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 Measurements & Instrumentation
• Module 1
Measurement standards–Errors-Types of Errors- Statistics of
errors, Need for calibration.
Classification of instruments, secondary instruments–indicating,
integrating and recording
operating forces - essentials of indicating instruments -
deflecting, damping, controlling torques.
Ammeters and voltmeters - moving coil, moving iron,
constructional details and operation,
principles shunts and multipliers – extension of range.
• The measurement of a given quantity is the result of
comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is
unknown - measurand) and a predefined standard.
• Since two quantities are compared the result is
expressed in numerical values.

• There are two basic requirements for meaningful

measurement :
(i) The standard used for comparison purposes must
be accurately defined and should be commonly accepted
(ii) The apparatus used and the method adopted
must be provable.
 Methods of Measurement
• Direct Methods
The unknown quantity is directly compared against
a standard. Measurement of physical quantities like
length, mass and time.
• Indirect Methods
Measurement by direct methods are not always
possible, feasible and practicable.
Measurement systems are used for indirect methods.
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
Primary sensing element
• The measurand is first detected by primary
sensor or detector followed by conversion of
measurand into an analogous electrical signal.
• This is done by a transducer. A transducer is
defined as a device which converts a physical
quantity into an electrical quantity.
• The first stage of a measurement system is
known as a detector transducer stage.
Variable conversion element
• The output signal of the variable sensing element
may be any kind. It could be a mechanical or
electrical signal. It may be a deflection of some
electrical parameter, such as, voltage, frequency
etc.
• Sometimes, the output from the sensor is not
suited to the measurement system. This part
converts this output signal from the sensor to
some other suitable form while preserving the
information content of the original signal.
Eg: Analog to digital converter
Variable manipulation element
• Variable manipulation means a change in numerical
value of the signal. The function of a variable
manipulation element is to manipulate the signal
presented to this element while preserving the original
nature of the signal.
• For example, a voltage amplifier acts as a variable
manipulation element. The amplifier accepts a small
voltage signal as input and produces an output signal
which is also voltage but of greater magnitude.
• Element that follows primary sensing element in any
instrument or measurement system is called signal
conditioning element.
Data transmission element
• There are several situations where the elements
of an instrument are actually physically
separated.
• In such situations it becomes necessary to
transmit data from one element to another. The
element that performs this function is called a
Data Transmission Element.
• For example satellites or the air planes are
physically separated from the control stations at
earth
Data presentation element
• The function of data presentation element is to
convey the information about the quantity under
measurement to the personnel handling the
instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or
analysis purposes.
• The information conveyed must be in a convenient
form.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

• The performance characteristics of an instrument are

mainly divided into two categories:
• i) Static characteristics for quantities that do not change
its value with time. eg: length
• ii) Dynamic characteristics for quantities that change their
value with time
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM
• The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which
are used to measure the quantities and are slowly
varying with time or mostly constant is called ‘static
characteristics’.
• The various static characteristics are:
i) Accuracy
ii) Precision
iii) Sensitivity
iv) Linearity
v) Resolution
vi) Threshold
vii) Drift
viii) Range or span
 Accuracy
• It is the closeness with which an instrument reading
approaches the true value of the quantity being
measured.
a) Point accuracy
It is specified at only one particular point on its scale. It
does not give any information about the accuracy at any
other Point on the scale.
b) Accuracy as percentage of scale range
When an instrument has uniform scale, its accuracy
may be expressed in terms of scale range
c) Accuracy as percentage of true value
The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to
specify it in terms of the true value of the quantity
being measured
• Precision: It is the measure of repeatability or
reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity,
precision is a measure of the degree of agreement
within a group of measurements.
Eg: ammeter poses high degree of precision by virtue
of its clearly legible finely divided distinct scale. At the
same time its zero adjustment is wrong ie it is precise
but not accurate.
• Sensitivity: It is defined as the ratio of the changes in
the output of an instrument to a change in the value
of the quantity to be measured.
Consider an ammeter which gives a deflection of 45
degree for a current of 5 A then sensitivity is 9 degree/A
• Threshold: If the instrument input is increased very gradually
from zero there will be some minimum value below which no
output change can be detected. This minimum value defines
the threshold of the instrument. Threshold defines the
Smallest measurable input.
• Resolution: If the input is slowly increased from some
arbitrary input value(nonzero), it will again be found that
output does not change at all until a certain increment is
exceeded. This increment is called resolution. Resolution
defines the Smallest measurable input change.
• Range or span: The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument
is designed to measure is called its range or span.

For a thermometer calibrated between 200°C to 500°C, the range is 200°C to 500°C
but the span is 500-200=300°C.
• Linearity: If the input and output varies in a proportional manner system is linear. It is
closeness to which curve approximates straight line.
Drift: undesired change in the output input relationship over a period of
time. No drift means that with given input the measured value do not
vary with time.

a) zero drift:
If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent
set, or due to undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift
sets in.
b) span drift or sensitivity drift
If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward
scale, the drifts is called span drift or sensitivity drift.
c) Zonal drift:
In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is
called zonal drift.
 Drift

Zero drift can be prevented by zero setting

 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

• The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes
rapidly with time, is called dynamic characteristics.
• The various dynamic characteristics are:
i) Speed of response
ii) Measuring lag
iii) Fidelity
iv) Dynamic error
Speed of response - It is defined as the rapidity with which
a measurement system responds to changes in the measured
quantity.
Measuring lag - It is the retardation or delay in the
response of a measurement system to changes in the
measured quantity.
Dynamic error -It is the difference between the true value
of the quantity changing with time & the value indicated by
the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is
also called measurement error
Fidelity - It is defined as the degree to which a
measurement system indicates changes in the measurand
quantity without dynamic error.
 Measurement Standards
• International standards
• Primary standards
• Secondary standards
• Working standards
 International standards
• These are defined on the basis of international agreement.
• They represent the units of measurements which are closest to
the possible accuracy attainable with present day technological
and scientific methods.
• International standards are checked and evaluated regularly
against absolute measurements in terms of the fundamental
units.
• These standards are maintained at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures and are not available to the ordinary user
of measuring instruments for the purposes of calibration or
comparison.
• The international unit of length , the metre, was defined in
1960 in terms of the wavelength of Krypton-86.
• In 1983, the metre was redefined. The metre is now, the length
travelled by light in vaccum in a time interval of 1/299792458
sec.
 Primary standards
• The Primary standards are the absolute standards which can be
used as the ultimate reference standards.
• These standards are maintained by National Standards
Laboratories in different parts of the world.
• The primary standards which represent the fundamental units
are independently calibrated by absolute measurements at each
of the national laboratories and the results of these
measurements are compared against each other, leading to a
world average figure for the primary standards.
• The primary standards are very few in number. These standards
have the highest possible accuracy and stability.
• The primary unit of mass is a prototype kilogram kept at
National Physical Laboratories of every country.
• This has an accuracy of 1 part in 108 and is occasionally verified
against the standard kept al the International Bureau
 Secondary standards
• The secondary standards are the basic reference
standards used in industrial measurement laboratories.
• The responsibility of maintenance and calibration of these
standards lies with the particular industry involved
• They are sent periodically to the national standards
laboratories for calibration and comparison against
primary standards
• The secondary standards of mass are kept by industrial
laboratories. These standards have an accuracy of 1 ppm
and are checked against the primary standards.
 Working standards

• The working standards are the major tools of a

measurement laboratory.
• These standards are used to check and calibrate
general laboratory instrument for their accuracy and
performance.
• The working standards of mass have an accuracy of 5
ppm and are checked against the secondary standards.
 Calibration of Measuring systems
• The calibration of all instruments are important since it affords
the opportunity to check the instrument against a known
standard and subsequently to find errors and accuracy.
• Calibration procedure involves a comparison of the particular
instrument with either (1) a primary standard, (2) a secondary
standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be
calibrated, or (3) an instrument of known accuracy.
• All measuring instruments must be calibrated against some
reference instruments which have a higher accuracy.
• The reference instruments in turn must be calibrated against
instrument of still higher grade of accuracy or against primary
standard, or against other standards of known accuracy.
 Errors in Measurement
Static Error or Absolute Error = Measured value- True value

Measured value− True value

Relative Error =
True value

Measured value− True value

Percentage Error = X100
True value
 TYPES OF ERRORS

The origination of error may be in a variety of ways. They are categorized in three

main types.

• Gross error

• Systematic error: Instrumental errors, environmental errors, observational errors

• Random error

1. Gross Error
• The errors occur because of mistakes in observed readings, or using instruments and in
recording and calculating measurement results. These errors usually occur because of
human mistakes and these may be of any magnitude and cannot be subjected to
mathematical treatment.
2. Systematic Error: These are the errors that remain constant or change according to a definite
law on repeated measurement of the given quantity.

• Instrumental errors: Such errors are may be due to inherent short comings in the instrument,
misuse of the instruments ie failure due to adjust zero, poor initial adjustment etc, due to
loading effect of instruments.
• Environmental errors: These errors are introduced due to using an instrument in different
conditions than in which it was assembled and calibrated. These may be effects of
temperature, pressure , humidity, dust, magnetic or electrostatic fields etc
• Observational errors: Errors introduced by the observer. Eg parallax error due to observer not
having line of sight on pointer exactly at right angles to plane of scale

3. Random Errors or accidental errors

• These errors are of variable magnitude and sign and do not maintain any known law. The
presence of random errors becomes evident when different results are obtained on repeated
measurements of one and the same quantity. The effect of random errors is minimized by
measuring the given quantity many times under the same conditions and calculating the
arithmetical mean of the results obtained.
• Sources of errors
• Poor design
• Poor maintenance
• Certain design limitations
• Errors caused by operating persons
• Noise
• Response time
• Transmission: During transmission signal may get attenuated.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Electrical Instrument
• The electrical instrument is used for measuring
electrical quantities likes current, voltage, power, etc.
• The ammeter, voltmeter & wattmeter are the
examples of the electrical measuring instrument.
• The ammeter measures the current in amps;
voltmeter measures voltage and Wattmeter are used
for measuring the power.
• The classification of the electric instruments depends
on the methods of representing the output reading.
Absolute instruments
• It gives the magnitude of the quantity under measurement in terms of
physical constants of the instruments. The physical constant means
the angle of deflection, meter constant etc.
• Working with absolute instruments for routine work is time consuming
e.g:- Tangent galvanometer, Rayleigh‟s current balance.

In tangent galvanometer, the magnitude of current passes through the coil determines by
the tangent of the angle of deflection of their coil, the horizontal component of the
earth magnetic field, radius and the number of turns of wire used. The most common
applications of this type of instrument are found in laboratories.

Secondary instruments
• In this type, the quantity under measurement can only be measured
by observing the output of the instrument.
• The secondary instruments should be calibrated by comparing with an
absolute instrument or another secondary instrument which has
already been calibrated against an absolute instrument.
• e.g:- Voltmeter, pressure gauge.
Null Type Instrument
• In this instrument, the zero or null deflection indicates the
magnitude of the measured quantity.
• The instrument has high accuracy and sensitivity. When the
value of the known and the unknown measuring quantities are
equal, the pointer shows the zero or null deflection.
Deflection Type Instrument
• The instrument in which the value of measuring quantity is
determined through the deflection of the pointer is known as
the deflection type instrument.
• The measuring quantity deflects the pointer of the moving
system of the instrument which is fixed on the calibrated scale.
Thus, the magnitude of the measured quantity is known
Electrical measuring instruments may be classified
according to their functions as;
• Indicating instruments
• Integrating instruments
• Recording instruments
Indicating Instruments-
It indicate the magnitude of an electrical quantity at
the time when it is being measured. The indications
are given by a pointer moving over a graduated dial.
e.g:- Ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter.
Recording Instruments -
• The instruments which keep a continuous record of
the variations of the magnitude of an electrical
quantity to be observed over a defined period of time.
• The variations of the quantity being measured· are
recorded by a pen (attached to the moving system of
the instrument ; the moving system is operated by the
quantity being measured) on a sheet of paper carried
by a rotating drum
• E.g.- a recording ·voltmeter in a substation which
keeps record of the variations of supply voltage during
the day.
Integrating Instruments -
• Totalize the events over a specified period of time.
• The instruments which measure the total amount of
electrical energy supplied over a period of time. E.g.-
Energy meters.
ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS OR OPERATING FORCES

➢ In order to ensure the proper operation of the

indicating instruments , the following three torques
are required.

• Deflecting (or operating) torque.

• Controlling (or restoring) torque.
• Damping torque
 Deflecting torque (Td)

• The deflecting torque is produced by utilizing the

various effects (magnetic effect, induction effect,
thermal effect, hall effect etc.) of electric current or
voltage, and causes the pointer in the moving system
to move from zero position.
 Controlling torque (Tc)
• If the deflecting torque were acting alone, the pointer will
continue to move indefenitely and would swing over to the
maximum deflected position irrespective of the magnitude of the
electrical quantity to be measured
• The pointer will be brought to rest at a position where the two
opposing torques are equal. ie, Td = Tc .
The controlling torque performs two functions.
• It increases with the deflection of the moving system so that,
the final position of the pointer on the scale will be according to
the magnitude of the electrical quantity to be measured.
• It brings the pointer back to zero position, when the deflecting
torque is removed. If it were not provided, the pointer once
deflected would not return to zero position on removing the
deflecting torque.
 Damping torque
• If the moving system is acted upon by deflecting and
controlling torques alone, then due to inertia, the
pointer will oscillate about its final deflected position
for some time before coming to rest.
• This oscillation makes it difficult to obtain quick and
accurate reading.
• In order to avoid these oscillations of the pointer and to
bring it quickly to its final deflected position, a damping
torque is provided in the indicating instruments.
• The damping do not affect the stationary pointer, as
the damping torque acts only when the pointer is in
motion and always opposes the motion.
 Controlling torque (Tc)

• The deflecting system of most of the commercial

instruments is mounted on a pivoted spindle, the
quantity being measured producing a deflecting torque
proportional to its magnitude.
• There are two types of control systems which are used
for such a mounted system

(i) Gravity control. (ii) Spring control.

 Gravity control
• In gravity control system, small adjustable weights are
attached to some parts of the moving system.
• The position of weight is adjustable.
• This weight produces a controlling torque due to gravity.
• The controlling torque is proportional to the sine of
the angle of deflection. Tc = wlsinθ
• Thus the controlling torque is proportional to sine of
angle of deflection of moving system.
• The controlling torque can be varied by simply adjusting
the position of control weight upon the arm which
carries it
• The instruments employing gravity control must be used
in vertical position in order that the control may operate.
• The instruments must be mounted in level position
otherwise there will be a very serious zero error.
• For these reasons, gravity control is not suited for
indicating instruments
 Spring Control
• Two Phosphor bronze spiral hair springs A & B, attached
to the moving system, are coiled in opposite directions
and acting one against other are used in spring control.
• Under the influence of deflecting torque when the
pointer moves, one of the spring unwinds and the other
get twisted
• This twist produces controlling torque which is directly
proportional to the angle of deflection of the moving
system
• When Td = Tc, pointer comes to rest in its final
deflected position
• The outer end of spring is attached to a lever at point
C pivoted at P and that of B is fixed
• Flat spiral springs are used in almost all indicating
instruments.
• The inner end of the
spring is attached to the
spindle while the outer
end is attached to a lever or
arm which is actuated
by a set of screw mounted at
the at the front of an instrument
. So and therefore zero setting
can be easily done.
• For a flat spiral spring, the controlling torque developed,
𝐸𝑏𝑡 3
Tc= θ N-m
12 𝑙
where E = Young's modulus of spring material ; N/m2
b = width of spring ; m
t = thickness of spring ; m
l = length of spring ; m
θ = angular deflection ; rad.
E, b, t, l are constant for a prticular spring,
Tc = Kθ
𝐸𝑏𝑡 3
where K = = a constant called spring constant or
12 𝑙
control constant or torsion constant or restoring constant
• To employ spring control to an instrument, following
requirements are essential.
➢The spring should be free from mechanical fatigue.
➢They should be nonmagnetic
➢They should have small resistance and sufficient cross
sectional area.
➢They should have low resistance temperature
coefficient.
Advantages of Spring Control:
• Scale is uniform.
• The readings are taken very accurately.
• The system need not be in vertical position. It can be
used in any position.
• This control is mostly used when compared to gravity
control.
Disadvantages of Spring Control:
• The controlling torque is fixed.
• The performance is temperature dependent.
• It is simple, rigid but costlier.
 Comparison between Gravity and Spring Control
• In gravity control, adjustable small weight is used
which produces the controlling torque. In spring control,
two hair springs are used which exert controlling
torque.
• Controlling torque can be varied in gravity control
whereas controlling torque is fixed in spring control.
• In gravity control, the performance is not temperature
dependent while in the spring control the performance
is temperature dependent.
• The scale is nonuniform in gravity control and it is
uniform in spring control.
Ctnd…..
• The controlling torque is proportional to sin(angle) in
gravity control whereas in spring control, the controlling
torque is proportional to the angle.
• The readings cannot be taken accurately in the gravity
control . The readings can be taken very accurately in
the spring control .
• The system must be used in vertical position only in
gravity control. The system need not be necessarily in
vertical position in spring control.
• Proper leveling is required as gravity control. The
leveling is not required in spring control.
 DAMPING TORQUE
• The moving system of the instrument will tend to move
under the action of the deflecting torque.
• But on account of the control torque, it will try to
occupy a position of rest when the two torques are
equal and opposite.
• Due to inertia of the moving system, the pointer will
not come to rest immediately but oscillate about its
final deflected position and takes appreciable time to
come to steady state.
• To overcome this difficulty a damping torque is to be
developed by using a damping device attached to the
moving system.
• Under damped moving system:- The pointer will oscillate about
the final position for some time, before coming to rest.
• Over damped: - The pointer will become slow and lethargic.
• Critically damped/ dead beat: - The degree of damping is so
that, the pointer comes up to the correct reading quickly without
passing beyond it or oscillating about it
 Damping torque

• The damping torque in indicating instruments can be

provided by,
Air- friction damping
Fluid friction damping
Eddy current damping
 Air- friction damping
• A light aluminium piston is attached to the moving
system and moves in an air chamber closed at one
end
• The cross-section of this chamber may be either
circular or rectangular. The clearance between the
piston and the sides of the chamber should be small
and uniform.
• If the piston is moving rapidly into the chamber, the air in the
closed space is compressed and the pressure opposes the motion of
the piston (and, therefore, of the whole moving system).

• If the piston is moving out of the chamber rapidly, the pressure

in the closed space falls, and the pressure on the open side of
the piston is greater than that on the opposite side. Motion is
thus again opposed.
 Fluid friction damping
• This damping is similar to air friction damping. Oil is
used in place of air and as the viscosity of oil is greater,
the damping force is also correspondingly greater.
• A disc is attached to the moving system which dips into
an oil pot and completely submerged in oil.
• When the moving system moves, the disc moves in oil
and a friction drag is produced. This frictional drag
always opposes the motion and thus damping is provided
to the pointer (moving system)
 Eddy current damping
• In this type of damping, a copper or aluminum disc is attached to
the moving system.
• When the pointer moves, the copper or aluminum disc cuts the
magnetic flux between the poles of a permanent magnet and
an eddy current is produced due to the emf induced in it.
• This current interacts with the magnetic field to produce an
electromagnetic torque which opposes the motion (damping torque).
• This torque is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field and
the current produced.
• The current is proportional to emf which in turn is proportional to
velocity of the conductor.
• Thus if the strength of the magnetic field is, constant (if it is
produced by a permanent magnet), the torque is proportional to
velocity of the conductor.
i) Eddy current damping with metal disc

ii) Eddy current damping with a metal former

• In PMMC instruments eddy current damping is obtained by metallic
former on which a coil is wound .

• The metal former act as a single turn short-circuited coil rotating in

the magnetic field of permanent magnet and thus producing eddy
currents and damping force on the moving system.
 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments

One of the most accurate type of instrument used for

D.C. measurements is PMMC instrument.
2 2

coil
• Due to movement of Aluminum former an emf is induced
resulting in eddy current which opposes the motion thereby
provides a damping torque
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
When DC supply is given to moving coil, DC current flows through it.

When the current carrying coil is kept in magnetic field, it experiences

a force. This force produces torque and former rotates.
Pointer is attached with spindle & when former rotates pointer moves
over the calibrated scale.

when polarity reverses, torque produced in opposite direction &

mechanical stopper doesn’t allow deflection in opposite direction.
Therefore polarity should be maintained.

If ac is supplied reversing torque is produced this cannot produce

continuous deflection therefore cannot be used in AC.
Torque developed by PMMC
TORQUE EQUATION
Advantages of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
1. The scale is uniformly divided as the current is directly proportional
to deflection of the pointer. Hence it is very easy to measure
quantities from these instruments.
2. Power consumption is also very low in these types of instruments.
3. A high torque to weight ratio.
4. These are having multiple advantages; a single instrument can be used
for measuring various quantities by using different values of shunts
and multipliers.
5. Damping is effective and reliable.
6. No hysteresis loss because of Aluminium former.
• Disadvantages of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
1. These instruments cannot measure AC quantities.
2. The cost of these instruments is high as compared to moving iron
instruments.
3. Error due to ageing of magnets.
4. Friction & temperature error present
Ammeter
• Connected in series with the circuit whose current is to be measured
• power loss= I2R
• Ammeter should have low electrical resistance so that they cause small voltage
drop consequently absorbs small power
Voltmeter
• connected in parallel with the circuit whose voltage is to be measured
• power loss= V2/R
• voltmeters should have high resistance so that current drawn by them is small &
power consumed is small.

In an ammeter deflecting torque is produced by the current to be measured and in

voltmeter this torque is produced by a current which is proportional to the voltage
to be measured. Thus all voltmeters and ammeter are essentially current
measuring devices.
 EXTENSION OF RANGE (MC)
Ammeter Shunts

Figure
 Voltmeter Multipliers
• The combination of the meter movement and the
multiplier (series resistance ) is put across the
circuit whose voltage is to be measured.
• The multiplier limits the current through the meter
so that it does not exceed the value for full scale
deflection.
 Moving Iron (MI) instruments
• One of the most accurate instrument used for both AC and DC
measurement is moving iron instrument.
• There are two types of moving iron instrument.
• Attraction type
• Repulsion type
 Attraction type M.I. instrument
• A plate or vane of soft iron or of high permeability steel
forms the moving element of the system.
• This iron vane is so situated that it can move in a
magnetic field produced by a stationary coil.
• The coil is excited by the current or voltage under
measurement.
• When the coil is excited, it becomes an electromagnet
and the iron vane moves in such a way so as to occupy
a position of minimum reluctance.
• Thus the force (or torque) produced is always in such a
direction so as to increase the inductance of the coil
(As inductance increases as reluctance decreases)
• Hence the moving iron moves from the weaker
field outside the coil to the stronger field inside it
or the moving iron is attracted in.
• The controlling torque is provided by springs
• Gravity control can be
used for panel type of
instruments which are
vertically mounted
• Damping is provided
by air friction
 Repulsion type MI Instruments
• In the repulsion type, there are two vanes inside the coil,
one fixed and other movable.
• These are similarly magnetised when the current flows
through the coil and there is a force of repulsion between
the two vanes resulting in the movement of the moving
vane.
(i) Radial Vane Type - In this type, the vanes are radial
strips of iron. The strips are placed within the coil as shown
in Fig. The fixed vane is attached to the coil and the
movable one to the spindle of the instrument
(Ii) Co-axial Vane Type - In this type of instrument, the fixed
and moving vanes are sections of co-axial cylinders
 Torque Equation
Electrical energy supplied = Increase in stored energy
+ mechanical work done
• Let ‘ θ ’ be the deflection corresponding to a current of ‘i’ amp
• Let the current increases by di in dt seconds, the corresponding
deflection is θ + dθ
• There is change in inductance since the position of moving iron
changes w.r.t the fixed electromagnets
• Let the new inductance value be ‘L+dL’.
• Let the emf induced in the coil be ‘e’ volt.

The electrical energy supplied,

(Neglecting higher order terms in small quantities)
Mechanical work to move the pointer by dθ = Td dθ
By law of conservation of energy,
Electrical energy supplied = Increase in stored energy
+ mechanical work done
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