Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Introduction To Computer System

Lecture Notes

B. Tech (I YEAR - I SEM)

(2022-23)
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

GURU NANAK UNIVERSITY

I Year B.Tech. CSE Sem-I L T P C

3 0 0 3
Introduction to Computer System
Course Objectives
This course gives students an overview of computer science so that students can
• Understand the various components of computer system
• Identify hardware, software, and their working.
• Understand network types and working with network
Course Outcomes

The students at the end of the course will be able to

1. Understand components in computer system and types of memory.
2. Demonstrate the working of operating system, and various peripheral devices.
3. Exhibit knowledge of multimedia and computer software.
4. Make use of computer networks to work with local network.
5. Exhibit working of the Internet for communication and browsing information.

SYLLABUS:
Module:1 Introduction to computer basics and memory (9 hrs)
Introduction to computer systems, Evolution of computers, Generations of Computers, classification of
computers, Applications of computers, Evolution of processors, Memory hierarchy and types of
memory, CPU register memory, Primary memory, Cache memory, Secondary memory, Flash memory,
Virtual memory, CPU interactions with memory.
Module 2 Introduction to Operating System and peripheral devices (9 hrs)
Introduction, evolution of operating system, types of operating system, functions of operating system,
Terms used in operating system- process, scheduling, deadlock, paging, spooling, Types of input
devices, types of output devices, introduction of 3D Printing.
Module:3 Computer software and multimedia (9 hrs)
Introduction, categories of software, software piracy, software terminologies, Evolution of
programming and computing, Introduction to multimedia, building blocks of multimedia, multimedia
system, Text, graphics, audio, video, Applications of multimedia.
Module: 4 Exploring Computer Network (9 hrs)
Introduction to networks, transmission media, types of data communication, types of networks,
network topologies, network devices, communication protocols, network addresses, checking
connection, sharing files, folders and devices, Introduction to DNS, IP, MAC, ports, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi,
Wireless network.
Module:5 The Internet (9 hrs)
Introduction, evolution of internet, basic internet terms, getting connected to internet, internet
applications, Introduction to internet tools, web browsers, browsing internet using internet explorer,
email, search engines, instant messaging, HTTP and HTTPS.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

Text Book
ITL Educations Solutions Limited, “Introduction to Information Technology”, 2nd Edition, Pearson
Education India, 2012.

Reference Books
1. Reema Thareja, “Fundamentals of Computers”, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2019.
2. V. Rajaraman, Neeharika Adabala, “Fundamentals of Computers”, 6th edition, Prentice Hall
India Learning Private Limited, 2014.
3. P. K. Sinha, P. Sinha, “Fundamentals of Computers”, 8th Edition, BPB Publishers, 2004.
4. Anita Goel, “Computer Fundamentals”, 1st Edition, Pearson Education India, 2010.
5. R. S. Salaria, Computer Fundamentals, 1st Edition, Khanna Book Publishing Company, 2017.
6. G. Praveen Babu, M. V. Narayan, “Basic Concepts of Information Technology Workshop” 3rd
Edition, BS Publication, 2010.
Online Resources / Web Resources
1. https://www.uc.edu/webapps/af/hr/CUSTOMGUIDE/content/content/computerbasics.pdf
2. https://freecomputerbooks.com/microsoftOfficeBooks.html

Nptel / Swayam Course

1. Computer Fundamentals (https://onlinecourses.swayam2.ac.in/cec19_cs06/preview)Unit 5-

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

Introduction To Computer
System
MODULE:01

MODULE 1
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

Module-I
Introduction to computer basics and memory

Introduction to computer systems, Evolution of computers, Generations of Computers,

classification of computers, Applications of computers, Evolution of processors, Memory
hierarchy and types of memory, CPU register memory, Primary memory, Cache memory,
Secondary memory, Flash memory, Virtual memory, CPU interactions with memory.

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Lecture-1
Introduction To Computer System
Today, almost all of us in the world make use of computers in one way or the other. It finds applications
in various fields of engineering, medicine, commercial, research and others. Not only in these
sophisticated areas, but also in our daily lives, computers have become indispensable. They are present
everywhere, in all the dev ices that we use daily like cars, games, washing machines, microwaves etc.
and in day-to-day computations like banking, reservations, electronic mails, internet and many more.
The word computer is derived from the word compute. Compute means to calculate. The computer was
originally defined as a super-fast calculator. It had the capacity to solve complex arithmetic and scientific
problems at very high speed. But nowadays in addition to handling complex arithmetic computations,
computers perform many other tasks like accepting, sorting, selecting, moving, comparing various types
of information. They also perform arithmetic and logical operations on alphabetic, numeric, and other
types of information. This information provided by the user to the computer is data. The information in
one form which is presented to the computer is the input information or input data.
Information in another form is presented by the computer after performing a process on it. This
information is the output information or output data.
The set of instructions given to the computer to perform various operations is called as the computer
program. The process of converting the input data into the required output form with the help of the
computer program is called as data processing. The computers are therefore also referred to as data
processors
Therefore, a computer can now be defined as a fast and accurate data processing system that accepts
data, performs various operations on the data, has the capability to store the data and produce the
results based on detailed step by step instructions given to it
Any system is defined as a group of integrated parts which are designed to achieve a common objective.
Thus, a system is made up of more than one element or part, where each element performs a specific
function and where all the elements (parts) are logically related and are controlled in such a way that
the goal (purpose) of the system is achieved.
A computer is made up of several integrated elements like the input unit, the central processing unit,
the storage devices, and the output devices
Each of these units performs a specific task. However, none of them can function independently on their
own. They are logically related and controlled to achieve a specific goal. When they are thus integrated,
they form a fully-fledged computer system.
COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
The basic parts of computer system are:

➢ Input Unit
➢ The Central Processing Unit
➢ Memory Unit or Memory Hierarchy
➢ Output Unit

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Figure:01 Components of computer

Input Unit:
Input devices are the dev ices which are used to feed programs and data to the computer. The input
system connects the external environment with the computer system. The input dev ices are the means
of communication between the user and the computer system. Typical input devices include the
keyboard, floppy disks, mouse, microphone, light pen, joy stick, magnetic tapes etc. The way in which
the data is fed into the computer through each of these devices is different. However, a computer can
accept data only in a specific form. Therefore, these input devices transform the data fed to them, into
a form which can be accepted by the computer. These devices are a means of communication and inter1
station between the user and the computer systems. Thus the functions of the input unit are :

➢ accept information (data) and programs.

➢ convert the data in a form which the computer can accept.
➢ provide this converted data to the computer for further processing.

The Central Processing Unit:

This is the brain of any computer system. The central processing unit or CPU is made of three parts:
➢ The control unit
➢ The arithmetic logic unit
➢ The primary storage unit

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The Control Unit:

The Control Unit controls the operations of the entire computer system. The control unit gets the
instructions from the programs stored in primary storage unit interprets these instruction an
subsequently directs the other units to execute the instructions. Thus it manages and coordinates the
entire computer system.

The Arithmetic Logic Unit:

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) executes the instructions and performs all the calculations and
decisions. The data is held in the primary storage unit and transferred to the ALU whenever needed.
Data can be moved from the primary storage to the arithmetic logic unit several times before the entire
processing is complete. After the completion, the results are sent to the output storage section and the
output devices.

The Primary Storage Unit:

This is also called as Main Memory. Before the actual processing starts the data and the instructions fed
to the computer through the input units are stored in this primary storage unit. Similarly, the data which
is to be output from the computer system is also temporarily stored in the primary memory. It is also
the area where intermediate results of calculations are stored. The main memory has the storage section
that holds the computer programs during execution. Thus, the primary unit:

➢ Stores data and programs during actual processing

➢ Stores temporary results of intermediate processing
➢ Stores results of execution temporarily

Output Unit:

The output devices give the results of the process and computations to the outside world. The output
units accept the results produced by the computer, convert them into a human readable form and
supply them to the users. The more common output devices are printers, plotters, display screens,
magnetic tape drives etc.

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Lecture-2
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
The major characteristics of computer can be classified into speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility, and
memory which are as follows:
1. High Speed
➢ Computer is a very fast device.
➢ It can perform calculation of very large amount of data.
➢ The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
➢ It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend
many months to perform the same task.
2. Accuracy
➢ In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
➢ The calculations are 100% error free.
➢ Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.

3. Storage Capability
➢ Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
➢ A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
➢ It can store large amount of data.
➢ It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

4. Diligence
➢ Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration.
➢ It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
➢ It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

5. Versatility
➢ A computer is a very versatile machine.
➢ A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
➢ This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
➢ At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it
may be playing a card game.

6. Reliability
➢ A computer is a reliable machine.
➢ Modern electronic components have long lives.
➢ Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

7. Automation
➢ Computer is an automatic machine.

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➢ Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer receives a
program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program and instruction
can control the program execution without human interaction.

8. Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

➢ The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work
and results in speeding up the process.
➢ As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance
of large number of paper files gets reduced.
➢ Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces the cost
of each of its transaction.

DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER:
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.

1. No I.Q.
➢ A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.

➢ Each instruction must be given to the computer.

➢ A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

2. Dependency
➢ It functions as per the user’s instructions thus it is fully dependent on humans.

3. Environment
➢ The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.

4. No Feeling

➢ Computers have no feelings or emotions.

➢ It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike humans.

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Lecture-3
APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers have become an essential part of modern human life. Since the invention of computer,
they have evolved in terms of increased computing power and decreased size. Owing to the
widespread use of computers in every sphere, Life in today’s world would be unimaginable without
computers. They have made human lives better and happier. There are many computers uses in
different fields of work. Engineers, architects, jewelers, and filmmakers all use computers to design
things. Teachers, writers, and most office workers use computers for research, word processing and
emailing. Small businesses can use computers as a point of sale and for general record keeping.
1. Business:
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which has
made it an integrated part in all business organizations. Computer is used in business organizations
for:
➢ Payroll Calculations
➢ Budgeting
➢ Sales Analysis
➢ Managing Employee Database • Maintenance of stocks, etc.
2. Banking:

➢ Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers. Banks provide the following
facilities:
➢ Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits and
overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
➢ ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for customers to
deal with banks.
3. Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance companies,
stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns. Insurance companies are maintaining a
database of all clients with information showing:
➢ Procedure to continue with policies
➢ Starting date of the policies
➢ Next due installment of a policy
➢ Maturity date
➢ Interests due
➢ Survival benefits
➢ Bonus
4. Education:
The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

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➢ The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).
➢ CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
➢ Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
➢ There are several methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to educate
the students.
➢ It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out on
this basis.

5. Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following:

➢ Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and
revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
➢ Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible using computerized catalogues
that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the
customers.
6. Healthcare

Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being used in
hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different
diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds, and CT scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.

Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

➢ Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of illness.
➢ Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by computer.
➢ Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check the patient's signs for abnormality such
as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
➢ Pharma Information System - Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates, harmful
side effects, etc.
➢ Surgery - Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

7. Engineering Design

Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose. One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided
Design) that provides creation and modification of images. Some of the fields are:

➢ Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships, buildings,
budgets, airplanes, etc.
➢ Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation, and improvement of
integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.
➢ Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,
determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

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8. Military
Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also employs
computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are:

➢ Missile Control
➢ Military Communication
➢ Military Operation and Planning
➢ Smart Weapons

9. Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this category are:

➢ E-mail
➢ Chatting
➢ Usenet
➢ FTP
➢ Telnet
➢ Video-conferencing

10. Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category are:

➢ Budgets
➢ Sales tax department
➢ Income tax department
➢ Computation of male/female ratio
➢ Computerization of voters’ lists
➢ Computerization of PAN card
➢ Weather forecasting

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Lecture-4
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER

EARLY HISTORY: (Williams, 1997)

“Necessity is the mother of invention”, famous saying formed the basis of modern computer. The early
history starts from:

ABACUS: Very first computing device ABACUS also called Soroban invented in 600 BC was the first
computing Device.

NAPIER RODS/Bones:

Napier Rods was a card board multiplication calculator. It was designed in early 17th Century.

PERCALINE: ( 1642)

Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, and philosopher, invented the first operating model of mechanical
digital calculator using gears, called the Arithmetic Machine “PASCALINE”. It was used for addition,
subtraction, Multiplication and Division.

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CHARLEE’S BABBAGE’S DIFFERENCE ENGINE & ANALYTICAL ENGINE:

Charles is the “The Father of Computers” 1822: His great invention “Difference engine Difference engine”
was to perform mathematical calculations. It was fully automatic and commanded by a fixed instruction
program

1842“The Analytical Engine the Analytical Engine“: Was an automatic machine .It could do 60 addition
per minute. The idea of analytical engine didn’t take physical form but served as a base for modern digital
computers

PUNCHED CARD:

1890: Dr. Herman Hollerith introduced the First electromechanical, punched-card Data-processing
machine. It was used to compile information for the 1890 U.S. census

His company would eventually become International Business Machines (IBM). This paper based machine
represents the origin of computer database software.

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Z 3: In 1941:Conrad Zeus from Germany, introduced the first programmable computer . It solved complex
engineering equations. It was also the first to work on the binary system instead of the decimal system.

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Lecture-5
Classification Of Computers

We can classify the computers into the following 3 categories:

➢ Based on Size and Capacity, [Supercomputer, Mainframe, Mini, and Micro Computer].
➢ Based on Purposes, [General and Special Purpose].
➢ Based on Hardware Design and Type [Analog, Digital, and Hybrid Computer].

Based on Size and Capacity, we divide computers into 4 types:

1. Supercomputer:

A Supercomputer is the very fastest and powerful, and expensive type of computer for processing data.
Supercomputers’ size and storage capacity are also huge (can occupy huge premises) designed to
process vast amounts of data in a short time with high productivity.

These are specially made to perform multi-specific tasks. Therefore, many CPUs work in parallel order
on these supercomputers. This function of a Supercomputer is called Multiprocessing or Parallel
Processing.

A supercomputer’s design is complicated, like it can be heterogeneous, combining computers of

different architectures, is significantly surpassed most existing personal computers. This made this
machine an ultra-high-performance supercomputer. Each part of a supercomputer is responsible for

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its own specific task, such as structuring and solving the most complex problems requiring an incredible
number of calculations.

➢ In research and study of energy and nuclear weapons and designing the aircraft, airplanes, and
flight simulators.
➢ Climate research and Weather Forecasting and Prediction of Natural Disasters.
➢ Spaceship and Satellite Launching.
➢ Used in scientific research laboratories.
➢ Used in Chemical and Biological research and for highly calculation complex tasks.
2. Mainframe computers:

Mainframe computers are multi-programming, high-performance computers, and multi-user, which

means they can handle the workload of more than 100 users at a time on the computer. The storage
capacity of the mainframe is enormous, with a high-speed data process as well. As well as handling
hundreds of input and output devices at a time.

The mainframe is a highly efficient computer capable of simultaneously solving complex calculations and
continuously for a long time. These computers have several microprocessors that have the ability to
function the data at too high performance and speed.

The mainframe is ahead of our conventional modern Personal computers in almost every metric. The
possibility of their “hot” replacement in the mainframe computer ensures continuity of operation. And
the standard amount of processor utilization effortlessly exceeds 85% of the total power.

Somehow mainframes can be more powerful than supercomputers because the mainframe supports
many processes simultaneously. On the other hand, supercomputers can run a single program but faster
than a mainframe. In the past, Mainframes requires entire rooms or even floors of whole buildings for set
up.

In today, IBM company is leading the production of mainframe computers. Mainframe reliability is
increased with development in the past 60 years. These computers can fix most of the hardware and
software bugs.

Applications of Mainframe Computers

➢ Mainframe computers are mainly used by departmental and commercial organizations like Banks,
Companies, Scientific research centers, and governmental departments like railways.
➢ These computers can work for 24 hours. Hundreds of users can work on these computations
simultaneously.
➢ Using the mainframe completes the tasks, such as keeping details of payments, research centers,
advertising, sending bills and notices, paying employees, ticket booking, maintaining details of
purchases by users, keeping detailed tax details, etc.

Examples: IBM Es000 series, ICL39 Series, and CDC 6600.

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3. Mini Computer:

Minicomputer is a digital and multi-user computer system with the connection of more than one CPU.
Thus, many people can work on these computers simultaneously instead of a single person. Also, it can
process with other accessories like a printer, plotter, etc.

Minicomputers are the medium type of computers that have more functionality power and are expensive
than microcomputers. On the other hand, the size, storage, and speed of minicomputers are large but
less than the mainframe and supercomputers. Minicomputers are made for performing multiple
computing tasks at a single point of time, instead of assigning many microcomputers for a single task,
which will be time-consuming and expensive.

In general, a minicomputer is a multi-threaded system (several processes at a time) capable of supporting

from one to up to 200 users simultaneously: these computers are currently used to store large databases,
multi-user applications, and the automation industry.

Applications of Minicomputers:

➢ The minicomputers are used as real-time applications in Industries, bookings, and Research
Centers. Banks also use minicomputers for preparing payroll for employees’ salaries, records,
tracking of financial accounts, etc. As well as in the field of Higher Education and Engineering.

Examples: PDP 11 and IBM (8000 Series).

4. Micro Computer

Today we are using many computers at home is also the most common microcomputer. With this
invention of the microprocessors in the year 1970, it became possible to use computers for people
personally at a low cost and reasonable price known as Digital Personal Computer.

The design of microcomputers is minimal in size and storage capacity. These computers consist of many
parts like Input and Output devices, Software, operating systems, networks, and Servers all these need to
connect to form a complete Personal Digital Computer. There is not only a PC or laptop are examples of
microcomputers. Other examples of the microcomputer are smartphone, Tablet, PDA, server, palmtop,
and workstation.

This can be installed in any work area or even at home for personal use. The primary purpose of
microcomputers is to keep and process the everyday tasks and needs of the people. Only one person can
work on a single PC at a time, but its operating system is multitasking. The PC can be connected to the
Internet to take benefits and enhance the user experience. The development of multimedia, small
equipment, optimized energy consumption, and the LAN made the microcomputers increase in demand
for every field. The increase in the demand and need for microcomputers between the people leads to
the tremendous development of each part related to the microcomputers.

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Applications of Microcomputer:

➢ PC is being widely used in many fields like home, office, data collection, business, education,
entertainment, publishing, etc.
➢ It keeps the details and prepares letters for correspondence in small businesses, creating bills,
accounting, word processing, and operation of the filing systems in a large company.
➢ Some of the major PC manufacturers are IBM, Lenovo, Apple, HCL, HP, etc.

Examples: Desktops, tablets, smartphones, and Laptops.

The fast development of microcomputers with technology. As a result, today, microcomputers coming in
the form of a book, a phone, and even a clock in the name of a digital clock.

Computers on the Basis Purpose

Based on purpose, we have two types of computers

1. General Purpose:

General computers can do various everyday tasks such as writing a word processing letter, Document
preparation, recording, financial analysis, printing documents, creating databases, and calculations with
accuracy and consistency.

The size, storage capacity, and cost of such computers are mainly less. The ability of these computers is
limited in performing specialized tasks. Still, it has versatility and useful for serving people’s basic needs
at home or in the workplace in the environment.

Examples:

Desktops, laptops, smartphones, and tablets are used on daily basis for general purposes.

2. Special Purpose:

These computers are designed to perform a particular or specialized task. The size, storage capacity, and
cost of such computers mainly depend on the nature and size of the work. The function of these
computers is consistent with any task.

The special computer needs specific and input and devices as well as a compatible motherboard with the
processor to conduct work efficiently. These computers are used for special purposes in weather
forecasting, space research, agriculture, engineering, meteorology, satellite operation, traffic control, and
research in chemical sciences.

Examples:

➢ Automatic teller machines (ATM),

➢ Washing machines,
➢ Surveillance equipment,
➢ Weather-forecasting simulators,

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➢ Traffic-control computers,
➢ Defense-oriented applications,
➢ Oil-exploration systems,
➢ Military planes controlling computers.

Computers based on Hardware Design and Data Handling.

1. Analog Computer

An analog computer performs tasks using continuous data (the physical amount that changes
continuously). Analog computers are used primarily to measure physical units like the voltage, pressure,
electric current, temperature, and convert them into digits. It is also used to measure and perform
arithmetic calculations of numbers, the length of an object, or the amount of voltage that passes through
a point in an electrical circuit. Analog computers obtain all their data from some measurement way.

Analog computers are mainly used in the fields of science and engineering. Analog computers are slow
and equipped to measure things rather than countable or check. The efficiency of this computer increases
when we get the result of the data in graphs, etc. Analog Computers cannot store statistics.

They are used in the fields of technology, science, research, engineering, etc. Because quantities like
voltage, pressure, electric current, temperature are used more in these areas, these types of computers
give only approximate estimates.

Examples:

An analog computer installed on a petrol pump measures the amount of petrol coming out of the pump
and appears in liters. And calculates its value. These quantities vary continuously while measuring the
amount, such as the temperature of a human body changes consistently. A simple clock, the vehicle’s
speedometer, Voltmeter, etc. are examples of analog computing.

2. Digital Computer

As its name suggests, a digital computer represents the digital computer’s letters, numerical values, or
any other special symbols. This computer is the computer that calculates the number for processing the
data. They run on electronic signs, and the binary numeral method Binary System 0 or 1 is used for
calculation. Their speed is fast.

It can perform arithmetic operations such as addition, occurrence, subtraction, multiplication, or division
and all types of logical(mathematical) operations. Today, most of the computers available in the market
are digital computers.

Digital computers are built to bring the solution of equations to an almost unlimited precision, but in a bit
slow manner compared to analog computers. To some extent, they all have similar components for
receiving, processing, sorting, and transmitting data and use a relatively small number of essential
functions to perform their tasks.

Digital computers use discrete electrical signals for operation rather than continuous electrical signals as
analog computers have, making them the most common form of computers today because of their

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versatility, speed, and power. The desktop or Laptop at our home is one the common and best example
of a digital computer. Other Examples of Digital Computers

➢ Personal Desktop Computers,

➢ Calculators,
➢ Laptops, Smartphones, and Tablets,
➢ Chromebooks,
➢ Digital watch,
➢ Accounting machines,
➢ Workstations,
➢ Digital clock, etc.

3. Hybrid Computer

A hybrid computer is a combined complex computer unit built using both analog and digital properties
and united by a single control system. The purpose of designing hybrid computers is to provide functions
and features that can be found on both analog and digital devices.

The aim behind creating a hybrid computer is to create a kind of work unit that offers the best of both
types of computers. Hybrid computers are extremely fast when driving equations, even when those
calculations are incredibly complex.

As both the properties of a computer consist in the form of a single hybrid computer made possible to
solve too complex calculations or problems, at the same time, these devices are not only too expensive
but also able to solve complex issues a bit fast.

Incorporating the properties of both (analog and digital) computers into hybrid computers makes it
possible to resolve more difficult equations immediately. The analog computer systems solve the
equation process immediately. But it is not necessary that those solutions would be completely accurate.

Here, the digital computer system gives 100 % correct solutions, but it takes a bit of time in the calculation.
Therefore, Hybrid computers are made to overcome the flaws of both these analog and digital systems.

Applications of hybrid Computer:

➢ Hybrid computers are most used in vast industries, research centers, organizations, and
manufacturing firms (where many equations need to be solved).
➢ Also, the solutions and uses of hybrid computers have proved to be much more detailed, accurate,
and useful. Hybrid computers are used in scientific calculations, for nations’ defense and radar
systems as well.

Examples:

Auto Gasoline pump is the example of a hybrid computer, this device is installed on a petrol pump do not
only to measure the amount of petrol but also to calculates its value, in this way It is capable of both
functions i.e., hybrid function.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

Lecture-6
Generation Of Computers

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used. Initially, the
generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. Nowadays, generation
includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire computer system.

There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in detail along with
their time period and characteristics. In the following table, approximate dates against each generation have
been mentioned, which are normally accepted. Following are the main five generations of computers.

Sl. No. Generation & Description

First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
Fourth Generation
4
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.
Fifth Generation
5
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.

1. First Generation Computers

The period of first generation was from 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used vacuum tubes
as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes, like
electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the installations used to fuse frequently. Therefore, they were
very expensive and only large organizations were able to afford it.

In this generation, mainly batch processing operating system was used. Punch cards, paper tape, and
magnetic tape was used as input and output devices. The computers in this generation used machine code
as the programming language.

The main features of the first generation are:

➢ Vacuum tube technology

➢ Unreliable

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

➢ Supported machine language only

➢ Very costly
➢ Generates lot of heat
➢ Slow input and output devices
➢ Huge size
➢ Need of AC
➢ Non-portable
➢ Consumes lot of electricity
Some computers of this generation were:
➢ ENIAC
➢ EDVAC
➢ UNIVAC
➢ IBM-701
➢ IBM-750

2. Second Generation Computers

The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this generation, transistors were used that were
cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first-generation
machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and
magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.

In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL were
used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating system.

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The main features of second generation are:

➢ Use of transistors
➢ Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
➢ Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
➢ Generates less heat as compared to first generation computers
➢ Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
➢ Faster than first generation computers
➢ Still very costly
➢ AC required

Supported machine and assembly languages Some computers of this generation were:

➢ IBM 1620
➢ IBM 7094
➢ CDC 1604
➢ CDC 3600
➢ UNIVAC 1108

3. Third Generation Computers

The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used Integrated
Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors, and capacitors along with
the associated circuitry.

The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable, and
efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing, multi-programming operating system were
used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used
during this generation.

The main features of third generation are:

➢ IC used

➢ More reliable in comparison to previous two generations

➢ Smaller size

➢ Generated less heat

➢ Faster

➢ Lesser maintenance

➢ Costly

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

➢ AC required

➢ Consumed lesser electricity

Supported high-level language Some computers of this generation were:

➢ IBM-360 series

➢ Honeywell-6000 series

➢ PDP (Personal Data Processor)

➢ IBM-370/168

➢ TDC-316

4. Fourth Generation Computers

The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth generation used Very Large
Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements with
their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation.

Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave
rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. In this generation, time-sharing, real-time networks, distributed
operating system were used. All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this
generation.

The main features of fourth generation are:

➢ VLSI technology used

➢ Very cheap
➢ Portable and reliable
➢ Use of PCs
➢ Very small size
➢ Pipeline processing
➢ No AC required
➢ Concept of internet was introduced
➢ Great developments in the fields of networks

Computers became easily available Some computers of this generation were:

➢ DEC 10
➢ STAR 1000
➢ PDP 11
➢ CRAY-1(Super Computer)
➢ CRAY-X-MP (Super Computer)

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

5. Fifth Generation Computers

The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra
Large-Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million
electronic components.

This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is
an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets the means and method of making computers
think like human beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this
generation.

The main features of fifth generation are:

➢ ULSI technology
➢ Development of true artificial intelligence
➢ Development of Natural language processing
➢ Advancement in Parallel Processing
➢ Advancement in Superconductor technology
➢ More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features

Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates Some computer types of this

generation are:

➢ Desktop
➢ Laptop
➢ Notebook
➢ Ultrabook
➢ Chromebook

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

Lecture-7
Evolution Of Processors
In today’s world processors are widely used in electronic devices. Such as mobile phones, computers,
laptops, and many other devices. Their performance, processing capacity, and accessibility have grown
over the last 5 to 6 decades. There are many manufacturers of computer processors but the Intel
processors are more popular because of their processing results and variety of processor capacity. In
the context of such rapid development, it is interesting to find the way of Intel processor evolution.

1. 4-Bit Processors:
The first microprocessor was made by sir Federico Figgins. This processor was introduced in 1971 by
Intel Corp. It was named Intel 4004 as it was a 4-bit processor. It was a processor on a single chip. It
could perform simple arithmetic and logic operations such as addition, subtraction, Boolean AND
and Boolean OR. The 4004 was initially released with a clock speed of 108 kHz (and scaled up to 740
kHz). The 4004 had 2,300 transistors and delivered a performance of 0.07 MIPS. Intel introduced the
enhanced version of 4004, the 4040

Name Year of Clock Number of Instruction per

Invention Speed Transistors second
INTEL 1971 by 740 kHz 2300 60,000
4004/4040 Ted Hoff
and
Stanley

2. 8- Bit Processors:

The 8-bit 8008 replaced the 4004 in 1972 with 0.5 to 0.8 MHz clock speed and 3,500 transistors and
was primarily used in the TI 742 computer. The 8080 followed in 1974 with 4,500 transistors in 6,000
nm with up to 2 MHz It became famous for being used in the Altair 8800, as well as in Boeing’s AGM-
86 cruise missile.

Name Year of Clock Number of Instruction per

Invention Speed Transistors second
8008 1972 500KHz 3500 50,000

8080 1974 2MHz 6000 10 times faster

than 8008
8085 1976 3MHz 6500 769230

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3. 16- Bit Processors:

In the year 1982, Intel released the 16-bit microprocessor 80286 (having 1,34,000 transistors) to be
used for the advanced technology personal computers (PC-AT) as CPU. It was called Intel 286 and
was the first Intel processor that could run all the software written for its predecessor Intel 8088.
The maximum CPU clock speed rate was 4 MHz to 25 MHz.

Name Year of Clock Speed Number of Instruction

Invention Transistors per
second
1978(multiply 4.77MHz,8MHz, 29000 2.5 million
8086 and divide 10MHz
instruction,16-
bit data bus and
20-bit address
bus)
8088 1979(cheaper 2.5 million
version of 8086
and 8-bit
external bus)
80186/80188 1982(80188 6MHz
cheaper version
of 80186)
80286 1982(data bus 8MHz 134000 4 million
16- bit, address
bus 64 bit)

4. 32bit- processor:
32-bit is a type of CPU architecture that can transfer 32 bits of data per clock cycle. Or it is the amount of
information your CPU can process each time it performs an operation.

Name Year of Invention Clock speed Number of Inst. Per sec

transistors
INTEL 80386 1986(another version of 16MHz- 275000
80386DX,80386SX and 33MHz
32-bit data bus and address bus

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

INTEL 80486 1986(another version of 8 KB of catch

80486DX, 80486SX memory
etc.)

PENTIUM 1993 66MHz Cache memory 8

bit for 8-bit data

5. 64bit-processor:
A 64-bit processor refers to a microprocessor that can process data and instructions in chunks of 64 bits.
Microprocessors that can handle 64 bits perform a larger number of calculations per second compared to
32-bit processors.

Name Year of Invention Clock speed Number of Inst. Per sec

transistors
INTEL 2006 1.2 GHz -3GHz 291 million 64 KB of L1 cache per
Core 2 transistors core 4 MB of L2
cache
I3,i5,i7 2007,2009,2010 2.2GHz3.3GHz,2.4GHz-
3.6GHz,2.93GHz3.33GHz

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

Lecture-8
Memory hierarchy
In the Computer System Design, Memory Hierarchy is an enhancement to organize the memory such
that it can minimize the access time. The Memory Hierarchy was developed based on a program
behavior known as locality of references. The figure below clearly demonstrates the different levels of
memory hierarchy

This Memory Hierarchy Design is divided into 2 main types:

1. External Memory or Secondary Memory – Comprising of Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, Magnetic
Tape i.e. peripheral storage devices which are accessible by the processor via I/O Module.
2. Internal Memory or Primary Memory – Comprising of Main Memory, Cache Memory & CPU
registers. This is directly accessible by the processor.

We can infer the following characteristics of Memory Hierarchy Design from above figure:
1. Capacity: It is the global volume of information the memory can store. As we move from top to
bottom in the Hierarchy, the capacity increases.
2. Access Time: It is the time interval between the read/write request and the availability of the
data. As we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access time increases.
3. Performance: Earlier when the computer system was designed without Memory Hierarchy
design, the speed gap increases between the CPU registers and Main Memory due to large
difference in access time. This results in lower performance of the system and thus,
enhancement was required. This enhancement was made in the form of Memory Hierarchy
Design because of which the performance of the system increases. One of the most significant
ways to increase system performance is minimizing how far down the memory hierarchy one
must go to manipulate data.
4. Cost per bit: As we move from bottom to top in the Hierarchy, the cost per bit increases i.e.,
Internal Memory is costlier than External Memory.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

Types of Memory:

1. Primary Memory
It is also known as main memory unit that communicates with directly with the CPU. Primary memory
plays a very big role because computer cannot start without primary memory. CPU uses this memory
directly to retrieve or store data. It has very fast speed, so accessing data from it is very easy.
Characteristics of Main Memory
• These are semiconductor memories.
• It is known as the main memory
• Usually, volatile memory
• Data is lost in case power is switched off
• It is the working memory of the computer
• Faster than secondary memories
• A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

Generally, there are two types of primary memory:

➢ Random Access Memory (RAM)
➢ Read Only Memory (ROM)

Random Access Memory:

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and program
result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is
switched off, data is erased. So, RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer
or if there is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.

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RAM is of two types:

➢ Static RAM (SRAM)
➢ Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM):

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However,
data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no
capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular
basis. There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of
storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast
access.

Characteristic of Static RAM

➢ Long life
➢ No need to refresh
➢ Faster
➢ Used as cache memory
➢ Large size
➢ Expensive
➢ High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM):

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the
memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most
system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one
capacitor and one transistor. DRAM also have different types like
➢ SDRAM- (Synchronous Dynamic RAM)
➢ RDRAM- (Rambus DRAM)
➢ DDR SDRAM- (Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM)

Among all these RAM, DDR SDRAM is currently most used. Different versions of DDR-SDRAM are DDR1, DDR2,
DDR3, DDR4, and DDR5, out of which DDR5 is the fastest.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

➢ Short data lifetime
➢ Needs to be refreshed continuously
➢ Slower as compared to SRAM
➢ Used as RAM
➢ Smaller in size
➢ Less expensive
➢ Less power consumption

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

Lecture-9
Read Only Memory:

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This
type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.
A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap.
ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and
microwave oven.

Types of ROM:

1. Masked ROM(MROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
2. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM):
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and
enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which
are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
3. Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) : This type of ROM can be erased by
exposing it to ultra-violet.
4. Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM):
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). EEPROMs can be
erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming
is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM

The advantages of ROM are as follows:

➢ Non-volatile in nature
➢ Cannot be accidentally changed
➢ Cheaper than RAMs • Easy to test
➢ More reliable than RAMs
➢ Static and do not require refreshing
➢ Contents are always known and can be verified

Flash memory:

Flash memory is a long-life and non-volatile storage chip that is widely used in embedded systems. It can keep
stored data and information even when the power is off. It can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. Flash
memory was developed from EEPROM (electronically erasable programmable read-only memory).

In addition to the RAM, CPU uses its inbuilt Cache memory to retrieve and store data at extremely fast rate.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

Cache Memory:

Cache memory is a very high-speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer
between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most
frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory
by the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows:

➢ Cache memory is faster than main memory.
➢ It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
➢ It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
➢ It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:

➢ Cache memory has limited capacity.
➢ It is very expensive.

Also, CPU has a Register which is very smaller and faster than any other memory in computer and holds very
small data in the processor core.

Registers: Temporary Storage Areas

Registers are temporary storage areas for instructions or data. They are not a part of memory; rather they are
special additional storage locations that offer the advantage of speed. Registers work under the direction of
the control unit to accept, hold, and transfer instructions or data and perform arithmetic or logical comparisons
at high speed. The control unit uses a data storage register the way a store owner uses a cash register-as a
temporary, convenient place to store what is used in transactions.

Computers usually assign special roles to certain registers, including these registers:
➢ An accumulator, which collects the result of computations.
➢ An address register, which keeps track of where a given instruction or piece of data is stored in
memory. Each storage location in memory is identified by an address, just as each house on a street
has an address.
➢ A storage register, which temporarily holds data taken from or about to be sent to memory.
➢ A general-purpose register, which is used for several functions.

So, CPU firstly look for the required data or the instructions in its register, then it looks in the cache memory
like cache level1, level2, level3 cache memory which are available. If it does not find any information there
then it looks in the main memory or RAM. If it is not there then system I/O channel copy data from secondary
memory into primary memory for further use.

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Secondary Memory:

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main memory.
These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories,
instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first transferred
to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, SSD’s, Magnetic Disks,
Magnetic Tapes, Optical Disks, Floppies, Pen drives etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

➢ These are magnetic and optical memories.
➢ It is known as the backup memory.
➢ It is a non-volatile memory.
➢ Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
➢ It is used for storage of data in a computer.
➢ Computer may run without the secondary memory.
➢ Slower than primary memories

Virtual Memory:

The process being execution must be loaded in main memory. This requires placing the entire logical address
space of program in physical memory. Since the physical memory space is limited, so the size of program limits
to the size of physical memory. Therefore, we need to use techniques that enable us to execute the program
without loading all the logical address space.

Virtual memory is a technique that allows the execution of processes which are not completely available in
memory. The main advantage of this scheme is that programs can be larger than physical memory. Virtual
memory is the separation of user logical memory from physical memory.

This separation allows an extremely large virtual memory to be provided for programmers when only a smaller
physical memory is available. Following are the situations, when entire program is not required to be loaded
fully in main memory. For example;
➢ User written error handling routines are used only when an error occurred in the data or
computation.
➢ Certain options and features of a program may be used rarely.
➢ The ability to execute a program that is only partially in memory would counter many benefits.
➢ Less number of I/O would be needed to load or swap each user program into memory.
➢ A program would no longer be constrained by the amount of physical memory that is available.
➢ Each user program could take less physical memory, more programs could be run the same time,
(increase in CPU utilization and throughput.

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Virtual memory is implemented by:

1. demand paging.
2. segmentation system

Advantages of Virtual Memory:

➢ It can handle twice as many addresses as main memory.
➢ It enables more applications to be used at once.
➢ It frees applications from managing shared memory and saves users from having to add memory
modules when RAM space runs out.

CPU Interactions with the Memory:

In CPU, we have two important registers

➢ Memory Address Registers (MAR)
➢ Memory Data Registers (MDR)
1. Memory Address Registers (MAR):

It contains the address of the instructions or data that is to be read from the memory or the address of
the data that is to be written into the memory and that particular data which is to be read comes through
data bus.

It holds the address of the location to be accessed from memory. MAR and MDR together facilitate the
communication of the CPU and the main memory.

2. Data Registers (MDR):

It contains data to be written into or to be read out from the addressed location. The data bus is
bidirectional because we can read the data from the memory. Along with this we require some control
signals like READ, WRITE etc.

MEMORY TYPES MODULE-1 L-9