digital freedoms. This reverse wave of democracy is a cause for
• Cultural and Educational Impact: A decline in global concern, necessitating renewed efforts to
democratic values can restrict academic support and strengthen democratic institutions,
freedom and promote state-centric or practices, and values across the world.
nationalist ideologies in cultural and
educational spheres. Conclusion
Democracy as a contemporary global concern is
Reverse wave of democracy integral to the stability and development of
The concept of a "reverse wave" of democracy societies worldwide. Amidst challenges such as
refers to a global trend where democratic norms, rising authoritarianism, disinformation, and social
institutions, and practices are in decline, reversing polarization, the need to uphold and strengthen
the progress made during previous periods of democratic principles is more critical than ever.
democratic expansion. This phenomenon poses Ensuring fair representation, protecting the rights
significant concerns for the state of democracy of minorities, fostering transparent governance,
worldwide: and encouraging citizen participation are
• Democratic Backsliding: Turkey's erosion of fundamental to sustaining democracy. The
judicial independence and civil liberties under international community's commitment to
President Erdogan. promoting and protecting democratic values is
• Rise of Authoritarianism: Russia's increased essential for addressing global issues and achieving
authoritarian practices with President Putin a more just and equitable world.
consolidating power and controlling media.
• Erosion of Electoral Integrity: Venezuela facing
Human Rights
allegations of voter suppression and electoral
manipulation. Human rights are fundamental principles aimed at
• Decline in Participation and Engagement: safeguarding the dignity and worth of every
Lower voter turnout in the U.S. due to political individual. These rights are based on shared values
cynicism and institutional distrust. like fairness, dignity, equality, and respect. The
• Polarization and Populism: Brazil's societal concept of human rights has been one of the most
divisions deepening under President compelling and energizing ideas in contemporary
Bolsonaro's populist rule. times, influencing a wide array of international
laws, policies, and practices.
• Global Autocratic Influence: China challenging
Key Characteristics of Human Rights (Dworkin's
Western democratic ideals by promoting its
View)
governance model worldwide.
Ronald Dworkin, an influential philosopher and
• Impact on International Institutions: The UN's
legal scholar, described human rights as
hindered resolution enforcement due to
inalienable, permanent, universal, and equal:
autocratic member states like Russia and
• Inalienable: Human rights are not subject to
China.
being taken away or given up. They are
• Human Rights Challenges: North Korea
inherent to every person.
condemned for severe human rights abuses
• Permanent: They do not change over time;
and suppression under its regime.
human rights that exist today will remain
relevant and necessary in the future.

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 pg. 206

• Universal: Human rights apply to all people, Human rights violation

regardless of nationality, sex, national or Violation of human rights remains a critical global
ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any concern, manifesting in various forms and
other status. contexts. These violations challenge the
• Equal: Every person is entitled to these rights fundamental principles of dignity, equality, and
without discrimination. respect for all individuals, undermining global
efforts towards peace, security, and sustainable
1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights development.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights • Forms of Human Rights Violations
(UDHR), adopted by the United Nations General o Political Repression: In countries under
Assembly in 1948, marked a pivotal moment in the authoritarian rule or facing political
history of human rights. It brought the concept of instability, basic political rights and
human rights from a philosophical and moral realm freedoms – such as the right to free speech,
into a legal domain. This declaration laid down a assembly, and participation in governance –
comprehensive set of rights that are considered are often suppressed. Examples include the
universally applicable. The UDHR has since served silencing of dissent in countries like North
as a foundational document for numerous Korea and Venezuela.
international treaties, regional human rights o Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide: Acts of
instruments, national constitutions, and laws. ethnic cleansing, genocide, and other
The UDHR encompasses a wide range of rights, crimes against humanity are extreme
including but not limited to: violations. The Rohingya crisis in Myanmar
• Civil and Political Rights: Such as the right to and the Darfur genocide in Sudan are stark
life, freedom from torture, freedom of examples.
expression, and the right to a fair trial. o Gender-Based Violence: Women and
• Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights: LGBTQ+ individuals face widespread rights
Including the rights to education, health, and violations globally. This includes issues like
an adequate standard of living. domestic violence, honor killings, and
Impact and Challenges discriminatory laws. The #MeToo
• The conceptualization of human rights has movement highlighted sexual harassment
profoundly impacted global politics and ethics. and assault, prevalent even in democracies.
It has provided a common language for o Child Rights Violations: Children’s rights
activists, policymakers, and international are frequently violated, including child
bodies to address injustices and advocate for labor, trafficking, and denial of education,
the protection and promotion of human seen in various regions, particularly in
dignity. conflict zones and impoverished areas.
• However, challenges remain in the o Refugee and Migrant Rights: The rights of
implementation and enforcement of these refugees and migrants are often neglected,
rights. Violations of human rights are still leading to inhumane living conditions, as
prevalent in many parts of the world, and there seen in the European refugee crisis and the
are ongoing debates over the interpretation U.S.-Mexico border situation.
and prioritization of different rights. o Freedom of Press and Expression:
Journalists and media face restrictions and
dangers in numerous countries. Nations like

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 pg. 207

China and Russia have been criticized for raises concerns about human security,
censorship and control over media. including issues of labor rights, living
• Contemporary Issues and Challenges conditions, and overall well-being.
o Technology and Surveillance: The rise of • Social Stability: Countries like Myanmar have
digital surveillance technologies poses new experienced social instability due to ethnic
challenges for privacy rights. China’s tensions and discrimination. Focusing on
surveillance state is a notable example. human security involves addressing these
o Terrorism and Security: The global fight social issues to achieve long-term stability.
against terrorism has sometimes led to the • Conflict Prevention: Economic disparities
compromise of human rights, including between different ethnic or religious groups in
unlawful detentions and torture, as in the Nigeria have contributed to conflicts. An
case of Guantanamo Bay. emphasis on human security involves
o Economic Globalization: The exploitation addressing these disparities to prevent
of labor in developing countries by tensions that may lead to violence.
multinational corporations often leads to • Environmental Sustainability: China's rapid
human rights violations, including poor economic growth has led to environmental
working conditions and child labor. degradation. A focus on human security would
o Climate Change: Climate change involve sustainable development practices to
disproportionately affects marginalized ensure a healthy environment for current and
communities, raising concerns about their future generations.
rights to health, water, and a sustainable • Health and Education: In parts of sub-Saharan
environment. Africa, economic challenges often hinder
• Response and Resistance access to healthcare and education.
o International Institutions: Bodies like the Emphasizing human security involves
United Nations and the International addressing these barriers to promote a
Criminal Court work towards monitoring healthier and more educated population.
and addressing human rights violations, • Resilience to Pandemics: During the COVID-19
though their effectiveness is often limited pandemic, nations with strong social safety
by political considerations. nets, effective healthcare systems, and
o Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): transparent governance demonstrated greater
Organizations like Amnesty International resilience. Human security measures
and Human Rights Watch play a crucial role contribute to pandemic preparedness.
in documenting violations and advocating • Human Rights Protection: Saudi Arabia's
for change. economic prosperity from oil revenues
o Grassroots Movements: Local and global coexists with human rights concerns, including
movements, including Black Lives Matter restrictions on freedom of expression. Global
and pro-democracy protests in Hong Kong, human security involves advocating for
represent a societal pushback against rights fundamental rights alongside economic
violations. interests.
Human Security is comprehensive and • Inclusive Development: India's economic
interlinked concept growth is accompanied by challenges like
caste-based discrimination. A focus on human
• Comprehensive Well-being: While Qatar has a
security ensures that development benefits all
robust economy due to oil wealth, the
communities, promoting inclusivity and
prevalence of migrant worker exploitation
reducing social inequalities.

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 pg. 208

Globalisation and Human rights awareness of human rights issues due to

The relationship between globalization and human globalization.
rights is complex and has been the subject of • Responsibility to Protect (R2P) and Right to
significant debate. There are two primary schools Wage Peace (RWP): These principles have
of thought regarding this relationship: emerged in the global discourse, emphasizing
the responsibility of the international
Globalization is Beneficial for Human Rights community to protect individuals from gross
Proponents of this view argue that globalization, human rights violations and to promote peace,
particularly the spread of democratic governance, often linking directly to the effects of
has positive effects on human rights. globalization.
• Spread of Democracies: Globalization is seen o The international intervention in Libya in
as a catalyst for the spread of democratic 2011 under the R2P doctrine showcases the
values and systems, which are generally global community's commitment to
conducive to the protection and promotion of protecting human rights in the context of
human rights. globalization.
o The fall of the Berlin Wall and the
subsequent democratization of Eastern Globalization Undermines Human Rights
European countries illustrate how Critics of globalization argue that it can have
globalization can foster democratic values detrimental effects on human rights, particularly
and systems. through the mechanisms of neoliberal capitalism.
• Proliferation of Instruments, Conventions, • Neo-Liberal Capitalism: The economic model
and Institutions: Globalization has facilitated often associated with globalization is critiqued
the development and adoption of various for prioritizing profits and economic growth
international human rights instruments and over social and human rights concerns. This
conventions. It has also led to the model is seen as exacerbating inequality and
establishment of institutions dedicated to privileging corporate interests.
monitoring and enforcing these rights, such as o The 2008 financial crisis underscores how
the United Nations Human Rights Council. neoliberal capitalism can exacerbate
o The adoption of the Universal Declaration economic inequalities and neglect human
of Human Rights by the United Nations and rights.
the establishment of the International • Anti-Poor Policies: Critics argue that
Criminal Court exemplify how globalization globalization often results in policies that
aids in creating human rights frameworks. disadvantage the poor, including labor
• Growth of Human Rights Consciousness: The exploitation and inadequate labor protections,
interconnectedness resulting from especially in developing countries.
globalization has raised global awareness and o Sweatshops in Bangladesh reveal
consciousness about human rights issues. This globalization's role in labor exploitation
has been aided by the global media, NGOs, and and lack of worker protection.
civil society organizations that play a crucial • Weakening of Social and Economic Rights: As
role in disseminating information and global economic policies focus on market
advocating for human rights. liberalization and privatization, there is a
o The global reaction to the Rohingya crisis in concern that social and economic rights, such
Myanmar, amplified by international media as the right to healthcare, education, and social
and NGOs, demonstrates increased global security, are being undermined.

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 pg. 209

o Bolivia's water privatization showcases leading to a bias in the recognition of women's

how market liberalization can limit access rights.
to essential resources like clean water. • Universalization and Cultural Relativism:
• Rolling Back of the State: Globalization is seen Feminists contend that the universalization of
as leading to a reduction in the role and human rights has sometimes been applied in
capacity of the state, particularly in providing ways that overlook cultural contexts and
welfare and social services. This can lead to a reinforce patriarchal norms. The clash is
gap in the protection and fulfillment of human evident in debates on cultural practices like
rights, especially for the marginalized. female genital mutilation, where some argue
o Austerity measures in Greece during the for cultural sensitivity, while feminists
Eurozone crisis demonstrate emphasize the violation of women's rights.
globalization's impact on reducing state • Limited Focus on Women's Experiences:
welfare services. Feminist theories argue that the conventional
• Feminization of Poverty and Impact on discourse tends to prioritize civil and political
Agriculture: Global economic policies have rights over social and economic rights,
disproportionately impacted women, leading impacting women disproportionately.
to the feminization of poverty. Similarly, small- Reproductive rights, including access to
scale agriculture in many developing countries contraception and safe abortion, receive less
has been adversely affected, threatening the attention compared to civil and political rights,
livelihoods and rights of rural communities. impacting women's health and autonomy.
o Low-paid, poorly treated female textile • Intersectionality: Feminist scholars emphasize
workers in developing countries and the intersectionality of women's identities,
Indian small-scale farmers' struggles considering factors like race, class, and
against agricultural reforms highlight the sexuality. Women of color may face unique
negative effects of global economic challenges combining race and gender
policies on vulnerable groups. discrimination, illustrating the need for an
While globalization has the potential to promote intersectional approach in human rights
human rights through increased democratic discussions.
governance and global awareness, it also poses • Violence Against Women: Despite progress,
significant challenges, particularly through the feminist perspectives contend that the
economic inequalities and social injustices it can discourse on human rights has not sufficiently
perpetuate. The impact of globalization on human addressed pervasive issues like violence
rights is thus a nuanced topic, with valid arguments against women, including domestic violence,
on both sides of the debate. sexual assault, and human trafficking. Efforts
to combat such violence are seen as falling
Failure of conventional Human Rights discourse in short.
context of Women’s Rights • Implementation Gap: Feminist scholars argue
• Historical Exclusion: Feminist theories argue that the implementation of human rights
that historical human rights frameworks often instruments often lags behind the rhetoric.
excluded or marginalized women's rights, Laws and policies may exist on paper, but the
perpetuating gender inequalities. Early human lived experiences of women may not reflect
rights documents like the Universal the intended protections, leading to an
Declaration of Human Rights (1948) were implementation gap.
drafted without significant input from women, • Limited Recognition of Women's Agency:
Some feminist theories argue that the

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 pg. 210

conventional discourse may not fully recognize assembly, and protection of minority
women's agency and choices. The emphasis on rights should be universally upheld.
autonomy and decision-making in the human • Evolution of Human Rights Standards:
rights framework may need further refinement Ramesh Thakur argue that Asian societies may
to address issues like reproductive rights and prioritize collective rights over individual
consent. rights, challenging Western-centric human
• Need for Transformative Change: Feminist rights norms. However, this perspective
perspectives call for a transformative approach overlooks the evolving nature of human rights
that goes beyond legal frameworks and standards, which are continually shaped by
addresses systemic inequalities. Merely adding global consensus.
women to existing human rights structures is o The international community engages in
seen as insufficient; a broader reimagining of ongoing dialogues to refine and adapt
power dynamics is essential. human rights standards. Emphasizing
cultural sensitivity should not undermine
Human Rights and Asian Values the core principles of dignity, equality,
The notion of "Asian values" has been a subject of and justice.
ongoing debates, particularly in the context of • Economic Development vs. Human Rights:
discussions on human rights. Critics argue that Amartya Sen and Ha-Joon Chang makes the
invoking Asian values can be a way to challenge argument that economic development takes
universal human rights norms and justify practices precedence over certain human rights is
that may be inconsistent with international sometimes associated with Asian values. This
standards. perspective can perpetuate inequalities and
• Diversity within Asia: Treating Asia as a undermine the indivisibility of rights.
monolithic entity overlooks its vast cultural, o Economic development and human rights
religious, and political diversity. The attempt to are interconnected. A holistic approach to
consolidate diverse practices under a single development includes ensuring social and
umbrella term can oversimplify the complex economic rights alongside civil and
reality of the region. Pratap Bhanu Mehta political rights.
emphasizes diverse Asian cultures. • Local Adaptations of Universal Values: Critics
o Human rights are based on universal argue that framing human rights debates in
principles. The emphasis should be on terms of Asian values unnecessarily pits
recognizing and respecting the diverse cultural relativism against universalism. It can
cultural contexts within Asia while hinder productive conversations about how
upholding fundamental human rights. universal values can be adapted to local
• Instrumentalization for Political Ends: The contexts.
concept of Asian values has been criticized by o Local adaptations and interpretations of
Amartya Sen for being selectively invoked by human rights should be encouraged
authoritarian regimes to legitimize restrictions within the framework of universal
on civil liberties and political freedoms. It can principles. Constructive dialogue can
be used as a tool to suppress dissent and contribute to a more nuanced
consolidate power. understanding of cultural contexts.
o Human rights should not be sacrificed Understanding reasons behind the failure of
under the pretext of cultural relativism. human rights
Principles such as freedom of expression, Understanding the structural reasons behind the
failure of human rights (HRs) involves examining

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 pg. 211

diverse theoretical perspectives, each highlighting applicability of human rights in the context
different aspects of these challenges. of terrorism and national security.
• Communitarian and Post-Colonial Critique • Realist View
o Western Ideology Bias: Critics like Makau o Sovereignty Concerns: Realists like John
Mutua and Gayatri Spivak argue that Mearsheimer argue that human rights can
human rights are predominantly a Western infringe on state sovereignty. States are
construct, often disregarding non-Western seen as the primary actors responsible for
cultures and values. This Eurocentric view protecting rights within their territories.
can lead to conflicts and resistance in o Human Rights Transcending Boundaries:
different cultural contexts. Despite acknowledging that human rights
o Cultural Relativism: They emphasize the transcend national boundaries, realists
importance of acknowledging local point out the challenges this poses to the
traditions and values, arguing that a traditional Westphalian model of state
universalist approach to human rights may sovereignty.
not be appropriate or effective in all • Implementation Challenges
societies. o No Supranational Authority: The absence
• Post-Modern and Radical Theorists of a global authority above nation-states
o Instrument for Interventionism: Scholars makes consistent enforcement of human
like Noam Chomsky and Slavoj Žižek have rights challenging. States are often
critiqued the use of human rights as a reluctant to cede sovereignty to
pretext for geopolitical intervention. They international institutions.
argue that powerful nations often use o State-Centric System: The international
human rights rhetoric to justify military or system's state-centric nature can hinder the
political interventions, as seen in cases like enforcement of human rights against
the Iraq War in 2003. resistant or powerful states, as seen in the
o Geopolitical Aims: The enforcement of case of human rights abuses in countries
human rights is seen as skewed to favor the like Syria and China.
interests of powerful states, often at the • Contemporary Issues and Examples
expense of weaker nations' sovereignty and o Anti-Immigration Sentiments: The U.K.'s
self-determination. Windrush scandal, where legal residents
• Ambiguity in Rights and Definitions were wrongly detained and deported,
o Undefined Scope of Rights: The lack of exemplifies how anti-immigration policies
consensus on specific rights included in the can lead to human rights violations.
human rights framework leads to varying o Economic Globalization: The exploitation
interpretations. This ambiguity can be of labor in developing countries, as seen in
manipulated by states to justify certain the garment industry in Bangladesh, raises
actions or to evade responsibilities. questions about the protection of workers'
o Debate on Who is 'Human': The rights in the global economy.
entitlement of certain groups (like o Technology and Surveillance: The rise of
terrorists) to human rights is a contentious digital surveillance, exemplified by the
issue, raising questions about the Chinese government's monitoring of the
universality and limits of these rights. The Uighur population, presents new
treatment of detainees at Guantanamo challenges for privacy and freedom.
Bay, for instance, sparked debates over the Conclusion

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 pg. 212

These perspectives underscore the complexity of between cultures underscores the

implementing and enforcing human rights in a importance of dialogue.
diverse and unequal global landscape. They • Cultural Relativist Approach
highlight the need for a more nuanced approach o This approach, supported by scholars like
that respects cultural differences, ensures the Jack Donnelly, acknowledges the
accountability of powerful actors, and addresses relevance of cultural specificity in the
the challenges posed by state sovereignty and application of human rights. It seeks to
global governance structures. Recognizing and balance universal human rights principles
addressing these structural issues is crucial for the with respect for cultural diversity.
advancement of a more universally acceptable and o The application of women's rights in
effective human rights framework. various cultural contexts, such as the
debate over wearing the hijab, requires a
Course of action to be followed culturally sensitive approach.
Addressing the challenges in the promotion and • Capacity Building in the Global South
protection of human rights requires a multifaceted o Need for Capacity Building: Enhancing the
approach that encompasses depoliticizing the capabilities of states in the Global South is
issue, fostering intercultural dialogue, adopting a crucial for them to address the negative
culturally sensitive approach, enhancing state effects of globalization, as argued by
capacities, strengthening UN agencies, and scholars like Joseph Stiglitz.
improving transparency and democracy in o Initiatives like the UNDP's support for
international institutions. governance and human rights in African
• Depoliticizing Human Rights countries demonstrate the importance of
o Scholars like Anne-Marie Slaughter argue building local capacities for effective
that human rights should not be used as a human rights protection.
tool for political maneuvering by powerful • Strengthening UN Agencies
nations. The West, in particular, should o Development Work: Strengthening the
focus on promoting human rights in a way capacity of UN agencies involved in
that is not perceived as imposing their development work is essential for
own political agenda. addressing the root causes of human
o The perceived politicization of human rights violations. Scholars like Thomas
rights in the context of U.S.-China Weiss have emphasized the role of the UN
relations, particularly regarding issues in in promoting sustainable development
Hong Kong and Xinjiang, illustrates the and human rights.
need for a more neutral approach that o The work of UNICEF in improving child
avoids exacerbating geopolitical tensions. rights globally shows the positive impact
• Dialogue Between Civilizations of strong UN agencies.
o Amartya Sen and Kwame Anthony Appiah • Transparency and Democratic Deficit in
advocate for dialogue between different UNHRC
cultures and civilizations as a way to find o The UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC)
common ground on human rights. This has been criticized for a lack of
approach respects cultural diversity while transparency and democratic deficit.
seeking universal principles. Scholars like David Kaye advocate for
o The success of platforms like the Alliance reforms to make UNHRC more
of Civilizations (UNAOC) in promoting representative and accountable.
mutual respect and understanding

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 pg. 213

o The inclusion of countries with poor biodiversity. The assertion that global
human rights records in the UNHRC has commons belong to global society underscores
raised questions about its effectiveness the interconnectedness of nations and the
and credibility, highlighting the need for shared responsibility in managing and
reform. preserving these resources.
Conclusion • In an era where environmental challenges,
Addressing human rights challenges requires a climate change, and other global issues
comprehensive and nuanced approach. By transcend national borders, the need for global
depoliticizing human rights discourse, engaging in attention to the global commons becomes
intercultural dialogue, respecting cultural paramount. Nations must collaborate to
differences, building the capacity of states and UN address issues such as climate change,
agencies, and reforming international institutions deforestation, overfishing, and pollution that
to be more transparent and democratic, the global affect these shared resources. No single
community can make significant progress in country can adequately manage or protect the
protecting and promoting human rights. These global commons on its own.
strategies must be underpinned by a commitment • Global attention involves collective efforts,
to universal human rights principles while being international cooperation, and adherence to
sensitive to the diverse cultural contexts in which common principles and agreements. Treaties
they are applied. like the Paris Agreement on climate change
exemplify the recognition that global
Environment
challenges necessitate global solutions.
Introduction Additionally, organizations and forums like the
The environment, as a contemporary global United Nations play a crucial role in facilitating
concern, addresses the critical and urgent global cooperation on matters related to the
challenges faced by our planet. Issues such as global commons.
climate change, biodiversity loss, pollution, and • Ensuring the sustainable use and conservation
unsustainable resource use have profound impacts of global commons require shared
on ecosystems, human health, and economies. The commitments to equitable and responsible
interconnectedness of global ecosystems means practices. As societies become more
environmental issues have far-reaching interconnected economically, socially, and
consequences, transcending national borders and environmentally, the concept of global
requiring international cooperation and concerted commons becomes increasingly relevant. By
action. Addressing these environmental challenges acknowledging that these resources are part of
is vital for ensuring sustainable development, our global heritage, nations can work
collaboratively to strike a balance between
preserving natural resources for future development and preservation, safeguarding
generations, and maintaining the Earth's ecological the well-being of current and future
balance. generations.

Global Commons Understanding the evolution of climate change as

• The concept of global commons refers to a global issue
resources that are not owned by any particular
country but are shared by the international Understanding the evolution of climate change as
community. This includes areas like the a global issue requires an examination of its
atmosphere, oceans, outer space, and

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 pg. 214

historical context, key milestones, and the o Spaceship Earth: Boulding advocated for a
challenges faced in crafting a global response. shift to a “spaceship earth” mentality. This
concept views the Earth as a singular,
Hardin's "Tragedy of the Commons" illustrates how closed system with limited resources, akin
individuals acting in their self-interest can deplete to a spaceship. It emphasizes the need for
shared resources, leading to collective disaster. careful resource management,
Climate change is a prime example, as nations sustainability, and global cooperation.
prioritize economic growth over environmental • 1972 Stockholm Conference: The United
protection, contributing to global greenhouse gas Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was
emissions. established to coordinate global
This concept remains relevant as countries struggle environmental efforts. The conference laid the
to balance economic development with groundwork for international environmental
environmental sustainability, often leading to governance and highlighted the need for
overexploitation of shared global resources like the sustainable development.
atmosphere. • Brundtland Commission (1983): The
commission's report, “Our Common Future,”
Environmental Issues as Global Issues introduced the concept of sustainable
• Transnational Character: Environmental development, integrating environmental
challenges, such as climate change and protection with economic growth and social
pollution, do not respect national borders, equity.
making them inherently global issues requiring • UNCED - Rio Summit 1992
international cooperation. o Rio Principles: Included principles of
o Scholars like Joseph S. Nye and Robert O. Equity, CBDR (Common But Differentiated
Keohane have highlighted the "complex Responsibilities), and Historical
interdependence" of global Responsibility.
environmental issues, necessitating o Establishment of UNFCCC: The United
collaborative global responses. Nations Framework Convention on
• Rachel Carson's "The Silent Spring": Carson’s Climate Change laid the foundation for
book, published in 1962, is credited with future climate agreements.
starting the modern environmental movement o Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):
by highlighting the adverse effects of Aimed to conserve biological diversity and
pesticides on the environment and human ensure sustainable use of its components.
health. The book’s impact led to significant o Kyoto Protocol
environmental policy changes, including the ▪ Legally Binding: Targeted
eventual ban of DDT in the U.S. industrialized countries (Annex-1 and
• Oil Crisis of the 1970s: The oil crisis brought Annex-2) with legally binding
attention to the finite nature of fossil fuels and emission reduction commitments.
the need for alternative energy sources. ▪ Mechanisms: Introduced Joint
o Economist and environmentalist Kenneth Implementation, Clean Development
E. Boulding presented a powerful critique Mechanism (CDM), and Carbon
of what he termed the "cowboy Trading.
economy" – an economic system that ▪ U.S. Non-Participation: Highlighted
operates under the assumption of infinite the challenges in securing global
resources and limitless frontiers. commitment to climate action.
o Copenhagen Summit

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 pg. 215

▪ Controversy: Criticized for deals with voluntary international

undermining climate justice, as cooperation mechanisms, such as carbon
developed countries appeared to markets.
shift responsibility onto developing o COP26 (2021) - Glasgow, United Kingdom:
nations. Aimed to accelerate action towards the
▪ Outcome: Led to voluntary goals of the Paris Agreement and the UN
commitments rather than binding Framework Convention on Climate
agreements, marking a setback in Change.
global climate negotiations. o COP27 (2022) - Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt:
o Cancun Summit Notable for the agreement to establish a
▪ Advancements: Introduced new fund to compensate poor and vulnerable
mechanisms like technology transfer, countries for losses and damages due to
Adaptation Fund, and the Green climate change. However, there was no
Climate Fund (GCF) to support commitment to phasing down all fossil
developing countries in climate fuels, and the goal to reach peak
action. emissions by 2025 was removed from the
o Doha Amendment to Kyoto Protocol final communiqué.
▪ Extension: Extended the Kyoto o COP28 (2023) - Dubai, UAE: Member
Protocol’s commitment period from countries reached a consensus to
2012 to 2020. operationalize the Loss and Damage (L&D)
o Paris Summit Fund
▪ Aim: Set the goal of limiting global
temperature rise to below 2 degrees The journey from the recognition of environmental
Celsius above pre-industrial levels. issues as global concerns to the Paris Agreement
▪ Legally Binding: Introduced legally underscores both progress and ongoing challenges
binding instruments but with in addressing climate change. Each phase reflects
nationally determined contributions an evolving understanding of the complexities
(INDCs) that were not compulsory involved in managing the global commons and the
quotas. need for sustained international cooperation,
▪ U.S. Withdrawal: The U.S. withdrawal equitable responsibility-sharing, and commitment
under President Trump represented a to sustainable development.
significant challenge to global climate
efforts, underscoring the fragility of At the COP26 summit held in Glasgow, Prime
international agreements. Minister Narendra Modi of India made five
o COP22 (2016) - Marrakech, Morocco: significant commitments to address climate
Focus on beginning the implementation of change:
the Paris Agreement. 1. Achieve Net-Zero Emissions by 2070: India
o COP23 (2017) - Bonn, Germany: Advanced pledged to reach net-zero carbon emissions
the rulebook for implementing the Paris by 2070, aligning with global efforts to
Agreement. mitigate climate change.
o COP24 (2018) - Katowice, Poland: 2. Non-Fossil Energy Capacity: The country
Finalized the detailed rules for making the aims to expand its non-fossil energy capacity
Paris Agreement operational. to 500 GW by 2030, significantly boosting
o COP25 (2019) - Madrid, Spain: Discussions renewable energy sources.
on Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, which

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 pg. 216

3. Reduce Carbon Intensity: India plans to o The concept of the "tragedy of the
decrease the carbon intensity of its commons" was introduced by Garrett
economy by 45% by 2030, compared to Hardin. It illustrates the problem of
2005 levels. overuse and degradation of shared
4. Renewable Energy Requirement: 50% of resources when individual actors act in
India's energy requirements will be met their self-interest. Hardin's work
through renewable sources by 2030, highlights the need for collective
marking a major shift towards sustainable responsibility and management of global
energy. commons.
5. Cut Carbon Emissions: India commits to o Garrett Hardin argues, "The rational man
reducing its total projected carbon finds that his share of the cost of the
emissions by 1 billion tonnes from now until wastes he discharges into the commons is
2030. less than the cost of purifying his wastes
These commitments represent India's enhanced before releasing them."
ambitions in tackling climate change and ▪ Example: Overfishing in
contribute to the global effort to limit global international waters is a common
warming. example. Nations may overexploit
fish stocks because they don't bear
Challenges involved in looking after the full environmental cost, leading
environmental concerns in world politics to depletion of marine resources.
• National Interest vs. Global Interests: • Democracy, Welfare State, and Growth:
o This issue, highlighted by political scientist o The tension between economic growth
Joseph Nye, centers on the tension and environmental sustainability is a
between a nation's pursuit of its own subject explored by environmental
interests and the global interests related economist Herman Daly. Daly argues for a
to environmental protection. Nye steady-state economy that prioritizes
emphasizes that nations often act in their sustainability over perpetual growth.
self-interest but also recognize the o Herman Daly asserts, "The 'steady state'
importance of cooperation on global economy is the goal, not the means. The
issues. means is a cultural and political revolution
o As Joseph Nye notes, "International in which people see themselves as
cooperation can be a powerful force in citizens, not consumers."
addressing global challenges, but it must ▪ Example: Many countries struggle
also align with national interests." to balance economic growth with
▪ Example: The United States' environmental protection. India,
withdrawal from the Paris for instance, faces challenges in
Agreement in 2017, under the managing rapid industrialization
Trump administration, was seen as while addressing pollution and
a move to prioritize national ecological concerns.
interests over global climate goals. • Ecological Security:
However, it rejoined the agreement o Barry Buzan, a security studies scholar,
under the Biden administration in expands the concept of security to include
2021, signaling a shift in approach. ecological security. He argues that
• Environmental Responsibility: environmental challenges can lead to
conflicts and insecurity, making them

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 pg. 217

critical aspects of national and global ▪ Example: In regions prone to

security. droughts or extreme weather
o Barry Buzan states, "In the 21st century, events, women may bear the
ecological security is becoming as responsibility for securing water
important as military, political, economic, and food, which can exacerbate
and societal security." existing gender inequalities. Efforts
▪ Example: The Darfur conflict in are being made to address these
Sudan, often linked to resource disparities and empower women in
scarcity and climate-related factors, climate resilience and adaptation
exemplifies how environmental initiatives.
issues can contribute to security
challenges. The linkage between environmental degradation
• Globalization and Environmental and neo-corporatism
Degradation: The linkage between environmental degradation
o Radical ecologists like Vandana Shiva and and neo-corporatism in the globalized era is
Naomi Klein argue that globalization and intricate and multifaceted.
capitalism prioritize profit over • Neo-corporatism, characterized by
environmental protection. They collaboration between governments,
emphasize the need for systemic change businesses, and sometimes labor groups, can
to address ecological concerns. significantly impact environmental policies and
o Vandana Shiva emphasizes, "The practices. In the globalized era, this often
corporate market will destroy the planet translates into multinational corporations
unless we the people stop it." having substantial influence over
▪ Example: The rapid expansion of environmental regulations and initiatives.
industries in developing countries, • In the globalized era, neo-corporatism
driven by globalization, has often significantly impacts environmental policies.
led to high levels of pollution and Large corporations in sectors like energy and
deforestation. For example, the manufacturing often influence these policies,
palm oil industry's expansion in prioritizing economic growth over
Southeast Asia has resulted in environmental protection.
deforestation and habitat • This drive for growth can lead to
destruction. environmental degradation through increased
• Gender and Climate Change: industrial activities, causing deforestation,
o Feminist scholars, such as Sherilyn pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions.
MacGregor, highlight the gendered Globalization exacerbates these issues through
impacts of climate change. They stress the varied environmental regulations in different
importance of recognizing and addressing countries, leading to exploitation of weaker
the disproportionate vulnerability of standards.
women to environmental crises. • While some corporations engage in
o Sherilyn MacGregor notes, "Climate greenwashing to maintain public image, neo-
change is not gender-neutral. Women, corporatism also offers opportunities for
especially those in marginalized public-private partnerships, fostering
communities, bear a heavier burden of its collaboration for environmental protection
impacts." and sustainability.

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 pg. 218

Environmental debates that foster collective action." -

Political scientist Elinor Ostrom
• North-South Debate: This debate revolves
▪ Example: The United Nations
around the disparities in responsibility for
Framework Convention on Climate
global environmental issues between
Change (UNFCCC) involves
developed (the Global North) and developing
negotiations between countries to
(the Global South) countries.
strike a balance between top-down
o Historical Responsibility vs. Current
targets and bottom-up voluntary
Responsibility: Some argue that
contributions.
historically, industrialized nations are
o Rights-Based vs. Market-Based
primarily responsible for environmental
Approach: Some argue for environmental
degradation due to their past emissions.
policies grounded in human rights,
In contrast, others emphasize that current
emphasizing equitable access to
emissions and actions should determine
resources. Others support market-based
responsibility.
mechanisms like carbon trading.
▪ Example: The Paris Agreement
▪ "Human capabilities provide a
recognizes the principle of Common
powerful framework for analyzing the
But Differentiated Responsibilities
effectiveness of social
and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-
arrangements." - Martha Nussbaum
RC), which acknowledges historical
▪ Example: The debate over carbon
responsibilities but also the need for
pricing includes discussions on
developing nations to contribute
whether to prioritize market
based on their current capabilities.
mechanisms (like emissions trading)
o Aid vs. Trade: Developing countries often
or focus on human rights and
argue for financial aid and technology
equitable access to resources.
transfer from developed nations to
support sustainable development. • Private Property vs. Public Property Debate:
Conversely, developed countries may This debate centers on the ownership and
emphasize trade relationships. management of natural resources, particularly
▪ Example: Ongoing discussions in in the context of sustainable resource use.
international climate negotiations o Private Ownership and Market
often involve debates on financial Discipline: Scholars like Garrett Hardin
support, technology sharing, and argue that private ownership and market
trade policies to address discipline can incentivize responsible
environmental challenges. resource management.
o Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Approach: This o Example: The concept of cap-and-trade
debate centers on the approach to systems, where businesses buy and sell
environmental governance. The Global emissions allowances, reflects a market-
South may favor a more centralized, top- based approach to managing
down approach, while the Global North environmental resources.
might advocate for decentralized, o Community Ownership for
bottom-up solutions. Environmental Respect: Eco-socialists
▪ "Sustainable resource management argue that private ownership has led to
requires institutional arrangements environmental degradation. They
advocate for community or public

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 pg. 219

ownership as a means to ensure resource cooperation to find solutions that benefit both
conservation and sustainability. people and the planet.
▪ "The more clearly we can focus our
attention on the wonders and
realities of the universe about us, the
Gender Justice
less taste we shall have for Gender justice is a fundamental concept that
destruction." - Rachel Carson addresses the fair and equitable treatment of
o Example: Community-based natural individuals of all genders, with a focus on achieving
resource management programs in equality and eliminating discrimination. It
various countries promote community encompasses a wide range of issues, including
ownership and stewardship for economic, social, political, and legal dimensions,
sustainable resource use. aiming to rectify historical and systemic gender-
• Reformist Ecology vs. Radical Ecology Debate: based inequalities. Gender justice recognizes that
This debate concerns the approach to gender identity should not determine one's access
addressing environmental issues, with some to rights, opportunities, or resources.
advocating for gradual reforms and others
calling for more radical, transformative Scholars' Views on Gender Justice
change.
• Amartya Sen, a Nobel laureate economist,
o Climate Change Scientists vs. Skeptics:
highlights that gender inequality impedes
Climate change scientists emphasize the
development, emphasizing equal
need for urgent action to mitigate and
opportunities for women and men.
adapt to climate change. Skeptics may
question the severity or causes of climate • Philosopher Martha Nussbaum’s capabilities
approach advocates for gender justice through
change.
▪ "We have a planetary emergency. We capabilities that allow dignified living for all
have to recognize that and take the genders.
actions we need to preserve our • Cultural theorist Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
planet for our children and stresses the need to consider gender justice
grandchildren." - Climatologist James within the broader context of social justice,
Hansen recognizing its intersectionality with race,
o Example: The Intergovernmental Panel on class, and more.
Climate Change (IPCC) provides scientific • Judith Butler, a gender theorist, challenges
assessments that inform global climate conventional gender norms and advocates for
policies, while climate skeptics continue the recognition of diverse gender identities.
to challenge the consensus on climate • Navi Pillay, a former UN High Commissioner
science. for Human Rights, frames gender justice as a
• Greta Thunberg, a young climate activist, has fundamental human rights issue, underscoring
said, "I want you to act as if the house is on fire equality in rights and freedoms for all genders.
because it is." Gender Justice in global agenda
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):
These global environmental debates are critical for
Specifically, Goal 5 focuses on achieving
shaping international policies and actions to
gender equality and empowering all women
address pressing environmental challenges. They
and girls, highlighting gender justice as a global
reflect diverse perspectives and interests and
priority.
underscore the need for continued dialogue and

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 pg. 220

• International Agreements: Various treaties ▪ The percentage of women in tech is

and agreements, such as the Convention on significantly low globally, often
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination cited at around 25%.
Against Women (CEDAW), emphasize gender • Education Disparity
justice. o Access to Education: Girls in many parts
• Global Movements: Movements like #MeToo of the world have limited access to
and campaigns by organizations like UN education. UNESCO reports significant
Women reflect a growing global emphasis on gender disparities in education in several
addressing gender-based disparities and regions.
promoting gender equality. ▪ UNESCO reports that 129 million
• Policy Focus: Many countries have adopted girls worldwide are out of school,
policies focusing on gender justice, and women make up two-thirds of
incorporating it into national development the global illiterate population.
plans and legislative frameworks o Impact on Empowerment: Education is
key to empowerment, and the lack of it
Various aspects of Gender injustice
perpetuates gender inequality.
• Societal and Cultural Norms • Health and Reproductive Rights
o Patriarchy and Gender Roles: Many o Access to Healthcare: Women, especially
societies are structured around in developing countries, often have
patriarchal norms that enforce traditional limited access to healthcare services.
gender roles, often limiting women’s roles o Reproductive Rights: Issues like restricted
to caretaking and domestic access to contraception and abortion
responsibilities. services impact women's health and
o Simone de Beauvoir's seminal work, "The autonomy. The debate over abortion
Second Sex," argues that women have rights in various countries, including the
historically been considered the 'Other' in United States, exemplifies this ongoing
a male-dominated society. struggle.
• Economic Inequality • Violence and Exploitation
o Wage Gap: Women often earn less than o Domestic and Sexual Violence: Globally,
men for the same work. According to the women are more likely to experience
World Economic Forum's Global Gender domestic and sexual violence. The
Gap Report, the gender pay gap remains a #MeToo movement highlights the
significant challenge. prevalence of sexual harassment and
▪ In 2020, the global gender pay gap assault.
was estimated at 16%, meaning ▪ The World Health Organization
women earn 84% of what men earn estimates that about 1 in 3 (30%) of
for similar work. women worldwide have been
o Employment Opportunities: Women subjected to physical and/or sexual
have less access to high-paying jobs and violence.
leadership roles. The "glass ceiling" is a o Human Trafficking: Women and girls are
term that describes the invisible barriers disproportionately affected by human
women face in advancing their careers. trafficking, often for sexual exploitation.
▪ Only 7.4% of Fortune 500 CEOs • Political Representation
were women in 2021. o Underrepresentation in Governance:
Women are underrepresented in political

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 pg. 221

leadership globally. According to the will not be attained for 135.6 years
Inter-Parliamentary Union, only a fraction at the current rate of change.
of national leaders are women.
Impacts of globalisation on Women
▪ As of 2022, the Inter-Parliamentary
Union reported that only 25.5% of Negative Impacts of Globalization on Women
all national parliamentarians were • Socialist Feminists' View: Scholars like Maria
women. Mies and Vandana Shiva in "Ecofeminism"
o Impact on Policy Making: This argue that globalization perpetuates
underrepresentation affects policymaking patriarchal capitalism, which disadvantages
and the prioritization of issues that affect women, especially in developing countries.
women. They highlight how neoliberal policies favor the
• LGBTQ+ Rights wealthy and MNCs, exacerbating class and
o Discrimination Against LGBTQ+ gender inequalities.
Individuals: Gender non-conforming and • Global Feminization of Work:
transgender individuals often face o Pink-Collar Jobs: These are typically low-
discrimination and violence. paying service or clerical jobs often
o Legal and Social Challenges: In many occupied by women. Globalization has led
countries, LGBTQ+ rights are not to an increase in such jobs, which are
recognized, leading to further marked by low wages and poor working
marginalization. conditions.
• Intersectionality ▪ Example: The proliferation of call
o Multiple Forms of Discrimination: The centers in countries like India and the
concept of intersectionality, introduced Philippines, where a significant
by Kimberlé Crenshaw, highlights how number of women are employed in
different aspects of identity, including low-wage, high-stress jobs.
race, class, and gender, intersect to create • Feminization of Migration:
unique experiences of discrimination and o Nurses and Domestic Workers: There's a
privilege. trend of women from developing
▪ Example: The experiences of Black countries migrating to developed
women in the United States, Dalit countries for jobs, often as nurses or
women in India, or Indigenous housemaids. These jobs can involve
women in Latin America exemplify exploitation and vulnerability to abuse.
intersectional discrimination. o The International Labour Organization
• Global Movements and Progress (ILO) reports that women constitute a
o Women's Rights Movements: Initiatives significant proportion of international
like the #HeForShe campaign by UN migrants in certain sectors like caregiving.
Women advocate for gender equality, • Boosted Sex Tourism: Countries in Southeast
engaging men as allies. Asia, such as Thailand and the Philippines, have
o Progress and Challenges: While there has seen a rise in sex tourism, where local women
been progress in some areas, gender are often exploited to meet the demands of
injustice remains a pervasive issue, tourists.
requiring ongoing efforts for change. • Exploitation by MNCs: Many MNCs have been
▪ For example, the World Economic criticized for paying low wages to female
Forum’s 2021 Global Gender Gap workers, especially in developing countries.
Report indicates that gender parity

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 pg. 222

o Example: The garment industry in • Education and Empowerment: Globalization

Bangladesh employs millions of women in has increased access to education for women,
often hazardous conditions and for low leading to greater empowerment and
pay. The Rana Plaza tragedy in 2013, participation in the workforce.
where a garment factory collapsed, killing o The World Bank reports that girls'
over 1,000 workers, most of whom were enrollment in primary and secondary
women, highlighted these issues. education has increased in many
• Feminization of Poverty: This concept refers to developing countries, closing the gender
the increasing proportion of the poor who are gap in education.
women. Globalization can exacerbate this by • Transnational Feminist Movements:
creating job insecurity and widening income Globalization has facilitated the formation of
gaps. transnational networks and movements
o According to the United Nations, women advocating for women's rights, enabling the
are more likely than men to live in exchange of ideas, resources, and solidarity
poverty. across borders.

Positive Impacts of Globalization on Women Feminist critic to contemporary global issues

• Economic Development and Emancipation: • Gender Inequality: Feminist scholars like Sylvia
Modernization theorists argue that economic Walby and Raewyn Connell highlight the
development, spurred by globalization, can gender pay gap and advocate for broader
lead to the emancipation of women from access to education. While progress has been
traditional roles. made, the works of these scholars emphasize
• Gender Inequality Index (GII): Developed the need for sustained efforts.
countries often outperform developing • Violence Against Women: The #MeToo
countries in the GII, suggesting that economic movement gained momentum due to the work
growth correlates with better outcomes for of feminist scholars like Kimberlé Crenshaw
women. and bell hooks. Despite achievements, scholars
• Greater Human Rights and Women's Rights emphasize the ongoing challenges in enforcing
Awareness: Globalization has facilitated the change in societal attitudes and legal
spread of ideas and norms about human rights frameworks.
and women's rights. • Reproductive Rights: Scholars like Gloria
o Example: International campaigns and Steinem and Simone de Beauvoir have
organizations, like UN Women, have been contributed to the advocacy for reproductive
instrumental in promoting gender rights. Despite progress, ongoing debates and
equality and empowering women restrictions are examined by these scholars
worldwide. within diverse cultural contexts.
• Increased Employment Opportunities: • Representation and Leadership: Feminist
Globalization has opened up new job markets scholars such as Judith Butler and Anne Phillips
for women, especially in developing countries, analyze women's underrepresentation in
in industries such as technology and services. leadership roles. Their work stresses the
o Example: The IT sector in India has seen a persistence of structural barriers, necessitating
significant influx of women, offering them continuous efforts for inclusivity.
better economic opportunities and • Global Economic Disparities: Feminist
challenging traditional gender roles. economists like Nancy Folbre and Diane Elson
have explored economic gaps for women.

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 pg. 223

Their research underscores the need for and boys to stand in solidarity with women
systemic changes to empower women to achieve gender equality.
economically on a global scale. o Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):
• Intersectionality: Kimberlé Crenshaw, who Specifically, Goal 5 aims to achieve gender
coined the term "intersectionality," and equality and empower all women and girls
Patricia Hill Collins emphasize the by 2030.
interconnectedness of gender with other social • Legal Reforms and Policy Initiatives
categories. Their scholarship enriches the o Gender Quotas in Politics: Several
feminist critique by acknowledging the countries have implemented quotas to
complexity of women's experiences. ensure women's representation in political
• Environmental Justice: Ecofeminist scholars bodies.
like Vandana Shiva and Carolyn Merchant o Equal Pay Legislation: Laws mandating
explore gender-environment intersections. equal pay for equal work have been
While there is increasing integration of gender enacted in various countries.
perspectives in policies, scholars call for more o Gender Mainstreaming: The integration of
comprehensive strategies. a gender perspective into all policy-
• Cyber Harassment and Technology: Feminist making, with a special emphasis on
scholars such as Danielle Keats Citron and legislation, policies, and programs.
Anita Sarkeesian address gendered dimensions • Economic Empowerment Programs
of cyber harassment. Their work underscores o Microfinance and Entrepreneurship
the ongoing need for effective policies and Programs: Aimed at women to provide
digital literacy to combat online gender-based them with financial independence.
violence. Organizations like Grameen Bank have
been instrumental in this regard.
Steps taken to address the issue of Gender o Skill Development and Education
injustice Programs: Initiatives focusing on
• International Agreements and Conventions increasing women's access to education
o Convention on the Elimination of All and vocational training.
Forms of Discrimination Against Women • Grassroots Movements and NGOs
(CEDAW): Often described as an o Women's March: A global movement
international bill of rights for women, advocating for legislation and policies
adopted in 1979 by the UN General regarding human rights, including
Assembly. women's rights.
o Beijing Declaration and Platform for o Non-Governmental Organizations
Action: A comprehensive policy agenda for (NGOs): Numerous NGOs work at local,
women's empowerment, adopted at the national, and international levels to
Fourth World Conference on Women in promote women's rights, such as Amnesty
1995. International, Plan International, and
• United Nations Initiatives Oxfam.
o UN Women: Established in 2010, this • Awareness Campaigns and Education
entity focuses on gender equality and the o #MeToo Movement: Raised global
empowerment of women, coordinating awareness about the prevalence of sexual
efforts across the UN system. harassment and assault.
o HeForShe Campaign: Launched by UN o Public Awareness Campaigns: Campaigns
Women, this campaign encourages men focusing on issues like domestic violence,

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 pg. 224

female genital mutilation (FGM), and child Terrorism

marriage.
Terrorism, as a contemporary global concern,
• Corporate Responsibility and Workplace
represents one of the most pressing and complex
Policies
challenges in the international arena. Its
o Diversity and Inclusion Programs: Many
multifaceted nature, evolving tactics, and global
companies have implemented policies to
impact make it a critical issue for governments,
ensure gender diversity and inclusion in
security agencies, and civil societies worldwide.
the workplace.
• Bruce Hoffman views terrorism as a deliberate
o Parental Leave Policies: Adoption of more
tool to create fear for political change,
inclusive parental leave policies that
emphasizing its psychological impact.
recognize the roles of both parents.
• Martha Crenshaw considers it a rational
• Research and Data Collection
strategy for political objectives when other
o Gender-Disaggregated Data: Enhancing
means fail.
the collection and use of gender-
• Marc Sageman challenges the notion that
disaggregated data to better understand
poverty and lack of education are primary
and address gender gaps.
drivers of terrorism, focusing instead on social
• International Collaboration and Funding
networks and bonds.
o Funding for Gender Equality: International
• Paul Wilkinson sees terrorism as political
donors and organizations funding projects
violence but warns against undermining
and initiatives that promote gender
democracy and human rights in response.
equality.
o Global Partnerships: Collaborations
Types of Terrorism
between countries, NGOs, and
• Nationalist Terrorism: Aimed at national
international organizations to share best
independence or defending national identity,
practices and resources.
often in response to perceived oppression.
Example: LTTE in Sri Lanka seeking Tamil
Conclusion
independence, using tactics like guerrilla
Gender justice remains a vital component of global
warfare and bombings.
efforts towards equality and inclusivity. It involves
• Insurrectionary Terrorism: Focuses on
challenging deeply entrenched gender norms,
overthrowing government structures, driven
addressing systemic inequalities, and ensuring
by radical ideologies. Example: The Free Syrian
equal opportunities and rights for all genders. The
Army's efforts to topple Bashar al-Assad's
ongoing struggle for gender justice necessitates
regime in Syria, involving a range of violent acts
concerted efforts from governments, civil
including guerrilla warfare.
societies, and international organizations. Progress
in this area is essential not only for the • Global Terrorism: Involves international
empowerment of women and marginalized gender groups pursuing ideological goals across
groups but also for the overall advancement of borders. Example: Al Qaeda's quest for a global
Islamic state, marked by high-profile,
societies and the achievement of broader human
rights and development goals. international attacks.
• Lone Wolf Attacks: Individual acts of terrorism
inspired by extremist ideologies, often
unpredictable. Example: ISIS-inspired attacks,
characterized by their spontaneity and lack of
direct group coordination.

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 pg. 225

• Cyber Terrorism: Utilizes cyberspace for sometimes at the cost of civil liberties and
terrorist acts, including information system privacy.
attacks and spreading misinformation. • Technological Evolution: The rise of cyber
Characterized by diverse tactics from disabling terrorism presents new challenges, as
critical infrastructure to data theft, posing terrorists can now exploit digital technology to
significant risks to national and global security. carry out attacks, spread propaganda, and
• Nuclear Terrorism: Involves the use or threat recruit members.
of nuclear weapons or materials for terrorist • Resource Allocation: The fight against
purposes, marked by the catastrophic terrorism requires substantial resources.
potential and significant psychological impacts. Governments worldwide spend billions on
The execution is complex due to the challenges counter-terrorism measures, which could be
in acquiring nuclear materials. directed towards other critical areas like
education, health, and poverty alleviation.
Why terrorism is a global concern ? • Humanitarian Crises: Terrorism often leads to
• Global Threat: Terrorism knows no borders. humanitarian crises, including displacement of
With the rise of global terrorist networks, such populations and refugee flows, which pose
as ISIS and Al-Qaeda, terrorist activities can challenges not only to the affected countries
originate in one country and have impacts but also to the international community.
worldwide. • Evolution and Adaptability: Terrorist groups
• Loss of Lives and Human Rights Violations: have shown a remarkable ability to adapt and
Terrorist attacks indiscriminately target evolve, using new technologies and methods,
civilians, leading to tragic loss of life and severe making it a persistent and ever-changing
injuries. They also often involve gross threat.
violations of human rights.
• Economic Impact: Terrorism can have a Realist view on Terrorism
devastating effect on economies. It disrupts • In Realism's view of countering terrorism,
trade, tourism, and investment, leading to states are the primary actors focusing on
significant economic losses and hindering national security and interests. Realists
economic development, especially in advocate for strong defensive and offensive
vulnerable regions. measures, including military actions and
• Political Instability: Terrorist activities can coercive strategies like economic sanctions.
destabilize governments and regions, leading • They emphasize maintaining a balance of
to political turmoil. This instability can have power, often showing skepticism towards
ripple effects, influencing global politics and international institutions' effectiveness in
international relations. terrorism issues. Diplomacy and realpolitik
• Social and Cultural Impact: Terrorism breeds play a role in forming strategic alliances.
fear and mistrust within societies, often Realists prefer a pragmatic approach to foreign
leading to heightened racial and ethnic policy, aiming for long-term state power and
tensions. It can also result in the stigmatization stability, while assessing the strategic
of certain groups, further exacerbating social advantages and security implications in each
divides. situation related to terrorism.
• Influence on International Policies: The threat
of terrorism has led to significant changes in Liberal approach
international and national security policies, • The Liberal approach to countering terrorism
emphasizes international cooperation and

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 pg. 226

institutions, advocating for collaborative ▪ Endangerment of Human Rights:

efforts through the United Nations, Interpol, These measures can sometimes
and regional alliances. It focuses on addressing infringe on individual freedoms and
root causes like poverty, political oppression, privacy, leading to concerns about
and social injustice. civil liberties and human rights
• Liberals promote democracy, human rights, violations.
and economic development as key strategies ▪ Counter-Productivity: Overzealous
against terrorism, arguing that these factors security measures can alienate
can diminish its appeal. They value legal and communities, potentially leading to
judicial approaches, adhering to international increased radicalization rather than
law, and prefer multilateral diplomacy and soft deterring it.
power tools like cultural exchange. Generally • Military Repression (e.g., War on Terror)
favoring non-military solutions, Liberals o This strategy involves using military force
advocate for economic sanctions and to combat terrorism, as seen in the U.S.
diplomatic methods over military War on Terror.
interventions. o Criticisms:
▪ Poor Record: Military interventions
Radical theorists often fail to address the underlying
• Radical theorists view terrorism as a response causes of terrorism. Examples like
to global power imbalances and injustices. ISIS and the Taliban demonstrate
They attribute terrorism to factors like how military action alone can
imperialism, neo-colonialism, economic sometimes lead to the resurgence of
exploitation, and cultural imperialism. terrorist groups.
Influenced by Marxist theory, they critique ▪ Greater Retaliation by Terrorists:
global capitalism and state actions such as war Military actions can sometimes
and support for repressive regimes, labeling provoke more intense and retaliatory
these as state terrorism. terrorist activities.
• Social and political alienation is seen as a driver ▪ Human Rights Violations: There have
for terrorism, with terrorism sometimes been numerous instances where
framed as resistance against oppression. military actions against terrorism
Radical theorists criticize Western democracies have led to significant human rights
for policy hypocrisy and advocate for structural abuses.
changes in international politics and • Political Deals
economics to address terrorism's root causes. o This strategy involves engaging in political
negotiations with terrorist groups, aiming
Countering terrorism to address grievances and find a peaceful
• Strengthening State Security resolution.
o This includes enhancing border o Counter Terrorism with Hearts and
protection, increasing surveillance, Minds Strategy: This approach focuses on
choking financial routes of terrorist winning over the population to prevent
organizations, enacting counter-terrorism the support and recruitment of terrorist
legislation, and tightening immigration organizations.
control. o Criticisms:
o Criticisms: ▪ Appeasement and Moral Retreat:
Some argue that negotiating with

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 pg. 227

terrorist groups equates to international cooperation. The International

appeasement, potentially weakening Convention for the Suppression of the
the state's moral standing. Financing of Terrorism is an example that seeks
▪ Emboldening Terrorist Groups: to curb financial support for terrorist activities.
There's a concern that such deals
might encourage other groups to Challenges and Failures:
adopt terrorism to achieve their • Security Council Gridlock: The U.N. Security
goals. Council faces challenges in reaching consensus
▪ Ineffectiveness with Certain Groups: on defining terrorism and taking decisive
In the case of ideologically driven actions. Veto powers of permanent members
groups like ISIS, political negotiations can lead to gridlock, hindering effective
are often seen as ineffective or responses. For instance, disagreements on the
impossible due to their extreme and Syrian conflict have impeded a unified
non-negotiable demands. approach to counterterrorism.
• Alternative Approaches • Limited Enforcement Power: The U.N. lacks its
o Development and Education: Focusing on own military force, relying on member states
socio-economic development and for enforcement. This dependence can limit
education to address the root causes of swift and decisive action against transnational
terrorism. terrorist threats. The response to evolving
o Community Engagement: Involving local situations, such as the rise of ISIS, has often
communities in counter-terrorism efforts been fragmented.
to prevent radicalization. • Selective Implementation: Some critics argue
o International Cooperation: Collaborating that counterterrorism measures are selectively
with other nations and international applied, influenced by geopolitical interests.
organizations for intelligence sharing, Allegations of state-sponsored terrorism and
joint operations, and policy coordination. divergent approaches to groups labeled as
terrorists reflect inconsistencies in U.N.
Assessment of UN in containing transnational actions.
terrorism • Insufficient Prevention Strategies: The U.N.
Assessing the effectiveness of the United Nations has faced challenges in developing
(U.N.) in containing transnational terrorism is a comprehensive strategies for preventing the
complex task, involving both successes and root causes of terrorism. Issues like poverty,
failures. While the U.N. has made some strides in political instability, and social grievances, often
addressing terrorism, several challenges persist. linked to terrorism, require broader and
Successes: sustained efforts.
• International Legal Framework: The U.N. has • Emergence of New Threats: The rise of non-
played a role in establishing international legal state actors and cyberterrorism poses
frameworks to combat terrorism. Resolutions challenges that traditional U.N. frameworks
like UN Security Council Resolution 1373 may not adequately address. Adapting to
require member states to take specific actions evolving threats requires ongoing efforts and
to counter terrorism, such as criminalizing flexibility.
terrorist financing.
• Counterterrorism Conventions: The U.N. has Examples:
facilitated the creation of various • Syria: The Syrian conflict has showcased
counterterrorism conventions, fostering Security Council divisions, limiting coordinated

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 pg. 228

efforts against groups like ISIS. Competing • State Sovereignty Concerns: Some nations
interests among major powers have hindered express concerns about potential
a unified approach to counterterrorism. infringements on their sovereignty through
• Afghanistan: Despite U.N. involvement in international counter-terrorism measures.
Afghanistan, the persistence of the Taliban and Balancing global cooperation with respect for
the emergence of new threats illustrate the state autonomy remains a challenge.
complexities of eradicating terrorism through • Definition Disputes: Disputes over the
international interventions. definition of terrorism pose challenges.
While the U.N. has made contributions to the Different countries may have distinct
global fight against terrorism, challenges stemming interpretations, leading to difficulties in
from geopolitical dynamics, enforcement harmonizing legal approaches and hindering
limitations, and evolving threats highlight areas effective collaboration.
where its effectiveness has been limited. • Resource Disparities: Disparities in resources
and capabilities among nations impact their
Efficacy of global conventions to combat ability to combat terrorism. Developing
international terrorism countries may face challenges in implementing
The efficacy of global conventions to combat convention provisions due to limited
international terrorism is a complex and debated capacities.
issue. While these conventions aim to foster
international cooperation, challenges persist in Need for Continuous Adaptation:
their implementation and effectiveness. • Evolution of Terrorism: The dynamic nature of
terrorism requires constant adaptation of
Positive Aspects: conventions to address emerging threats.
• International Cooperation: Conventions such Conventions should encompass evolving
as the United Nations Global Counter- tactics, such as cyber-terrorism and lone-wolf
Terrorism Strategy provide a framework for attacks, to remain relevant.
collaboration among nations. Joint efforts • Preventive Measures: Conventions need to
enhance intelligence sharing, law enforcement emphasize preventive measures and address
coordination, and mutual legal assistance. root causes of terrorism, including socio-
• Normative Framework: Global conventions economic factors and political grievances.
contribute to establishing a normative Focusing solely on punitive measures may not
framework against terrorism, creating a shared lead to long-term solutions.
understanding of the need for collective
action. They facilitate the formation of legal Role of Non-State Actors:
mechanisms to address terrorism-related • Involvement of Non-State Actors: Terrorism
offenses. often involves non-state actors, making it
Challenges and Criticisms: challenging for global conventions designed for
• Selective Implementation: Implementation of interactions between states to effectively
conventions varies across nations, with some counter threats posed by entities with
countries accused of selectively applying different structures and motivations.
counter-terrorism measures. Political • Cyber Terrorism and Online Platforms:
considerations may influence the commitment Conventions need to adapt to the increasing
to enforcing these conventions role of cyberspace in terrorism. Regulating
comprehensively. online platforms and countering cyber-

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 pg. 229

terrorism require innovative approaches and aggression by one state against another, as the
international cooperation. threat of nuclear retaliation is a significant
While global conventions play a crucial role in deterrent.
fostering collaboration against international o By the mid-1960s, both the US and the
terrorism, their effectiveness depends on USSR had amassed enough nuclear
addressing challenges such as selective weapons to destroy each other multiple
implementation, sovereignty concerns, and the times over, creating what is known as
evolving nature of terrorist threats. Continuous Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD).
adaptation, preventive measures, and inclusive • Balance of Terror: This is the terrifying balance
approaches are essential for enhancing the efficacy of power that results when two or more
of these conventions in combating terrorism countries possess the capability to inflict
globally. catastrophic damage on each other.
o Example: The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962
Nuclear Proliferation
is a classic example where the balance of
Nuclear proliferation, the spread of nuclear terror was evident, with both
weapons and related technologies, stands as a superpowers coming close to nuclear
pressing contemporary global concern. It war.
encompasses the risk of nuclear weapons falling • Symbolic Impact and International Prestige:
into the hands of more states, particularly those Possessing nuclear weapons was seen as a
with unstable political environments, or non-state symbol of technological and military might,
actors like terrorist groups. The potential for elevating a nation's status on the international
increased regional conflicts, global insecurity, and stage.
the devastating humanitarian impact of nuclear o Example: The UK, France, and China
weapons use underscore the gravity of this issue. pursued nuclear weapons programs
Addressing nuclear proliferation requires partly to maintain and enhance their
international cooperation, effective regulatory status as major world powers.
frameworks, and vigilant enforcement of non- • Proliferation Remained Vertical
proliferation treaties and agreements. o Vertical vs. Horizontal Proliferation:
During the Cold War, proliferation was
Nuclear proliferation During the Cold War era mostly vertical (increasing the number of
Nations acquire weapons for various reasons, and weapons in existing nuclear states) rather
these motivations were particularly evident during than horizontal (spread of nuclear
the Cold War era. weapons to non-nuclear states).
• Security Dilemma: The security dilemma refers o The United States and the Soviet Union
to a situation where actions taken by a state to significantly increased their nuclear
increase its own security cause reactions from arsenals during the Cold War. For
other states, which, in turn, lead to a rise in instance, the US nuclear stockpile peaked
tensions and insecurity. at about 31,255 warheads in 1967.
o Example: The United States and the • Robert Jervis’s Nuclear Revolution: In his
Soviet Union engaged in an arms race seminal work, Robert Jervis described the
where each side's buildup of nuclear acquisition of nuclear weapons as a 'nuclear
arsenal was seen as a threat by the other, revolution'. He argued that nuclear weapons
leading to a continuous escalation. had fundamentally changed the nature of
• Nuclear Deterrence: Nuclear deterrence is the international politics, making wars unwinnable
idea that nuclear weapons can deter and leading to a strategic stalemate.

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 pg. 230

Nuclear Proliferation Post-cold war era • Technological Challenges: Advances in

• End of Bipolarity: With the end of the Cold technology and the potential use of civilian
War, the bipolar structure led to a reevaluation nuclear programs for military purposes raised
of nuclear dynamics. The U.S. and Russia concerns. The evolution of cyber threats added
shifted focus from intense rivalry to a new dimension to safeguarding nuclear
cooperative non-proliferation efforts. facilities.
• Dissolution of the Soviet Union: The • Multilateral and Bilateral Efforts: Non-
dissolution of the Soviet Union raised concerns proliferation efforts continued through
about the security of its nuclear arsenal. multilateral forums like the NPT Review
International efforts, led by the U.S., aimed to Conferences and bilateral agreements.
secure and dismantle excess weapons, However, challenges persisted in achieving
preventing their proliferation. universal disarmament and preventing nuclear
• NPT Extension: The 1995 NPT Review and ambitions.
Extension Conference resulted in the indefinite
extension of the treaty. However, Why nations do not use weapons?
dissatisfaction among non-nuclear-armed • Realist Perspective : Nuclear Weapons as
states over the slow progress in disarmament Instruments of Peace
remained. o Waltz's Argument: Kenneth Waltz, a
• Emergence of New Nuclear States: Despite prominent Realist scholar, argued that
non-proliferation efforts, new nuclear states nuclear weapons, due to their destructive
emerged. India and Pakistan conducted capacity, actually promote peace and
nuclear tests in 1998, challenging the existing stability through deterrence. He posited
non-proliferation framework. that the risk of mutual destruction makes
• North Korea's Nuclear Program: North Korea's nuclear war unlikely.
pursuit of nuclear weapons became a o Example: The concept of Mutual Assured
significant challenge. Diplomatic efforts, like Destruction (MAD) continues to be a key
the Agreed Framework (1994), aimed at factor in preventing nuclear conflict
denuclearization but faced setbacks. between major powers like the USA and
• Shift in Focus to Non-State Actors: The post- Russia.
9/11 era witnessed a shift in focus towards • Social Constructivist Perspective : Role of
preventing nuclear terrorism. Concerns about Norms, Values, and Institutions
non-state actors acquiring nuclear weapons o Tannenwald's Thesis: Nina Tannenwald
prompted new measures and cooperation. introduced the idea of a 'nuclear taboo' –
• Iran Nuclear Deal: Negotiations led to the Joint a normative belief that using nuclear
Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) in 2015, weapons is unacceptable and morally
aiming to curb Iran's nuclear program in reprehensible, which has played a
exchange for sanctions relief. However, the significant role in preventing their use.
U.S. withdrawal in 2018 raised uncertainties. o Non-Nuclear States: Countries like Japan,
• Renewed Great Power Competition: Recent Germany, and Australia, despite having
years saw a renewed focus on great power the technological capability, have chosen
competition, particularly between the U.S. and not to develop nuclear weapons,
Russia, impacting arms control and non- influenced by both a normative stance
proliferation efforts. against nuclear proliferation and their
respective historical and political
contexts.

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 pg. 231

o Vietnam War Example: Despite facing a armed states (recognized under the treaty as
challenging war, the United States did not the P5: U.S., Russia, China, France, and the
resort to using nuclear weapons in U.K.) and non-nuclear-armed states. The treaty
Vietnam, partly due to the prevailing legitimizes the possession of nuclear weapons
nuclear taboo and the potential global by the P5 while requiring non-nuclear-armed
condemnation. states to forgo nuclear weapons development,
• Strengthening Non-Proliferation Regime: creating what India sees as a discriminatory
o The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of structure.
Nuclear Weapons (NPT) remains a • Nuclear Apartheid: India views the NPT as
cornerstone of global non-proliferation perpetuating a form of nuclear apartheid by
efforts. As of 2021, 191 states have joined distinguishing between nuclear "haves" and
the treaty. "have-nots." This differentiation is seen as
o The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear undermining the principles of equality and
Weapons (TPNW), which entered into fairness in international relations, especially in
force in January 2021, represents a the realm of nuclear capabilities.
significant normative shift, making it the • Security Concerns: India asserts that its refusal
first legally binding international to sign the NPT is grounded in its national
agreement to comprehensively prohibit security considerations. The treaty's structure,
nuclear weapons. which allows the P5 to retain nuclear weapons
• Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty as while restricting others, is perceived as
an Example inadequate in addressing regional security
o INF Treaty: Although the INF Treaty, dynamics, particularly in the context of India's
which required the US and the Soviet strategic concerns vis-à-vis China and Pakistan.
Union (later Russia) to eliminate their • No First Use Policy: India's opposition is also
intermediate-range and shorter-range linked to its "No First Use" (NFU) policy,
missiles, faced challenges and was wherein it commits not to use nuclear
eventually suspended by both parties, it weapons aggressively. The NPT is seen as
demonstrated how treaties can hold conflicting with India's NFU policy, as the treaty
nuclear powers accountable and does not explicitly recognize the NFU principle.
contribute to stability. • Failure of Disarmament Commitments: India
o Post-INF Scenario: The suspension of the argues that the nuclear-armed states
INF Treaty raised concerns about a new recognized by the NPT have not made
arms race. However, the fact that it lasted significant progress in fulfilling their
for over three decades indicates the disarmament commitments under Article VI of
strength of international agreements and the treaty. The slow pace of disarmament
norms in managing nuclear threats. efforts by the P5 has been a point of
contention for non-signatory states like India.
Why India opposed NPT? • India's Unique Position: As a de facto nuclear-
India's opposition to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation armed state outside the NPT framework, India
Treaty (NPT) is rooted in several key grounds, asserts its unique position and emphasizes its
reflecting its stance on nuclear disarmament, responsible nuclear behavior. India has
security concerns, and the perceived highlighted its voluntary moratorium on
discriminatory nature of the treaty. nuclear testing and its commitment to nuclear
• Discriminatory Structure: India criticizes the disarmament but insists on being treated as an
NPT for creating a division between nuclear-

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 pg. 232

equal participant in global non-proliferation • Wassenaar Arrangement: To prevent the

efforts. acquisition of conventional arms and dual-use
• Strategic Autonomy: India places a premium goods and technologies by states or groups of
on its strategic autonomy and is wary of concern. There are 42 states participating in
international agreements that could the Wassenaar Arrangement as of December
compromise its independent decision-making 2017
on matters of national security, including • Australia Group: To prevent the proliferation
nuclear policy. of chemical and biological weapons. The
Australia Group includes 42 countries and the
India's opposition to the NPT reflects a European Union, as of its 36th plenary meeting
combination of principled objections to perceived in June 2023.
inequalities, concerns about regional security
dynamics, and a commitment to its own strategic Disarmament Regimes
autonomy. It advocates for a more inclusive and • Conference on Disarmament: To negotiate
equitable global nuclear order that accommodates arms control and disarmament agreements.
the security interests of all nations. This forum has been instrumental in leading to
treaties like the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-
Ban Treaty (CTBT) and the Chemical Weapons
Arms Control and disarmament regimes
Convention (CWC).
Arms Control Regimes
• NPT’s Role in Disarmament: The NPT not only
• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): To aims at non-proliferation but also commits
prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and nuclear-weapon states to pursue nuclear
promote peaceful uses of nuclear energy and disarmament. The treaty's review conferences,
disarmament. held every five years, assess progress in this
o As of now (November 2023), 191 states area.
have signed the NPT, including five
• Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons
nuclear-weapon states (the U.S., U.K.,
(Nuclear Ban Treaty): This treaty, the first
France, Russia, and China). However, four
legally binding international agreement to
UN member states - India, Israel,
comprehensively prohibit nuclear weapons,
Pakistan, and South Sudan - have never
entered into force in January 2021.
signed the treaty, with three of these
o As of 2021, it has been ratified by more
thought to possess nuclear weapons.
than 50 countries. The treaty represents a
North Korea, initially a signatory,
significant shift towards a world free of
withdrew from the treaty in 2003.
nuclear weapons, although no nuclear-
• Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG): To prevent armed states have joined the treaty.
nuclear proliferation by controlling the export
of materials, equipment, and technology that Why Nuclear proliferation continues ?
can be used to manufacture nuclear weapons. Nuclear proliferation continues due to various
o As of 2022, the NSG comprises 48 factors:
participating governments.
• Security Dilemma: States pursue nuclear
• Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR): weapons to enhance their security but, in
To restrict the proliferation of missiles and doing so, create insecurity for others.
missile technology. The MTCR currently has 35 o Example: North Korea's nuclear program
member countries. is often justified as a deterrent against

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 pg. 233

perceived threats from the United States Arguments for Nuclear Proliferation:
and its allies. • Deterrence and Stability: Proponents argue
• National Security Over Global Security: that nuclear weapons provide a strong
Nations prioritize their own security interests, deterrent against potential aggressors. The
which sometimes leads to the pursuit of concept of Mutually Assured Destruction
nuclear capabilities. (MAD) suggests that when two adversaries
o Countries like India and Pakistan possess nuclear capabilities, the likelihood of a
developed nuclear weapons citing major conflict decreases because both sides
regional security concerns. are aware of the devastating consequences.
• Power Dynamics of Nuclear States: Nuclear- • Balance of Power: Some scholars suggest that
armed states are among the most powerful nuclear proliferation can lead to a balance of
and can exert significant influence. This power power, especially in regions where there is a
dynamic can lead to selective adherence to clear asymmetry of power. For instance,
global norms. smaller or less powerful nations may perceive
o Example: The P5 states (US, UK, France, nuclear weapons as a means to level the
Russia, China) are permanent members of playing field against more dominant states.
the UN Security Council and possess • National Sovereignty: Advocates for
nuclear weapons, giving them proliferation often cite the right of sovereign
considerable sway in international affairs. nations to develop nuclear capabilities for self-
• Failures of Non-Proliferation Regimes: While defense and as a symbol of technological and
regimes like the NPT have had success, there scientific advancement.
are failures and limitations. • Empirical Evidence: Some studies, like those of
• Incapacity of Global Actors: Organizations like Kenneth Waltz, a prominent realist theorist,
the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) have argued that nuclear proliferation, in some
face challenges in enforcing compliance and cases, has led to periods of relative peace and
monitoring nuclear activities effectively. stability, particularly during the Cold War.
o Example: Iran's nuclear program has
posed significant challenges to the non- Arguments Against Nuclear Proliferation:
proliferation regime, leading to complex • Increased Risk of Nuclear War: Critics argue
negotiations and agreements like the that more nuclear weapons increase the
JCPOA. probability of their use, either intentionally or
• Technological Advancements and accidentally. The more states possess nuclear
Globalization: Advances in technology and the weapons, the greater the risk of miscalculation
globalized nature of the world make it easier to or escalation during crises.
acquire nuclear technology and knowledge. • Nuclear Terrorism: There is a concern that as
o Example: The A.Q. Khan network more countries develop nuclear capabilities,
demonstrated how nuclear technology the risk of nuclear materials falling into the
could be proliferated across borders. hands of non-state actors or terrorist groups
increases significantly.
Whether nuclear proliferation should occur ? • Nuclear Arms Race: Proliferation can trigger a
The question of whether nuclear proliferation regional or global arms race. As one state
should occur is a subject of significant debate in develops nuclear capabilities, neighboring
international relations, with some prominent countries may feel compelled to follow suit,
scholars like Kenneth Waltz advocating in favor of leading to an escalating cycle of armament.
it.

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• Global Security and Non-Proliferation Treaty Conclusion

(NPT): Many argue that proliferation Nuclear proliferation poses significant risks to
undermines the NPT, which aims to prevent global peace and stability. The potential for
the spread of nuclear weapons and promote increased conflicts, security dilemmas, and the
disarmament. Proliferation can weaken catastrophic consequences of nuclear war
international norms and legal frameworks necessitates a sustained and cooperative
designed to maintain global security. international effort to prevent the spread of
• Environmental and Humanitarian Impact: The nuclear weapons. Strengthening non-proliferation
potential for catastrophic humanitarian and treaties, enhancing diplomatic efforts, and
environmental consequences of nuclear promoting disarmament are crucial steps in
weapon use is a central argument against addressing this challenge. Effective management
proliferation. The long-term ecological and of nuclear proliferation not only prevents the
health effects are considered unacceptable. escalation of regional tensions but also contributes
to a safer and more secure world.

Student Notes ✍

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