text

Your paragraph text yt fb in ln wp

 M&I

MODULE 5
 TRANSDUCER
• A transducer is a device which transform a non
electrical physical quantity (ie. temperature ,sound or
light )into an electrical signal(ie,voltage ,current)
Electric Transducers
• It is a device that is capable of converting the
physical quantity into a proportional electrical quantity
such as voltage or current.
 Advantages of Electrical Transducers
(i) Electrical amplification and attenuation can be done easily
and that too with static devices.
(ii)The mass-inertia effects are minimized
(iii)The effects of friction are minimized
(iv)The electrical or electronic systems can be controlled with
a very small power level
(v)The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and
processed for the purpose of measurement
(vi)Telemetry is used in almost all sophisticated measurement
systems
(vii) Miniaturization on account of the use of ICs (Integrated
Circuits) has completely revolutionized the field of
instrumentation.
• Transducer contains two parts that are closely
related to each other.ie,the sensing element and
transduction element.
• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is
device producing measurable response to change in
physical conditions.
• The transduction element convert the sensor output
to suitable electrical form.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCER
1) Active and passive
2) basis of transduction principle
3) Analog and digital
4) primary and secondary transducers
5) transducers and inverse transducer
• These transducers include tachogenerators, Piezoelectric
crystals, thermocouple and Photovoltaic cell
 LVDT
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer, LVDT is the most
used inductive transducer for translating linear motion
(mechanical displacement) into electrical signal.
• LVDT is a transformer consisting of one primary winding P
and two secondary winding S1 & S2 mounted on a cylindrical
former
• The secondary windings have equal number of turns and
are identically placed on either side of the primary
windings.
• The primary winding is connected to an alternating current
source
• A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former.
• The displacement to be measured is applied to an arm
attached to the soft iron core
• In practice the core is made of nickel iron alloy which is
slotted longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses.
• When. the core is in its normal (NULL) position equal
voltages are induced in two secondary windings
• The frequency of ac applied to primary windings may be
between 50 Hz to 20 kHz
• Since the primary
winding of Linear
Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT) is
supplied with AC
supply, it produces an
alternating magnetic
flux in the core which
in turn link with the
secondary winding
S1 and S2 to produce
emf due to transformer
action
•The direction of movement of a
physical quantity can be identified by
the output voltage of LVDT. If the
output voltage E0 is positive, this
means the physical quantity is moving
toward left.
•If the output voltage E0 is negative,
this will mean that the physical
quantity is moving in the right
direction from the NULL position.
• The amount / magnitude of displacement is proportional to the
magnitude of output voltage. The more the output voltage, the
more will be displacement.
• In fact corresponding to both the cases i.e. whether core is moving
left or right to the NULL position, the output voltage will increase
lineally up to a displacement of around 5 mm from the NULL
position. After 5mm, output voltage E0 becomes non-linear.
Advantages
 Electromagnetic flow meter
• For flow measurements of slurries, sludge or any electrically
conducting liquid
• Consists of a pair of insulated electrodes buried flush on opposite
sides of a pipe carrying the liquid whose flow is to be measured.
• Pipe is non conducting and nonmagnetic
• Pipe is surrounded by the electromagnet which produces the
magnetic field

• Voltage is induced across the electrodes ; E = Blv volt

E= voltage induced
B = flux density
l = length of conductor = dia. of pipe
v = velocity of conductor (flow)

• If magnetic field is kept constant, then voltage across the

electrodes is directly proportional to velocity
 Advantages
• Flow in pipes of any size can be measured if powerful
magnetic field can be provided
• No obstruction to flow that causes pressure drop
• Output voltage is linearly related to flow
• The output is unaffected by changes in characteristics
of liquid such as viscosity, pressure, and temperature.
Limitations
• operating cost very high for heavy slurries
• conductivity of liquid should not be less
than 10 micro ohm/m
 Ultrasonic flow transducer
• consists of 2 piezoelectric crystals in the liquid or
gas separated by a distance
• One of the crystals acts as a transmitter and the
other as a receiver
• Transmitter (T) emits an ultrasonic pulse which is
received by the receiver (R) after a time Δt
• At no-flow condition, the time taken to flow in
between upstream & downstream in between
the transducer is the same.
Advantages
• No obstruction to the flow of liquid
• Insensitive to variations in viscosity, density and
temperature
• No moving parts
• Linear relation between input and output
Drawback
• Relatively high cost
 Piezoelectric transducers
• A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential
appears across certain surfaces of a crystal if the
dimensions of the crystal are changed by the application of
a mechanical force.
• This potential is produced by the displacement of charges.
• The effect is reversible, i.e. if a varying potential is applied
to the proper axis of the crystal, it will change the
dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it.
• This effect is known as piezo electric effect.
• Elements exhibiting piezo-electric qualities are sometimes
are called as electro·resistive elements
• A piezoelectric element used
to convert mechanical motion
to electrical signal is
equivalent to a charge
generator and a capacitor
• Mechanical deformation will
generate a charge and this
charge will appear as a voltage
across the electrodes
• The voltage is V= Q/C.
• Piezoelectric effect is direction sensitive
• A tensile force produces a voltage of one polarity while
a compressive force produces a voltage of opposite
polarity
 Derivation of voltage sensitivity
• Charge Q = d x F coulomb
d ... charge sensitivity (C/N)
F ... applied force (N)
Force 'F' causes change in thickness of the crystal
A ... area of crystal (m2)
t ... thickness of crystal (m)
E ... Young's modulus (N/m2)
A = wl
w = width of crystal
l = length of crystal
• Substituting F in the equation for Q
Q = d A E (∆t/t)
• Charge at the electrodes gives rise to an output voltage
Eo
Eo = Q/Cp Cp ... capacitance between electrodes
 Modes of operation of Piezoelectric crystals
• Piezoelectric effect can be used to cause mechanical
deformations in different modes
1) Thickness shear 2) Face shear
3) Thickness expansion 4) Transverse expansion
Equivalent Circuit of Piezoelectric Transducer

• The source is a charge generator.

• The value of the charge is Q=dF.
• The charge generated is across the
capacitance, Ccr, of the crystal and its
leakage resistance is Rcr.
 Strain gauge
• If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its
resistance changes on account of the fact that both
length and diameter of conductor change.
• Also there is a change in the value of resistivity of the
conductor when it is strained and this property is called
piezo resistive effect.
• Therefore, resistance strain gauges are also known as
piezoresistive gauges.
• when a gauge is subjected to a positive strain, its length
increases while its area of cross-section decreases.
• Since the resistance of a conductor is proportional to its
length and inversely proportional to its area of
cross·section, the resistance of the gauge increases with
positive strain
 Principle of operation and construction of
strain Gauge
• Resistance of wire changes with strain
• Increases with tension...decreases with compression
• change in resistance is measured using wheatstone bridge
• Strain gauge is bonded to the specimen
• Gauge is subjected to the same strain as specimen
• Common materials used for strain gauge
Constantan alloys (45% Nickel 55% Cu)
Nichrome alloy (80% Ni 20% chromium)
• Strain gauge is fixed to the specimen using bonding
cement
• Gauge factor S =

• R....resistance of gauge wire

• ∆R .... change in resistance of gauge wire
• l....length of gauge wire in unstressed condition
• ∆l .... change in length in stressed condition
 Bridge configuration of strain Gauge
• Strain gauge is generally used in bridge arrangement (Wheatstone's
bridge)
• One of the arms .... Strain Gauge
• Remaining three ....known resistances
• Bridge is excited by ac or dc
• Metal wire or foil is attached to the element whose strain is to be
measured
• When stress is applied, element deforms and strain gauge material
experiences same deformation
• As strain is a fractional change in length, there is a small change
in resistance
• Wheatstone bridge is very sensitive and it detects any small
change in resistance
Drawback - Resistance changes with temperature Hence
compensation for temperature changes is required
 Load cell
• Uses an elastic member as the primary and
strain gauges as the secondary transducer
• When the strain gauge – elastic member
combination is used for weighing it is called
a load cell.
• This arrangement uses four strain gauges
each mounted at 90° to each other.
• Two of strain gauges experience tensile
stress while the other two are subjected to
compressive stress
• Since all the gauges are similar, temperature
compensation is obtained as all the gauges
contribute equally to unbalance the bridge
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
 Introduction
• CRO Converts Electrical signal to visual display
• It is used for display, measurement and analysis of waveforms
in electrical & electronic circuits.
• A type of electrical instrument, used for showing the
measurement and analysis of waveforms and other electronic
and electrical phenomenon.
• It is a very fast X-Y plotter which shows the input signal
versus another signal or versus time.
• Used to analyze the waveforms, transient phenomena, and
other time-varying quantities from a very low-frequency range
to the radio frequencies.
• Mainly operated on voltages. Thus, other physical quantities like
current, strain, acceleration, pressure etc. are converted into
voltage with the help of transducers
• The CRO has Stylus (i.e., a luminous spot) which move over
the display area in response to an input voltage.
• This luminous spot is produced by a beam of electrons striking
on a fluorescent screen.
• The normal form of the CRO uses a horizontal input voltage
which is an internally generated ramp voltage called “time
base”.
• The horizontal voltage moves the luminous spot periodically in a
horizontal direction from left to right over the display area or
screen.
• The vertical voltage is the voltage under investigation. The
vertical voltage moves the luminous spot up and down on the
screen.
• When the input voltage moves very fast on the screen, the
display on the screen appears stationary. Thus, CRO provides a
means of the visualising time-varying voltage.
 Working of CRO
• When the electrons are injected through the electron
gun, it pass through the control grid.
• The control grid controls the intensity of electrons in
the vacuum tube.
• If the control grid has high negative potential, then it
allows only a few electrons to pass through it. Thus,
the dim spot is produced on the lightning screen.
• If the negative potential on the control grid is low,
then the bright spot is produced. Hence the intensity
of light depends on the negative potential of the
control grid.
• After passing the control grid, the electron beam pass
through the focusing and accelerating anodes.
• The accelerating anodes are at a high positive
potential and hence they converge the beam to a
point on the screen.
• After moving from the accelerating anode, the beam
comes under the effect of the deflecting plates.
• When the deflecting plate is at zero potential, the
beam produces a spot at the center.
• If the voltage is applied to the vertical deflecting
plates, the electron beam focuses vertically and when
the voltage is applied to the horizontal deflecting
plates the spot of light will be deflected horizontally.
 Observation of Waveform on CRO
• In order to observe waveform on a CRO, the waveform of voltage
under test is applied to Y plates and a voltage obtained from a
sawtooth generator is applied to X plates
• The beam is under the Influence of two forces : (i) one in the
horizontal direction moving the beam at a linear rate from left to
right, (ii) and second in the vertical direction moving the beam up
and down
• Since the deflection is proportional to the voltage applied to the
deflection plates, the horizontal movement is proportional to the
voltage applied to X plates at any instant and since the ramp
voltage is linear it traces a straight line on the CRT screen
• The vertical deflection is proportional to the voltage applied to the Y
plates at any instant and thus the beam moves up and down
according to the magnitude and polarity of the input voltage.
• The waveform displayed on a CRT tube due to an
input sinusoidal voltage is shown below
•
Block diagram of a general purpose CRO
 Vertical (Y) Deflection System
• The signals to be examined are usually applied to the
vertical or Y deflection plates through an input attenuator
and a number of amplifier stages.
• The amplifier response must be wide enough to pass
faithfully the entire band of frequencies to be measured.
• When high voltage signals are to be examined, they must
be attenuated to bring them within the range of vertical
amplifiers
• The vertical amplifier output is also applied to the
synchronizing amplifier through the synchronizer selector
switch in the internal position
• This permits the horizontal sweep circuit to be triggered
by the signal being investigated
 Horizontal (X) Deflection System
• The horizontal (X) deflection plates are fed by a sweep
voltage that provides a time base.
• The horizontal plates are supplied through an amplifier, but
they can be fed directly when voltages are of sufficient
magnitude
• When external signals are to be applied to the horizontal
deflection system, they can also be fed through the
horizontal amplifier, via the sweep selector switch in the
external position
• When the sweep selector switch is in the internal position,
the horizontal amplifier receives an input from the saw
tooth sweep generator which is tiggered by the
synchronizing amplifier.
 Synchronization
• Whatever type of sweep is used, it must be synchronized
with the signal being measured.
• Synchronization has to be done to obtain a stationary
pattern
• This requires that the time base be operated at a
submultiple frequency of the signal under measurement
(applied to Y plates)
• If synchronization is not done, the pattern is not
stationary, but appears to drift across the screen in a
random fashion.
 Blanking Circuit
• The sawtooth sweep voltage applied to the X plates moves the beam across
the CRT tube in a straight horizontal line from left to right during the
sweep or trace time
• If the retrace or flyback time is very small, the spot remains invisible. In
an ideal case the flyback time is zero and hence the spot while moving
from right to left remains invisible
• However in actual practice the flyback time is not zero and therefore the
retrace (moving of beam from right to left i e., its starting point) may
cause confusion
• Thus the retrace should be eliminated or blanked out
• The retrace is blanked out by applying a high negative voltage to the grid
during the flyback period
• The blanking voltage is usually developed (or triggered) by sweep generator
 Intensity (Z-Axis) Modulation.
• Intensity modulation (Z-axis modulation) is done by
inserting a signal between the ground and the cathode
(or control grid)
• Z -axis modulation is applied during normally visible
portion of the trace
• The Z-axis modulation can be used for brightening the
display
• Periodic positive pulses are applied to the grid
(alternatively negative pulses are applied to cathode) to
brighten the beam during its sweep period.
Positioning Controls
• It is necessary to provide some means of positioning the trace on
the screen
• The positioning of the trace is done by applying small
independent, internal dc voltages to the deflecting plates and
control can be exercised by varying the voltage with help of
potentiometers
Focus Control
• The focusing electrode acts like a lens whose focal length can be
changed
• This change can be brought about by changing the potential of
the focusing anode
Calibration Circuit
• Laboratory oscilloscopes normally have an internally generated and
stabilized voltage of known amplitude which is used for calibration
purposes. Usually the calibrating voltage has a square waveform
Intensity Control
• The intensity of the beam is varied by the Intensity
control potentiometer which changes the grid potential
with respect to cathode
• The grid potential determines the amount of electrons
leaving the cathode and thus controls the intensity of
the beam
 Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO)
• The digital storage oscilloscope is an instrument which
stores and analysis the signal digitally to display it on
the screen
• The traces in DSO are bright, highly defined, and
displayed within seconds.
• At first digital storage oscilloscope digitizes the analog input
signal, then the analog input signal is amplified by amplifier
if it has any weak signal.
• After amplification, the signal is digitized by the digitizer
and that digitized signal stores in memory.
• The analyser circuit process the digital signal after that the
waveform is reconstructed (again the digital signal is
converted into an analog form) and then that signal is
applied to vertical plates of the cathode ray tube (CRT).
• The cathode ray tube has two inputs they are vertical input
and horizontal input. The vertical input signal is the ‘Y’ axis
and the horizontal input signal is the ‘X’ axis.
• The time base circuit is triggered by the trigger and
clock input signal, so it is going to generate the time
base signal which is a ramp signal.
• Then the ramp signal is amplified by the horizontal
amplifier, and this horizontal amplifier will provide input
to the horizontal plate.
• On the CRT screen, we will get the waveform of the
input signal versus time.
• The digitizing occurs by taking a sample of the input
waveform at periodic intervals.
• The process of digitizing or sampling should follow the
sampling theorem
• The sampling theorem says that the rate at which
the samples are taken should be greater than twice
the highest frequency present in the input signal
• When the analog signal is not properly converted into
digital then there occurs an aliasing effect.
• The requirement for a high sampling rate means that
the digitiser, which is an analog to digital converter,
must have a fast conversion rate
• This usually requires expensive flash analog to digital
converters, whose resolution decreases as the sampling
rate is increased
• It is for this reason that the bandwidth and resolution
of a digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) is usually limited
by its analog to digital converter
• Many different input channels are used with digital
storage oscilloscopes.However if all these channels share
a common store, through a multiplexer, then the
memory available to each channel is reduced
Waveform Reconstruction
• Two techniques are used
(i)Linear interpolation
(ii)Sinusoidal interpolation
• In interpolation, the lines are used
for connecting the dot together

• Linear interpolation is also used for

creating the pulsed or square
waveform

• For sine waveform, the sinusoidal

interpolation is utilised in the
oscilloscope
• Another problem with the sampling technique used
in digital storage oscilloscopes is that it can miss short
term transient, or 'glitches', which occur in between
the sample points.
• To overcome this problem envelope mode oscilloscopes
may be used.
• These have special logic circuitry which causes the
sample and digitizing circuitry to run at a high speed
 PROBE
• The probe performs the very important function of
connecting the test circuit to the oscilloscope without
altering , loading, or otherwise disturbing the test
circuit.
• The probes are of three different types :
(i) Direct reading probe
(ii) Isolation probe
(iii) detector probe.
 1.Direct reading Probe
• This probe is simplest of all the probes and uses a
shielded coaxial cable
• It avoids stray pick-ups which may create problems
when low level signals are being measured
• It is usually used for low frequency or low impedance
circuits.
• The shunt capacitance of the probe and cable is added
to the input impedance and capacity of the scope and
acts to lower the response of the oscilloscope to high
impedance and high frequency circuits.
 2.Isolation Probe
• Isolation probe is used in order to avoid the
undesirable circuit loading effects of the shielded probe.
• The isolation of the probe, which is used along with a
capacitive voltage divider, decreases the input
capacitance and Increase the input resistance of
oscilloscope. This way the loading effects are drastically
reduced.
 3.Detector probe
• When analysing the response to modulated signal used in
communication equipment like AM, FM and TV
receivers, the detector probe functions to separate the
lower frequency modulation component from the high
frequency carrier.
• This permits an oscilloscope capable of audio-frequency
response to perform signal tracing tests on
communication signals
 Digital Voltmeter (DVM)
• Digital voltmeters are measuring instruments that convert analog
voltage signal in to a digital or numeric readout
• A DVM displays the value of ac or dc voltages, being measured
directly as discrete numerals in the decimal number system.
• Numerical read out of DVM is advantageous since it eliminates
observational errors (e.g., parallax & approximation errors)
committed by operators.
• The use of DVMs increases the speed with which readings can be
taken.
• The output of DVMs can be fed to memory devices for storage &
future computations
• On account of developments in IC technology, the size, the power
requirements, & the cost of DVM have been reduced
• Because of its small size, the portability of DVM has been
increased.
 Types of DVMs

(i) Ramp type DVM

(ii) Integrating type DVM
(iii) Potentiometric type DVM
(iv) Successive approximation type DVM
(v) Continuous balance type DVM
 Ramp Type Digital Voltmeter
• The operating principle of ramp type digital voltmeter is to
measure the time that a linear ramp voltage takes to
change from the level of the input voltage to
zero voltage (or vice versa)
• This time interval is measured with an electronic time
interval counter and the count is displayed as a
number of
digits on
electronic
indicating tubes
of the output
readout of the
voltmeter.
Timing Diagram
• The ramp voltage value is continuously compared with the voltage being
measured (unknown voltage)
• At this instant, the value of ramp voltage is equal to that of unknown
voltage a coincidence circuit, called an input comparator, generates a
pulse which opens a gate
• The ramp voltage continues to decrease till it reaches ground level (zero
voltage). At this instant, another comparator called ground comparator
generates a pulse and closes the gate
• During this time interval pulses from a clock pulse generator pass
through the gate and are counted and displayed
• The decimal number as indicated by the readout is a measure of the
value of input voltage
• The sample rate multivibrator determines the rate at which the
measurement cycles are initiated
• The sample rate circuit provides an initiating pulse for the ramp
generator to start its next ramp voltage
• At the same time, it sends a pulse to the counters which set all of
them to 0
• This momentarily removes the digital display of the readout.
 Potentiometric type digital voltmeter
• The unknown voltage is filtered and attenuated to a
suitable level which is applied to a comparator (also
known as error detector)
• The reference voltage is obtained from a fixed voltage
source. This voltage is applied to a potentiometric R.
• The value of the feedback
voltage depends upon the
position of the sliding
contact and it is also
applied to the comparator.
• The unknown voltage and the feedback are compared in
the comparator
• The output voltage of the comparator is the difference
of the above two voltages (error signal)
• The error signal is amplified and is fed to a
potentiometer adjustment device which moves the
sliding contact of the potentiometer
• This magnitude by which the sliding contact moves
depends upon the magnitude of the error signal
• The direction of movement of slider depends upon
whether the feedback voltage is larger or the input
voltage is larger
• The sliding contact moves to such a place where the
feedback voltage equals the unknown voltage
• In that case, there will not be any error voltage and
hence there will be no input to the device adjusting the
position of the sliding contact and therefore it will come
to rest
• The position of the potentiometer adjustment device at
this point is indicated in numerical form on the digital
readout device associated with it
• Since the position at which no voltage appears at
potentiometer adjustment device is the one where the
unknown voltage equals the feedback voltage, the
reading of readout device indicates the value of unknown
voltage
Digital Multimeter
 Time Base Selector
• It is abundantly clear that in order to know the value of
frequency of input signal, the time interval between start
and stop of gate must be accurately known
• The time base consists of a fixed frequency crystal
oscillator (known as clock oscillator) and must be very
accurate
• The output of this constant frequency oscillator is fed to
the Schmitt trigger which converts the input to an output
consisting of a train of pulses at a rate equal to the
frequency of the clock oscillator
• The train of pulses then passes through a series of
frequency decade divider assemblies connected in cascade
• Connections are taken from the output of each decade in
series chain and by means of selector switch any output
may be selected.
• In the block diagram of fig.3 the clock oscillator
frequency is 1MHz
• Thus the output of Schmitt trigger is 106 pulses per
second and thus the time interval between two
consecutive pulses is 1µs.
 CLAMP METER
• In general hall elements are used as a
sensor to detect DC current because it is
not possible to employ an electromagnetic
induction method as used for dedicated AC
clamp meters
• A hall element is placed across a gap
created by cutting off part of the
transformer jaws.
• When there occurs a flow of magnetic flux
proportional to both AC and DC primary
currents in the transformer jaws, this hall
element detects the magnetic flux and
takes it out as an output voltage.
Hall element: This is a semiconductor to
generate a voltage proportional to the
product of bias current and magnetic field
on the output terminal when bias current is
applied to the input terminal.
AC clamp meters
• In general AC clamp meters operate on the principle of current
transformer(CT) which is used to pick up magnetic flux
generated as a result of current flowing through a conductor.
• Assuming a current flowing through a conductor to be the
primary current, a current proportional to the primary current by
electromagnetic induction is obtained from the secondary side
(winding) of the transformer which is connected to a measuring
circuit of the instrument.
• This permits us to take an AC current reading on the digital
display(in the case of digital clamp meters)
 Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU)
• A phasor measurement unit (PMU) is a device used to
estimate the magnitude and phase angle of an electrical phasor
quantity (such as voltage or current) in the electricity grid
using a common time source for synchronization.
• Time synchronization is usually provided by GPS which allows
synchronized real-time measurements of multiple remote points
on the grid.
• PMUs are capable of capturing samples from a waveform in
quick succession and reconstructing the phasor quantity made
up of an angle measurement and a magnitude measurement.
The resulting measurement is known as a synchrophasor
• These time synchronized measurements are important because
if the grid’s supply and demand are not perfectly matched,
frequency imbalances can cause stress on the grid, which is a
potential cause for power outages.
• PMUs are situated in power system substations, and provide
measurement of time stamped voltages and currents of all
monitored buses and feeders.
• Data from various substations are collected at suitable site, and
by aligning time stamps of measurements a coherent picture of
the state power system is created.
• PMU technology is well suited to track grid dynamics in real
time and enables utilities to proactively plan energy delivery
and prevent failures.
 VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION
SYSTEM
• Virtual instrumentation is the use of customizable software and
modular measurement hardware to create user-defined
measurement systems, called virtual instruments
• The primary difference between hardware instrumentation and
virtual instrumentation is that software is used to replace a large
amount of hardware which reduces the complexity and
expensiveness of the instruments
• With virtual instruments, engineers and scientists build
measurement and automation systems that suit their needs exactly
(user-defined) instead of being limited by traditional fixed-
function instruments (vendor-defined).
• With the right software tool, they can efficiently create their own
applications, by designing and integrating the routines that a
particular process requires.
• They can also create an appropriate user interface that best suits
the purpose of the application
• They can define how and when the application acquires data from
the device, how it processes, manipulates and stores the data, and
how the results are presented to the user.
Virtual instrument
text