WORD PROCESSORS

Chapter outline

1.1 Definition of word processor.

1.2 Purpose of word processing.
1.3 Using a word processing package (Microsoft word).
1.4 Editing and formatting a document.
1.5 Creating and editing a table.
1.6 Mail merge document.
1. 7 Inserting graphics.
1.8 Printing a document.

Electronic Word Processing

A word processor is an application software that enables a person to create, save, edit, format and print
text documents. Word processing refers to the art of creating, saving, editing, formatting and printing text
and graphic documents using an electronic word processor.

Examples of word processors

Examples of word processors include,
 Microsoft Word,
 Corel WordPerfect,
 WordStar,
 Lotus WordPro
 Apple Works

A word processor has a number of advantages over he type writer that include:
1. A document can be stored in the computer for future reference in computer files that do not occupy
physical space like the one on paper. This creates a paperless document-processing environment.
2. Typing using a word processor is easier and more efficient because some actions are automated. For
example, word-wrap feature automatically takes the cursor to the beginning of the next line once you
reach the end of the current. Another automatic features common in most word processors is automatic
insertion of a new page after reaching the end of the current page.
3. Most word processors have special editing tools such as spelling and grammar checkers and thesaurus
that help the user to easily correct grammar and spelling mistakes. A thesaurus helps to find a word or
phrase with similar meanings.
4. Electronic word processor provides inbuilt features for generating headers, footers, indexes, footnotes
and references.
5. Word processors have superior document formatting features. Formatting refers to the art of making
the document more attractive and appealing to the eye. Such features include, underlining, boldfacing,
italicization, applying different colors etc.
6. While a typewriter may require that we retype the entire document when we want many copies, with a
word processor, printing lets you produce as many copies per session as needed.
7. Most word processors have ability to create and import tables, text and graphics from other programs.
Basic word processing features and concepts
1. They allow the user to create a file, save it and open it again and again for reuse, editing, formatting or
printing.
2. They have almost similar document windows with the following Features:
(a) Title bar: it indicates the task currently running. On its right are minimize, restore and close button.
(b) Main menu/tabs: it provides the user with list of commands used to create or manipulate a
document.
(c) Cursor: which blinks at the position where you can Begin entering text.
(d) Status bar: this is the communication channel between the user and the application program. It
displays the document status information such as current page number, section and word count.
(e) Word wrap/Cursor wrap: The feature that automatically moves a word or cursor to the beginning of
the next line if it does not fit at the end of the current line.
(g) Scrolling: This is the vertical movement of text document on the screen. We can scroll through a
text document using the up or down arrow keys, page up and page down keys and also using, a mouse
in windows based word processors.
(h) Help: Help contains instruction, tips, pointers, explanations and guidance. You can get help by
either pressing F1 on the keyboard or clicking Help from the menu.
(i) Editing Modes: Word processors have two editing modes, insert and type over mode.
 Insert mode, every character typed between words, lines or characters is placed at the cursor
position. This pushes all the text in front of the cursor away without deleting it.
 Type over mode every character typed deletes what was there before and replaces it with new
text at the cursor position.
3. They have editing tools such as a spelling checker, and grammar checker, thesaurus (synonyms and
autonyms) and autocorrect features.
4. They provide inbuilt features for generating headers and footers, indexes, footnotes and references..
5. Most word processors have ability to create and import tables, text and graphics from other programs.

NB: To activate the typeover mode, right click on status bar

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Purpose of word processors.
Word processors are used to create, save, edit, format and print documents like letters, reports, projects,
books, essays, memos curriculum vitae etc.
Factors to consider when choosing a word processor
The choice of a word processor depends on:
1. The type of operating system. For example, most microcomputers are currently running on Windows
based operating system such as Microsoft Windows. This means that you should consider acquiring a
graphical user interface based Word Processor,
2. Its user-friendliness, i.e. ease of use of the application.
3. Its formatting and editing features. They should be good and varied.

Using a word processing package

Microsoft Word is one of the components of Microsoft Office. Microsoft Office is integrated software with
a number of interrelated programs. The programs include Microsoft Word, a spreadsheet called Microsoft
Excel, and a database management system called Microsoft Access, communication software called
Microsoft Outlook, and a presentation package called Microsoft PowerPoint among others.
Microsoft Word screen layout
Once you start Microsoft Word, it provides you with a blank document window referred to as the new
document template where you can create your document.
However you may need to use other specialised templates such as Faxes and letters, Memos and Web page.

With Windows multitasking capability, you can have more than one document window at the same time
sharing one application window. However, each document window will have its own title bar but both will
share other facilities like the menu bar of the application window.
However only one document window will be visible on the desktop at a time while others remains
minimized or covered. This window is referred to as the active document window. To switch between
document windows, click their buttons on the taskbar.

Parts of a window

Title bar
A title bar is mostly a blue strip at the top of the window that displays the title of the currently running
application or task. However it is possible to change the color of the title bar using the display properties.

The title bar also enables the user to move the window around the desktop. This is possible by pointing to it
then dragging using the mouse.

On the right of the title bar are three tiny buttons called minimize, restore/ maximize and the close buttons.
The minimize button reduces a window to become a button on the taskbar.

The restore/maximize button stretches the window to cover the entire desktop or restore it to its original
size respectively.
The close button is used to close and exit a window.

Ribbon/Menu bar
The menu ribbon is a strip made up of groups of command buttons(icons) displayed after clicking each of
the menu tabs. The default ribbons are Home, Insert, Page Layout, View, etc each ribbon has groups of
commands associated to it.

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Tool/bars
These are rows of buttons or icons that represent commands. The command buttons are shortcuts to the
same commands you can access from the menu bar. There are various toolbars available in Microsoft Word
but the most common are the Standard and Formatting toolbars
Rulers
Microsoft Word provides the user with vertical and horizontal on screen rulers that helps the user position
text or objects in the right position.
Gridlines
These are horizontal and vertical lines that subdivide the document content area into cells which help to
align an object in a document.
Navigation pane
It’s a pane that appears on the left of the application window that may contain a search box and other
context information such as recently recovered word documents. It allows you to navigate through the
document by heading, by page or by searching for text or objects.
Work area
This is the working area where you can enter text or graphical objects. All windows based application
programs provide the user with a unique working area suited to that particular application.
Status bar
This is an interactive strip at the bottom of the screen that acts as a communication link between the user
and the program. It displays interactive activities like saving, opening, background printing, cursor position
etc.
Scroll bars/button_ and scroll arrows
Scroll bars or buttons are horizontal and vertical bars on the borders of a window that the user drags to
scroll upward, downwards, to the right or left of a document. Scroll arrows are arrows at the end of the
scroll bars that the user clicks instead of dragging the scroll button. Using scroll bars or arrows is
equivalent to using the arrow keys the keyboard

Running the program

Creating a document
When you start a new document, you will see a blinking vertical bar called an insertion pointer. You can
move your insertion pointer by using the arrow keys or the mouse.

Saving a new document

The difference between save and save as is that although both give the save as dialog box when saving for
the first time, Save allows the user to save document without the opportunity to change the file name or the
location. Ctrl + S
Opening an existing document
From the file menu, click Open command or on the Standard toolbar, click the Open button. Alternatively
press Ctrl + 0 key combination on the keyboard.
Protecting a document with a password
A password is a combination of characters that prevents other users from opening and changing a document
without permission. If a document is protected by a password, only the person who knows the password
can open the document or edit it.

Closing a document
Closing a document means unloading the current active document from memory so that the user can create
or open another without necessarily exiting from Word.

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Exiting from Word
To exit from Word, make sure all open documents are saved.
NB: You can exit from Microsoft Word by pressing Alt + F4 keys or by double clicking the application
icon at the left most comer of the title bar. If you have not saved any of the open documents, Microsoft
Word prompts you to save the document first.

Editing and formatting a document

Editing
Editing refers to making necessary changes to an existing document. Apart from manual editing using
delete, insert and overtype/overwrite commands, Microsoft Word provides the user with inbuilt tools such
as the spelling and grammar checker, thesaurus, undo and re-do, find and replace etc.

Block operations
Selecting (highlighting) a block of text
The purpose of selecting text is to enable the user perform a number of editing or formatting operations on
the selected block of text. Microsoft Word presents the user with a number of ways for selecting a block of
text. You can either select a block of text using the mouse or keyboard.

Selecting with a mouse

1. To select a word, place the insertion pointer on the word then, double Click it.
2. To select a sentence, positions the mouse pointer at the left margin until it changes to a right arrow, and
then click once.
3. To select a paragraph, place the pointer at the beginning or end of the paragraph. Notice that the pointer
changes to I-beam. Now drag the I-beam over the text to be selected and release the mouse button at the
end of the text you wish to work on.
Selecting with the keyboard
1. To select one word, move the insertion pointer to the beginning or End of the word then
press Shift+Ctrl+Right or left arrow.
2. To select one line, press Shift+Up or Shift+Down arrow key. Alternatively, move the insertion point
to the end or beginning of The line then press Shift+Home or end keys respectively.
3.To select an entire page; press Shift+Page Down or Shift+Page Up. 4. To select the entire document,
press Ctrl+A or place the cursor at the beginning of the document then press Shift+Ctrl+End.

Deleting text
1. To delete a character or a word from the right to the left, place the insertion pointer on the right of the
word then press the backspace key.
2. To delete a character to the right of the cursor position, place the Insertion pointer on the left of the word
then press the Delete key.

To delete a block of text

1. Highlight the text to be deleted.
2. Press the Delete key.

Restoring deleted text

To restore text that has just been deleted in the current word processing session: click the Edit menu, then
the Undo command. Ctrl + Z
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Copying and moving text and objects
Copying means creating a duplicate of text or an object while moving means changing the position of text
or an object in a document. In Microsoft Word, you can copy or move a block of text.
NB: To use the keyboard shortcut keys, press Ctrl + C to copy, then Ctrl + V to paste

To move text and objects means transferring it from one place to another.
NB: To use the keyboard shortcut keys, press Ctrl + X to cut, then Ctrl + V to paste
Typing modes
There are two typing modes in a word processor that assist the user in typing or editing text documents.
These are:
 Insert mode.
 Typeover mode.
Insert mode
This is the default mode in most word processors. In this case when text is inserted between words or
characters it pushes the existing text away without replacing it.
Typeover mode.
In this case, when text is typed between existing words or characters, the new text automatically replaces
the existing text by deleting it. To switch between typeover and insert mode, simply press the insert key on
the keyboard or double click the OVR label on the status bar.

Find and replace

When you need to search for a word or phrase in a large document, use the Find command. In case you
wish to replace a word or phrase, use the Replace option.
Find
NB: You can use the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+F to find. Some search options:
You can specify search options by clicking the more buttons to display them. They include:
1. Match case: This identifies only text that matches in case with that in the find what box e.g. it will
not find the word DEEN if you typed deen and selected the match case option.
2. Whole Word: Searches for a word or phrase that is whole. If it is part of another word it will not be
found, e.g. the word ever will not be found in words like however, whenever etc. during the search.
3. Use wildcards: Wildcards are special symbols such as * and? That are used to represent a set of
words with certain characters in common e.g. names like Jeff, Joe, Jane can be represented using a
wildcard as J* which means all names starting with J.
4. Like: Searches for words, which are similar in pronunciation e.g., fare and fair.

Proofreading
Proofreading refers to checking whether the document has typographical or grammar errors. Microsoft
Word has tools for proofreading e.g. spelling and grammar checker, Thesaurus, Autocomplete and
Autocorrect.

Spelling and grammar checker

The spelling and grammar checker is an inbuilt tool that helps the user to correct spelling errors and
incorrect grammar structures. However, the checker can only recognise errors of those words whose correct
spelling is in its dictionaries. A correctly spelt word used wrongly cannot be detected hence the document
should be proofread just before and after printing.

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Using the thesaurus
This is an editing tool that helps the user find words or phrases with similar meaning (synonyms) or
opposite meaning (antonyms) to the one selected.
Autocomplete/Autotext
The auto complete feature displays a complete word when the user types the first few characters of the
word. This enables the user to type faster by simply accepting the suggested word if indeed he/she intend to
type it. To accept the suggestion, simply press the Enter key, and continue typing other word or phrases

Autocorrect
The auto correct feature automatically detects wrongly spelled or capitalised words and replaces them with
the correct word. However, the settings of auto correct are user defined e.g. if a person keeps on typing the
word certain as certain, set the auto correct feature to replace the later with the former. Figure 1.18 shows
the auto correct feature.

Undo and redo

Undo: It reverses the last command that was issued in Order to revert back to the previous state. To undo,
click Edit then Undo command. (Ctrl + Z)
Redo: It does the last undone action. To redo, click Edit, then Redo Command. . (Ctrl + Y)

Formatting Word document

Formatting refers to applying various styles or features to enhance the document's appearance. You can
format text, a paragraph or a page.

Text formatting
Text formatting refers to features such as changing fonts (type, style and size of characters), changing text
color, underlining, bolding Italicising etc. You can use either the formatting tools bar or the Format menu
to underline, bold, etc.

To format existing text using the format menu

1. Highlight the text to be formatted
2. From Format menu, click the Font command. A dialog box with all Text formatting features is displayed
3. To change font type and size, where necessary scroll down the Font list box then click the font required,
for example Verdana font style would appears as Verdana. To increase the font size, where necessary,
scroll down the Size list box and select the required size e.g. 12 points (pt). A point is 1/72 of an inch in
height. 72 points i.e. 72/72 is equivalent to 1 inch For example "Verdana" is in Times New Roman 16
points and "Verdana" is in Verdana 16 points.
4. Bolding text: Bolding makes the selected text appear darker than the rest of the text. . (Ctrl + B)
5. Underline text: Underlining refers to placing a line at the base or bottom of a word or a phrase. . (Ctrl +
U)
6. Italicising text: To italicise is to make the text slant forward. . (Ctrl + I)
7. Changing the font color: In most cases, the font default color is black. However you can change the font
color for example to red, green, blue etc.
Using formatting toolbar
As mentioned earlier, the formatting toolbar lets the user easily format text by clicking the required format
button. To format some text, highlight it first then click a command on the toolbar.
For example to bold text, highlight it then click then bolding command (B) on the formatting toolbar.

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Paragraph formatting

Text alignment
Text alignment refers to how text is lined up on the page relative to the left, right or center of the page.
There are four ways in which text can be aligned namely left aligned, centered, right aligned and justified.

Left alignment
Lines of text are lined up evenly along the left margin but unevenly at The right margin. This is the default
alignment. . (Ctrl + L)
Right alignment
This is opposite of left alignment. Lines of text are lined up evenly along the right margin but unevenly at
the left margin. . (Ctrl + R)
Center alignment
The lines of text are centered unevenly between the left and right margins. . (Ctrl + E)
Justification
Lines of text are arranged evenly along the left and right margin. . (Ctrl + J)
Distributed
Spaces will be added between characters and words. If the last line is short, extra space will be added
between characters to make it match the width of the paragraph.

Distributed Align Text

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Change case
When typing a text, there are a number of cases the user may intend to apply in order to create contrast
within the text. These are:
1. Sentence case: All the first characters in a sentence are in uppercase (Capitalised).
Computer studies is a technical subject
2. Lowercase: All characters appear in lowercase.
computer studies is a technical subject
3. Uppercase: All characters appear in uppercase.
COMPUTER STUDIES IS A TECHNICAL SUBJECT
4. Title case: All the first characters of each word in a sentence appear in uppercase.
Computer Studies Is A Technical Subject
5. Toggle case: It changes upper cases to lowercases and vice versa.
cOMPUTER sTUDIES iS a tECHNICAL Subject
Computer Studies Is A Technical Subject
Drop caps
There are times when you wish to attract the reader's attention by making the first character in a sentence
large, taking more space in the next line. Such kind of a character is said to be "dropped".
Types drop cap; Dropped
In Margin

Indenting paragraphs
Indentation refers to moving the text away from the margin. You can indent the first sentence in a
paragraph (first line), the whole paragraph (full indent) or the rest of the text except the first line (hanging
indentations).
First line indent
Only the first line of the paragraph is indented.
Hanging Indent
The rest of the paragraph is indented except the first line.
Full indent
The whole paragragh is indented.

Setting tabs
Tabs are used to indent the first line of a paragraph or create columnar data. By default the tab stop is set at
0.5 of an inch. To change the default setting:

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Setting tabs using the ruler
The easiest way to set tabs is by using the ruler. The Ruler is located below the Ribbon around the edge of
the document. It is used to change the format of the document, i.e. it helps you align the text, tables,
graphics and other elements of your document. It uses inches or centimeters as the measurements unit and
gives you an idea about the size of the document.
On the left comer of the horizontal ruler is a tab alignment button that lets the user select the type of tab.
Figure 1.28 shows various tab alignment buttons, while Table
Button Name Purpose
Left tab Text is left aligned
Center tab Text is centered
Bar tab Inserts a vertical line at tab stop and align text to the right of the line

Decimal tab Text is aligned at decimal

Character
Right tab Text is right aligned

Table 1.1 Examples of tabs

Line and character spacing
Line spacing refers to the vertical distance between lines of text. The default line spacing is single
spacing. This type of spacing accommodates the characters in a text leaving a small extra space
between lines. Character spacing on the other hand refers to the space between the characters in the
text.

Bullets and numbering

Bullets and numbers are used to mark steps in a procedure or items in a list.

Multilevel List
Formatting style that shows listed items at different level instead of using one line.

Section breaks
A break is used to identify where a section, a column or a page ends and the beginning of next. This
allows the user to apply more than one paragraph or page format in the same document especially
when it comes to page layout, size, different margins etc.

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Widows and Orphans and Rags

Widows and orphans are lines at the beginning or end of a paragraph which are left dangling at the
top or bottom of a page or column, separated from the rest of the paragraph

Widow
A paragraph-ending line that falls at the beginning of the following page or column, thus separated
from the rest of the text. Mnemonically, a widow is "alone at the top" (albeit of the family tree but,
in this case, of the page).
Orphan
A paragraph-opening line that appears by itself at the bottom of a page or column, thus separated
from the rest of the text. Mnemonically, an orphan is "alone at the bottom" (albeit of the family tree
but, in this case, of the page).

A widowed line: the last line of a paragraph, all

alone on the other side of a page break.
At the end of the first paragraph, the word
"lorem" is an orphan in the second sense: a very
short final line that, because the rest of its line is
white, creates an impression of two lines of
whitespace between the paragraphs.

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Remembering the terms

A common mnemonic is "An orphan has no past; a widow has no future" [4] or "An orphan is left
behind, whereas a widow must go on alone".

Another way to think is that orphaned lines appear at the "birth" (start) of paragraphs; widowed
lines appear at the "death" (end) of paragraphs. "An orphan is alone from the beginning; a widow is
alone at the end," or "An orphan starts alone, a widow ends alone."

Some techniques for eliminating widows include:

 Forcing a page break early, producing a shorter page;
 Adjusting the leading, the space between lines of text (although such carding or
feathering is usually frowned upon);
 Adjusting the spacing between words to produce "tighter" or "looser" paragraphs;
 Adjusting the hyphenation within the paragraph;
 Adjusting the page's margins;
 Subtle scaling of the page, though too much non-uniform scaling can visibly distort the
letters;
 Rewriting a portion of the paragraph;
 Reduce the tracking of the words;
 Adding a pull quote to the text (more common for magazines); and
 Adding a figure to the text, or resizing an existing figure.

Some techniques for eliminating orphan include:

 An orphan is cured more easily, by inserting a blank line or forcing a page break to push
the orphan line onto the next page to be with the rest of its paragraph. Such a cure may
have to be undone if editing the text repositions the automatic page or column break.
 Similarly, a single orphaned word at the end of a paragraph can be cured by forcing one
or more words from the preceding line into the orphan's line. In web-publishing, this is
typically accomplished by concatenating the words in question with a non-breaking
space and, if available, by utilizing the orphans: and widows: attributes in Cascading
Style Sheets.
 Sometimes it can also be useful to add non-breaking spaces to the first two (or few)
short words of a paragraph to avoid that a single orphaned word is placed to the left or
right of a picture or table, while the remainder of the text (with longer words) would
only appear after the table.

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Rags

Rag refers to the irregular or uneven vertical margin of a block of type. Usually it’s the right margin
that’s ragged (as in the flush left/rag right setting), but either or both margins can be ragged.
When setting type with a ragged margin, pay attention to the shape that the ragged line endings
make. A good rag goes in and out from line to line in small increments. A poor rag creates
distracting shapes of white space in the margin. Don’t rely on the line breaks generated by your
software application.

Some techniques for eliminating orphan include:

 Making manual line breaks or by editing your copy.

 Slight adjustments in point size or column width might work as well.

A poor rag (left) creates distracting shapes in the

white space of the margin. Correct this by making
manual line breaks (right).

Formatting pages
Inserting page breaks
A page break identifies the end of one page and the beginning of the next. Word automatically
inserts a new page after the current one is full. However, there may be a need to start a new page
even if the current one is not full.

Columns
Columns are used to portion a page into vertical blocks of content to improve readability.
To, create columns on existing text:
1. Highlight the text
2. From Format menu, click Columns to display the dialog box
3. In the columns dialog box, select the number of columns or type in the Number of columns
text box
4. In the Width and spacing boxes, specify the column widths and space between columns
5. Click OK
Page setup
Page setup options let the user specify the size of the margins, paper size, paper source and layout.

Setting margins
Margins are blank spaces around the edges of the page. Only text and objects inside the margins are
printable.

Setting the paper size

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By default, the paper size may be either Letter or A4. An A4 paper has dimensions 210 mm x 297
mm

Specifying page orientation

The term page orientation refers to the positioning of the page in relation to the text. The two
available orientations are:
 Portrait: text and graphics are printed with the longest side vertically upright. For example,
on an A4 piece of paper, the 210 mm edges are at the bottom and top.

 Landscape: With landscape, text and graphical objects are placed with the longest side of
the page placed horizontally and the lines of text printed parallel. For example, to create a
timetable on an A4 page, the 297 mm side should be horizontal.
Page layout
This option lets the user specify how text will be placed on the page from the margins. By default,
text starts from the top margin.

Inserting headers and footers

Headers, footers and page numbers make it easy to locate information. Headers are few words
placed at the top of every page while footers appear at the bottom. To insert headers and footers:
1. Click on the. Headers and Footers from the View menu
2. In the text boxes that appear, type a header using the top text box or a footer using the bottom text
box or even both if you are to insert both a header and footer.
Page numbering
Page numbers is the process of inserting sequence of numbers or letters to page of a large document
eg. A book for ease of reference.
Inserting page numbers
To give your document page numbers:
1. From the Insert menu, click Page numbers to display the dialog box
2. In the Position box, specify where you want the page numbers to be inserted.
3. In the alignment box, specify whether the number is to be on the right, left, center, inside or
outside
4. Use the Format button to choose the number format, i.e. 1,2,3,..., A,B, C etc. You can start from
any page number by using Start at box
Footnotes and endnotes
Footnotes and endnotes are used in large documents to explain, comment on or provide references
for text in a document. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page while endnotes appear at the end
of the section or document text.

Creating and editing tables

Creating tables
A table is a feature in Microsoft Word made up of rows and columns that is used to organise and
enhance display of information.

Formatting and editing a table

Inserting rows and columns

To insert a row:
1. Place the cursor where you want to insert a row
2. Click Table, point Insert then click Row above or Row below.
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To insert a column:
1. Place the cursor where you want to insert a column
2. Click Table, point Insert then click Column to left then Column to the Right.

Adjusting the column width:

1. Position the mouse pointer on the row or column boundary until the mouse pointer
changes to an arrowed cross.
2. Drag the boundary to the required size.

Deleting rows, column or cells

1. Select the rows or columns to be deleted.
2. From Table menu, point Delete, then Columns, Rows or Cells.

Merging cells in a table

This refers to combining more than one cell in a table. To merge cells:

Splitting cells in a table

This refers to subdividing a cell or cells into more cells. To split cells:

Formatting table borders and shading

Word provides the user with automatic formatting feature that lets you choose border styles and
shading.

Table conversions
With convert feature in Microsoft Word, you can convert a table to lines of text and vice versa.

To convert a table to text

1. Select the entire table or row and columns you want to convert to text.
2. From table menu, point to convert then click table to text. A dialog box is displayed that requires
you to specify how the text will be separated after conversion
3. In the separate text with box enter or select the character to be used as a separator.
4. Click ok

To convert text to table:

1. Select the text that you want to convert to a table.
2. From table menu, point convert then click text to table. A dialog box is displayed that requires
you to specify the number of rows and of columns
3. From Separate text at, specify whether the table will be defined by paragraphs, commas, Tabs or
other characters.
4. Click OK. .

Importing tables
Microsoft Word lets you import tables from other applications or an existing file. To import a table,
1. Click the Insert menu then Objects. A dialog box appears
2. From the Object type select the type of object to insert e.g. Adobe table.
3. The program in which the table was created in starts and lets you choose a table from it and
return back to Microsoft Word. Alternatively click Create from file. This lets you browse for a file
that contains the table you wish to insert.
4. Click OK to insert the table.

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Performing arithmetic calculations in a table
It is possible to perform mathematical calculations such as sum, average, product and count, if a
table has numerical figures.

To perform calculations:
1. Click the cell in which you want the result to be placed.
2. From the Table menu, click Formula. A formula dialog box is displayed.
3. Type the formula you want or select from the Paste function box. For example, to add figures in a
row or column, click SUM. The function in Table 1.2 below that calculates the total is
=SUM(ABOVE). The word "ABOVE". in brackets is called the argument of the formula and tells
Microsoft Word which cells in the table are to be worked on.
Sorting
In Microsoft Word you can sort a list of text, numbers and dates in ascending or descending order.

Mail merge document

Mail merge is the process of generating personalised letters or documents by combining a main
document, e.g. a letter, with an existing data source such as the address book. Therefore in mail
merge, the three files created are:
1. Main document: contains the text and graphics that are the same for each version of the
merged document
2. Data source: a file that contains the information to be merged into the main document.
Eg the names and addresses of the recipients.
3. Merged file
To create the main document,

1 From the file menu, select New to create a new document. You can also open or retrieve an
existing document.
2. On the Tools menu, click mail merge to display a dialog box.
3 Click create button, to select the type of document needed e.g. form .letters. Select the active
window as the main document this means that the currently running document will be the form
letter that will be later merged with a data source to produce individualised letters.
The next step is now to create a data source.
4. Click Get Data. To use an existing list of names and addresses, click
Open Data. Source To use existing addresses from an electronic address book, click on Use Address
Book. To create a new list of names and addresses, first choose the necessary fields from the create
data source box then save the record structure. A message appears asking you whether you want to
edit the data source or the main document choose one then the Next.
5. With the main document open, spot the mail merge toolbar on the screen. Position the text cursor
where you want to insert merge fields. Use the insert field’s button to insert merge fields in the
document
Merging the document
Once you finish inserting merge fields from the data source in the main document, you are now
ready to merge. There are several merge options:
 To merge to a new document
 Send merged documents via e-mail or fax
 Preview merged documents
 Merging to printer

Inserting graphics

The term graphics refers to non-text images generated by a compute! This includes photographs,
drawings and graphs. Graphics present information in a form that is easy to understand.
16
You can insert a graphical object from:
 Clip Gallery
 Inserting a picture from a file, Scanner or digital
camera
 Drawing tools
 Importing from another application programs

A clip art image

Inserting an image from a scanner
The computer must be connected to a scanner to complete this procedure. A scanner is a data
capture device that transforms a hand copy or real graphical object into digital form.

Inserting a picture from another file

A picture maybe save in the computer hard disk or other removable devices.

Editing and formatting pictures

To format or edit a picture:

Microsoft Word provides the user with a picture editing toolbar that lets you adjust the brightness,
contrast, change it to black and white or grayscale and crop the image.
Cropping refers to hiding the unwanted details so that they do not come out when printing.

Drawing an object using MS Word drawing tools

Microsoft Word provides the user with basic drawing tools such as polygons, lines, a circle, stars
and banners, call outs and many others.

Editing and formatting a drawn object

You can resize, move, fill color and change the drawing outline.

To fill the object with color and fill effects:

1. Click the object. The place holders appear.
2. Click the down arrow of fill color button, the one that looks like a bucket pouring ink.
3. Select the color you want applied. To fill the drawing with texture, gradient or pattern, click the
Effects button. From the resulting dialog box, select the appropriate fill effect.

Text wrap
This is a feature that enables the user to surround a picture or an object with text.
Types of text wrap

17
 Printing a document

Printing in Microsoft Word

Once you have created your document, you may want to print, view and share your work. The main
purpose of any word processor is to prepare documents for printing; this cannot be accomplished
without a printer. The choice of a printer depends on the quality of hardcopy desired.

Using print preview

Before you print, it is very important that you preview you document to confirm that no details are
outside the printable area and that the document layout is okay.

Troubleshooting printing problems

During printing you may experience some printing problems due to one of the following reasons.
 Lack of two-way communication due to poor installation of the printer software (drivers), if the
printer is off or not connected.
 Paper jams due to use of poor quality paper or paper folds.
 Poor quality print due to poor quality ink or toner.

General keyboard shortcuts

Press this key To do this
F1 Display Help
Ctrl + C (or Ctrl + Insert) Copy the selected item
Ctrl + X Cut the selected item
Ctrl + V (or Shift +
Paste the selected item
Insert)
Ctrl + Z Undo an action
Ctrl + Y Redo an action
18
Delete (or Ctrl + D) Delete the selected item and move it to the Recycle Bin
Delete the selected item without moving it to the Recycle Bin
Shift + Delete
first
F2 Rename the selected item
Ctrl + Right Arrow Move the cursor to the beginning of the next word
Ctrl + Left Arrow Move the cursor to the beginning of the previous word
Ctrl + Down Arrow Move the cursor to the beginning of the next paragraph
Ctrl + Up Arrow Move the cursor to the beginning of the previous paragraph
Ctrl + Shift with an
Select a block of text
arrow key
Select more than one item in a window or on the desktop, or
Shift with any arrow key
select text within a document
Ctrl with any arrow key
Select multiple individual items in a window or on the desktop
+ Spacebar
Ctrl + A Select all items in a document or window
F3 Search for a file or folder
Alt + Enter Display properties for the selected item
Alt + F4 Close the active item, or exit the active program
Alt + Spacebar Open the shortcut menu for the active window
Close the active document (in programs that allow you to have
Ctrl + F4
multiple documents open simultaneously)
Alt + Tab Switch between open items
Ctrl + Alt + Tab Use the arrow keys to switch between open items
Ctrl + Mouse scroll
Change the size of icons on the desktop
wheel
Windows logo key
Cycle through programs on the taskbar by using Aero Flip 3-D
+ Tab
Ctrl+Windows logo key
Use the arrow keys to cycle through programs on the taskbar
by using Aero Flip 3-D
+ Tab
Alt + Esc Cycle through items in the order in which they were opened
F6 Cycle through screen elements in a window or on the desktop
F4 Display the address bar list in Windows Explorer
Shift + F10 Display the shortcut menu for the selected item
Ctrl + Esc Open the Start menu
Alt + underlined letter Display the corresponding menu
Alt + underlined letter Perform the menu command (or other underlined command)
F10 Activate the menu bar in the active program
19
Right Arrow Open the next menu to the right, or open a submenu
Left Arrow Open the next menu to the left, or close a submenu
F5 (or Ctrl + R) Refresh the active window
Alt + Up Arrow View the folder one level up in Windows Explorer
Esc Cancel the current task
Ctrl + Shift + Esc Open Task Manager
Shift when you insert a
Prevent the CD from automatically playing
CD
Switch the input language when multiple input languages are
Left Alt + Shift
enabled
Switch the keyboard layout when multiple keyboard layouts
Ctrl+Shift
are enabled
Change the reading direction of text in right-to-left reading
Right or Left Ctrl + Shift
languages

20
 SPREADSHEETS MS-EXCEL

Chapter outline
2.1 Definition of spreadsheet
2.2 Components of a spreadsheet
2.3 Application areas of a spreadsheet
2.4 Creating a worksheet/workbook using Microsoft Excel
2.5 Cell data types
2. Cell referencing
2. 7 Basic functions and formulae
2.8 Editing a worksheet
2.9 Worksheet formattin2.10 Data management
2.11 Charts/graphs
2.12 Printing worksheets

2.1 Definition of a spreadsheet

A spreadsheet is essentially a ledger sheet that lets you enter, edit and manipulate numeric data.
There are two types of spreadsheets namely:
1. The manual spreadsheet.
2. The electronic spreadsheet.
A manual spreadsheet is the most commonly used type by book keepers as a ledger book with
many sheets of papers divided into rows and columns on which numeric data is entered manually
using a pen or pencil.

An electronic spreadsheet is an application software which consists of row and columns used to
calculate, organize and analyze numeric data.

Advantages of Using Electronic Spreadsheets over Manual Spreadsheet

1. The electronic spreadsheet utilizes the powerful aspects of the computer like speed,
accuracy and efficiency to enable the user quickly accomplish tasks.
2. The electronic spreadsheet offers a larger electronic sheet for data entry and
manipulation. For example the largest paper ledger you can get is one that does not exceed
30 columns and 51 rows while with an electronic spreadsheet, the least ledger has at least
255 columns and 255 rows.
3. The electronic spreadsheet utilizes the large storage space on computer storage devices to
save and retrieve documents.
4. The electronic spreadsheet enables the user to produce neat work because the traditional
paper, pencil, rubber and calculator are put aside. All the work is edited on the screen and a
final clean copy is printed. With a handwritten spreadsheet, neatness and legibility depends
on the writer's hand writing skills.
5. They have data visualization (graphical) capability such as charts, timelines and slicers used
to aid in the interpretation of numeric data.
6. Electronic spreadsheets have inbuilt formulae called functions that enable the user to quickly
manipulate mathematical data.
7. An electronic spreadsheet automatically adjusts the result of a formula if the values in
worksheet are changed. This is called the automatic recalculation feature. For a manual
sheet, changing one value means rubbing the result and writing the correct one again.

Examples of spreadsheets
21
  VisiCalc: This was the first type of spreadsheet to be developed for personal computers.
 Lotus 1-2-3: This is integrated software with spreadsheet module graphs and database.
 Microsoft Excel
 VP-Planner etc.
 OpenOffice Calc
 Corel Quattro Pro Google Sheets
 iWork numbers
Components of a spreadsheet
A spreadsheet has three components
1. Worksheet.
2. Database.
3. Graphs.
Worksheet
This is the component in which data values are entered. It is made up of rows and columns. The
intersection between a row and a column is called a cell. A row is a horizontal arrangement of cells
while a column is a vertical arrangement of cells. Each row is labeled with a number while each
column is labeled with a letter as shown in the Figure 2.1. Each cell is referenced using the column
label followed by the row label. The active cell is H9. A group of many worksheets make up a
workbook.

Fig. 2.1: A Worksheet

Database
Database is a collection of related data items organized so as to provide a consistent and controlled
access to items. Most spreadsheets have database functionality such as filtering and sorting data.

If the data values for the same entity (related values) are entered on the same row, they form a
record. Hence a worksheet can be manipulated to some extent as a database that has data records
entered in it. Figure 2.2 shows a worksheet having some records

22
Fig. 2.2: A spreadsheet with records

NB: A spreadsheet file is structured in such a way that it can be visualised as a table of records.
That is why such a 'file can be imported into a database program as will be discusses later in
databases.
Graphs
A graph is a pictorial representation of the base data on a worksheet. Most spreadsheets refer to
graphs as charts. A chart enables the user to present complex data elements from a worksheet in a
simple easy to understand format. Examples of charts are pie charts, line charts and bar charts. As
shall be discussed later, it is easy to generate charts when working with a spreadsheet program.
Figure 2.3 shows an example of a column chart.

90
80
70
60
50 East
40 West
30 North
20
10
0
1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr

2.3 Application areas of a spreadsheet

Statistical analysis
Spreadsheets provide a set of data analysis tools that can be used to perform simple analysis such as
computing mean, mode and standard deviation as well as complex statistical analysis.

Accounting
Many accountants find the spreadsheet a useful tool to use in recording daily transactions and
keeping of financial records. Spreadsheets provide a user friendly environment for financial
management and they come with inbuilt functions that make accounting tasks easier. For example,
the spreadsheet can be used by accountants to do the following:
1. To track the value of assets over time (depreciation and appreciation)
2. To calculate profits
3. To prepare budgets
Other formula like sum, average, product etc. enables the accountant to carry out his daily work
without any problem.

23
Mathematical and scientific analysis
Spreadsheets are used to solve complex scientific and mathematical problems such as arithmetic
and trigonometric problems.

Forecasting
It is an important function used for prediction economic trends, budgeting, stock portfolio analysis,
cost analysis and cash flow analysis. Most spreadsheets have a feature such as “What if” analysis
used to make financial predictions. For example a sales manager my want to find out whether
raising the cost of an item would result to increased profits.

The Microsoft Excel application window

The Microsoft Excel application window is made up of the following components:
Title bar: It has the title of the application and control buttons for minimising, maximising and
closing the application
The menu bar: It displays a list of menu options e.g. File, Edit, View etc. Clicking one of them
displays a menu that has commands which can be selected in order to manipulate data in the
spreadsheet. '
Tool bars: The most common of these are the standard and formatting toolbars. The most important
thing is to be able to identify each toolbar by its icons. The standard toolbar has shortcuts to some of
the most commonly used menu commands like print, copy, paste and save. The formatting toolbar
has shortcuts to the commonly used commands found on the format menu option
Formula bar: This is one of the most important components of the Microsoft Excel application
window. It enables the user to enter or edit a formula or data in a cell. You can identify the formula
bar because it has an equal sign (or fx). The name box to the left of the formula bar displays the
position of the cell in which data or a formula is being entered which is also called the current cell.
If the formula bar is not available, click on View menu then select Formula bars. A check mark
appears on the left of the selected item to show that it is now displayed on the screen.
Cell pointer: It marks the position of the current cell or the insertion point. It is special cursors that
is rectangular in shape and makes the current cell appear as if it has darker boundaries.
The Worksheet: Consists of cells, rows and columns. Data is entered here for manipulation.
Status bar: It shows the processing state of the application. For example, on its left is the word
Ready which shows that the spreadsheet is ready to receive user commands. '

Worksheet labels: These are usually of the format Sheet 1, Sheet 2 etc. A workbook may have
several sheets. It is also possible to rename the sheets by right clicking on the labels then choosing
rename command from the shortcut menu that appears. The active sheet (one being used) has its
label appearing lighter in colour than the rest. To move to a particular sheet in the workbook, simply
click its sheet label.

Vertical and horizontal scroll bars: Clicking the arrows at their ends moves the worksheet
vertically and horizontally on the screen respectively.

Worksheet layout
The worksheet has the following components:
Cells: An intersection between a row and a column.
Rows: Horizontal arrangement of cells.
Columns: Vertical arrangement of cells.
Range: Is a group of rectangular cells that can be selected and manipulated as a block.

24
Navigating the Microsoft Excel screen
1. Click cell D5. Notice that the cell pointer immediately moves to the cell and the name box reads
D 5. Typing on the keyboard now inserts entries in cell D5 as long as the pointer is still there.
2. Click letter A that heads the first column. Notice that the whole column is highlighted.
3. Double click cell EI0. Notice that the text cursor forms in the cell and you can now type
characters inside the cell. Also the status bar will now read enter which means that Microsoft Excel
expects you to enter a value in the cell.
4. Click the down arrow on the vertical scroll bar. The worksheet moves upwards on the screen. The
opposite happens when you click the up arrow on the vertical scroll bar.
5. Click the right button on the horizontal scroll bar. The worksheet moves to the left. The opposite
happens when you click the left button on the horizontal scroll bar.
6. Press the right arrow key on the keyboard. Notice that the cell pointer moves one column to the
right on the same row. This can also be done by pressing the Tab key once.
7. Press the left arrow key on the keyboard. Notice that the cell moves one column to the left on the
same row. Pressing gives the same results.
8. Press the up arrow key on the keyboard. Notice that the cell pointer moves one row up on the
same column.
9. Press the down arrow key on the keyboard. Notice that the cell pointer moves one row down on
the same column.
10. Press the end key. The status bar will display the message "END". If you press the right arrow
key, the cell pointer will move right to the last cell on the row. If the left up or down keys were to
be pressed instead, the cell pointer would move to the last cell to the left, top or bottom respectively.

11. Pressing Ctr1+Home moves the cell pointer to the first cell of the worksheet i.e. cell AI.

Creating a worksheet
At its simplest level, creating a worksheet consists of starting the spreadsheet program and entering
data in the cells of the current worksheet. , However, a person can decide to create a worksheet
either using the general format or from a specially preformatted spreadsheet document called a
template.

Using the general format

When a spreadsheet program is running it will present the user with a new blank screen of rows and
columns. The user can enter data in this worksheet and save it as a newly created worksheet. If this
is not available then click File menu option and select the new command. The dialog box shown in
Figure 2.8 will be displayed on the screen. On the General tab, double click the workbook icon.
Enter data in the new worksheet created.

Using a template
Click File menu option then new command. On the spreadsheets solutions tab, double click the
template that you wish to create.

NB: If the template was saved previously on the hard disk, it will open as a new worksheet with all
the preformatted features present allowing the user to enter some data. However, some templates
may require the original program installation disk in order to be able to use them because they may
not have been copied to the hard disk during program installation.

Editing a cell entry

Editing a cell means changing the contents of the cell. Before the contents in a cell can be changed,
the cell must be selected by making it the current cell.
25
To edit a cell entry proceeds as follows:
.1. Move the cell pointer to the cell you wish to edit.
2. Double click the formula bar for the text cursor to appear in the bar. The status bar
message changes to edit
3. Use the keyboard to delete and add contents to the formula bar then press enter key to apply.
Click the save button on the standard toolbar to save the edited changes.

A range is a rectangular arrangement of cells specified by the address of its top left and bottom
right cells, separated by a colon (:) eg Range AI:CI0.
Selecting multiple ranges
When using a mouse, you can select more than one range without removing the highlight from the
previous. To do this:
Hold down the Shift key or the Ctrl key while you click on the row header of the second range you
want to highlight. What happens? Do you notice the difference when holding down the shift and the
ctrl keys?
1. Shift key will cause all columns/rows between the selected and the newly clicked cell to be
highlighted.
2. Ctrl selects individually clicked cells or range.

Hiding rows/columns
You can hide some rows or columns in order to see some details, which do not fit, on the screen. To
do this:
1. Highlight the columns/rows you want to hide
2. Click format menu, point on row or column and click hide command.

Saving a worksheet
To save a worksheet, one has to save the workbook in which it belongs with a unique name on a
storage device like a hard disk. The procedure below can be used to save a workbook:

Retrieving a saved workbook

This means opening a workbook that was previously saved.
1. Click File menu option then the Open command. Notice that the Open command has three dots
(called ellipsis) indicating that a dialog box will open, as the user is required to provide additional
information. Alternatively just click the Open command on the standard toolbar. The open dialog
box appears on the screen.
2. Click the Look in drop down list arrow and select the drive or folder where the workbook was
saved. For example, if you saved in a diskette, insert it in the floppy drive then select 3 1/2-floppy
(A:). A list of folders and files in the drive will appear in the list box.
3. Double click the icon of the workbook you want and the worksheet will be displayed in the
Microsoft Excel window. Notice that the cell pointer is in the same cell it was in when the
worksheet was last Saved.
Closing a worksheet
Click File then Close command. This closes the worksheet but does not
Close the Excel spreadsheet program. Alternatively, click the; close button of the worksheet
window
Exiting from the spreadsheet
Click File then Exit command. This closes not only the worksheet but also the spreadsheet program
as well. Alternatively click the close button of the main application window.

26
Cell data types
There are four basic types of data used with spreadsheets:
1. Labels
2. Values,
3. Formulae
4. Functions.

Labels
Any text or alphanumeric characters entered in a cell are viewed as labels by the spreadsheet
program. Labels are used as row or column headings usually to describe the contents of the row or
column. For example, if a column will have names of people, the column header can be NAMES.
Sometimes, numbers can be formatted so that they can be used as labels. To achieve this add an
apostrophe just before the most significant digit in the number. For example, the number 1990 will
be treated as numeric. if typed in a cell but' 1990 will be treated as a label.
Labels are aligned to the left of the cell and cannot be manipulated mathematically.

Value
These are numbers that can be manipulated mathematically. They may include currency, date,
numbers (0-9), special symbols or text that can be manipulated mathematically by the spreadsheet.

Formulae
These are user designed mathematical expressions that create a relationship between cells and return
a value in a chosen cell. In Microsoft Excel, a formula must start with an equal sign. For example,
the formula =B3+D4 adds the contents ofB3 and D4 and returns the sum value in the current cell.

Excel formulae use cell addresses and the arithmetical operators like plus (+) for addition, minus (-)
for subtraction, asterisk (*) for multiplication and forward slash (I) for division.
Using cell addresses, also called referencing, enables Microsoft Excel to keep calculations accurate
and automatically recalculates results of a formula in case the value in a referenced cell is changed.
This is called automatic recalculation.

Functions
These are inbuilt predefined formulae that the user can quickly use instead of having to create a new
one each time a calculation has to be carried out Microsoft Excel has many of these formulae that
cover the most common types of calculations performed by spreadsheets. To add the contents of
cell B3 and D4 the sum function can be used as shown below:

= Sum (B3:D4)
NB: To display a formula in a cell you press CTRL + ~

Cell referencing
A cell reference identifies a cell or a range of cells on the worksheet and shows Microsoft Excel
where to look for the values or data needed to use in a formula. With references, you can use data
contained in different cells of a worksheet in one formula or use the value from one cell in several
different formulae.
By default, Microsoft Excel uses the A 1 cell referencing style. This means that a cell is identified
by its column label followed by the row number.
However, the RlCl referencing style can be used. In this case, the cell is referencing by its row
number followed by its column number. The table below gives a few examples of equivalent
referencing using both styles.

27
 A1 style R1C1 style
B2 R2C2
C10 R10C3
E20 R20C5

The RlCl style is useful when automating commonly repeated tasks using special recording
programs called Macros.

Relative referencing
When performing tasks that require cell referencing, you can use formulae whose cell references
keep on changing automatically depending on their position in the worksheet. This is called relative
cell referencing. A good example would be if you type the formula =Al+Bl in cell Cl. If the same
formula is copied to cell C2 the formula automatically changes to =A2+B2.

Absolute referencing
These are cell references that always refer to cells in a specific location
, of the worksheet even if they are copied from one cell to another. To make a formula absolute, add
a dollar sign before the letter and/or number,
such as $B$l0. In this case, both the column and row references are absolute. .

Referencing using labels and names

Labels of columns and rows on a worksheet can be used to refer to the cells that fall within those
columns and rows. It is possible to create a name that describes the cell or range then use it instead
of having to specify a range with actual cell references. Such a descriptive name in a formula can
make it readable and easier to understand its purpose. For example, the formula
=SUM(SecondQuarterProfits) might be easier to identify than =SUM(Al0C20). In this example, the
name SecondQuarterProfits represents the rangeAl0:20 on the worksheet. Names can also be used
to represent formulae or values that do not change (constants). For example, you can use the name
.Tariffs to represent the import tax amount (such as 7.0 percent) applied to imports.

To create a named range

To create a named range proceeds as follows: 1. Select the range to be named:
2. Click inside the name box to move the text cursor inside. Delete the Cell reference that is there
and type a name for the range.
3. Press Enter key to apply. Figure 2.13 shows a worksheet range called sales that has values used in
a formula to give the sum in cell C 11.
2.7 Basic functions and formulae
Formulae perform mathematical operations ranging from very simple arithmetic problems to
complex scientific, financial and mathematical analysis.

Statistical functions.
 Average: It returns the arithmetic mean of its arguments. Eg if cell A3,B3 and C3 contains 20, 50
and 80 respectively, =AVERAGE(A3:C3) returns 50.
 Count: Counts the number of cells that contain values within a range e.g.=COUNT(A3:C3) returns
 Max: It returns the largest within a range. e.g. =MAX(A3:C3) returns 80.
 Min: It returns the smallest within a range. e.g. =MIN(A3:C3) returns 20.
 Countif: Counts the number of cells within a specified range that meet the given condition or
criteria. e.g. suppose A10:E10 contains eggs, beans, beans, eggs, eggs,
=COUNTIF(AI0:EI0, "Eggs") will return 3.
 Mode: It returns the most frequently occurring value in a range.

28
 Rank: Returns the position or rank of a number in a list by comparing its size relative to the others.
For example if A1 to A6 contains numbers 7, 6, 4, 8, 1 and 2 then =RANK (A2, $A$l:$A$6,1)
returns 4 (ascending) while =RANK (A2, $A$I:$A$6,0) returns 3 (descending).
The general format is =RANK (number to be ranked, range, order).

Logical functions
Logical function is an expression that returns true or false from the list of arguments. They include
IF, AND, OR and NOT.
1. If: It returns a specified value if a condition is evaluated and found to be true and another
value if it is false. If (marks > 50, "pass", "fail") will display a pass if values are more than
50 else it will display fail.
2. AND: returns true if all its arguments are true or false and if any argument is false.
AND(3+2=5, 2+2=4) returns true.
3. OR: returns true if any of its argument is true, or false if both arguments are false.
Eg. OR(3+2=7, 2+2=4) returns true.
4. Not: negates the urinary operand. Eg. NOT(3+2=5) returns false.
2. Mathematical functions
1. Sum( ): adds values in a range of cells as specified and returns the result in the specified
cell. e.g Sum (AI0:EI0) adds values in the range
2. Product( ): multiplies values in a range of cells and returns the result in the specified cell.
For example if A10 has 30 and BI0 has 20, =PRODUCT(A10:B10) returns 600.
3. Sumif( ): It adds values in the cells specified by a given condition or criteria. e.g. For
example if AI0 to El0 contains values 10,50,60, 30, 70, to sum all values greater than 50 =
Sumif(AI0:EI0, ">50"). This returns 130.
4. Round ( ): rounds a number to specified number of decimal places. Zero rounds of the
number to the nearest integer, eg. =ROUND(49.769,1) returns 49.8 while
=ROUND(49.769,0) returns 50.
5. ABS( ): returns the absolute value of a number eg ABS(-8) returns 8.

Arithmetic formulae - using operators

Operator Function

+ (plus) adds values as specified

- (minus) . subtracts values as specified
* (multiplication) multiplies values
/ (division) divides values.
( ) parenthesis encloses arguments to be calculated first.

For a formula =(Al +C3)/E20, if the value in E20 is not zero, the result is displayed in the current
cell.

Order of execution
If several. Operators are used in a single formula; Microsoft Excel performs the operations in the
order shown in Table 2.3. Formulas with operators that have same precedence i.e. if a formula
contains both a multiplication and division operator are evaluated from left to right. Enclosing part
of the formula to be calculated in parentheses or brackets makes that part to be calculated first.

29
Operator Name Precedence
1. - Negation as in -1 1
2.% Percent 2
2. 1\ Exponentiation 3
3. * and / ! Multiplication and division 4
4. + and - Addition and subtraction 5
6. =,<>,>,<,<=,>= Relational 6

Table 2.3: Operators' order of execution

Editing a worksheet
Coping and moving data
Spreadsheet software automates many processes that could have been tedious if done manually. For
example with Microsoft Excel, you can do calculations using formulae fairly easily as you give the
data and correct instructions to the program. Copying and moving of, data can also be done quickly
and efficiently. When data is cut or copied from the worksheet, it is temporarily held in a storage
location called the clipboard.
Copying data
To copy a cell or a range of cells:
1. Highlight the cells or range you want copied
2. Click the Edit menu then select Copy command.
3. Select the cell in which you want to place a copy of the information 4. From the Edit again, click
Paste command. The Paste command puts a copy from the clipboard on the specified location
Moving data
Unlike the Copy command where a duplicate copy is created, the Move command transfers the
contents of the original cell (s) to a new location.
To move a range of cells:
1. Highlight the range you want to move.
2. From the Edit menu, select Cut.
3. Specify the location you want to move the contents to.
4. From the Edit menu again, click Paste.

2.9 Worksheet formatting

Worksheet formatting refers to enhancing the appearance of the worksheet to make it more
attractive and appealing to the reader. Appropriate formatting should be used to lay emphasis, catch
attention and bring otherwise II hidden detail to the fore of the document.
The golden rule of formatting is to use simple clear formats. It essentially consists of changing text
colour and typeface (font), size, style and alignment. In Microsoft Excel, format the cells whether
empty or not and their contents will acquire the set format automatically.

To format a single cell, make it the current cell then format menu option and select the cells
command In the format cells dialog box, make the formatting specifications that you wish then click
the ok button to apply. If it is a range of cells, they must be highlighted first before formatting them
as a block of cells.
Formatting numbers
Number Meaning
General - general format cells have no specific number format.
Number - Used for general display of numbers e.g. 2345.23.
Currency - For displaying general monetary values e.g. $100, Ksh.10.
Accounting - Lines up the currency symbols and decimal poin s. Displays date in chosen format.
Date - Displays time in chosen format.
Percentage - Multiplies the value in a cell with 100 and display ' it as %.
Text - Formats cells to be treated as text even when numbers are entered.
30
Custom - For a number format not predefined in Microsoft Excel, select custom then define the
pattern.

Worksheet borders
You may need to put a printable border around your worksheet or in a range of cells to make it
more attractive and appealing.
Formatting rows and columns
Sometimes, the information entered in the spreadsheet may not fit neatly in the cell set with the
default height and width. It therefore becomes necessary to adjust the height of a row or the width
of a column. The standard width of a column in Microsoft Excel is 8.43 characters but can be
adjusted to any value between 0 and 255.

Changing column width

1. Move the mouse pointer to the right hand side line that separates the column headers i.e. for
instance the line between A and B.
2. Notice that the mouse pointer changes from a cross to a double arrow
3. Click the mouse button and hold it down so that you can now resize the width of the column by
dragging to the size you wish. After Dragging to the required point release the mouse button and the
Column will have a new size.

NB: Alternatively, move the cell pointer to one of the cells of the column then click Format, point
to Column then click Width command from the sidekick menu. Type a width in the dialog box that
resembles Figure 2.17 then click Ok.button to apply.
NB: To change the widths of several columns at the same time, highlight them first before
following this method.

Changing row height

1. Point to the line that separates two row numbers e.g. the line between 1 and 2. The mouse pointer
becomes a double arrow.
2. Drag the line until the height of the row is as required then stop and release the mouse button.
NB: Alternatively, click Format point to Row then click Height from the sidekick menu that
appears. Type the height that you wish in the dialog box that appears and then click OK button to
apply.

Inserting rows and columns

I, Click cell A5 to make it the current or active cell.
2.clik insert then columns to insert a 'row above cell A5 and shift all the other rows downward.
OR
Click insert then Columns to insert a column to the left of column A and shift all the others to the
right.

NB: Alternatively, click insert then cells to display the dialog box select the entire row or entire
column options to insert a row or column respectively.

Global worksheet formatting

The word global in this case refers to the entire worksheet. In order to format the whole worksheet
globally, it must be selected as a whole.
Two methods can be used to select a worksheet globally:
1. Click the top left comer of the worksheet that has a blank column header i.e. immediately on the
left of A and just above I,
OR
2. Press Ctrl+A on the keyboard.
31
Notice that the whole worksheet becomes highlighted. It can now be formatted as one big block
using format cells command.

Using autoformat
It allows the user to apply one of sixteen sets of formatting to & selected range on the worksheet.
This quickly creates tables that are easy to read and are attractive to the eye..
1. Select a range e.g. B 1 :G7 to make it active.
2. Click format then select the auto format command on the menu that Appears. Select a format
from the autoformat dialog box shown in Figure 2.19.
3. Click the ok button to apply the format to the selected range.

2.9 Data management

At times, it becomes necessary to use advanced data management tools to manage large ,data stored
on a 'worksheet. For example, if the worksheet has many records, it may become necessary to
arrange them in a particular order using a method called sorting for easier access to data items.
Other methods of data management include use of filters, total/subtotal function and forms.

Sorting
To carryout sorting proceed as follows:
1. Highlight the range that you wish to sort by clicking its column header letter.
2. Click Data then Sort . Notice that the Sort by field is already reading the field that you selected.
This field is called the criteria field.
3. Select the field to be used as the key for sorting and the sort order as either descending or
ascending then click OK button to apply.

Filtering data
Filtering is a quick and efficient method of finding and working with a subset of data in a list. A
filtered list will only display the rows that meet the condition or criteria you specify. Microsoft
Excel has two commands for filtering lists.
1. The auto filter: It uses simple criteria and includes filter by selection.
2. Advanced filter: It uses more complex criteria.

Autofilter
Filters can be applied to only one list on a worksheet at a time.
NB: Sometimes while looking through a list of values on a large worksheet, you may come to a
value of interest and want to see all other occurrences of the value in the spreadsheet. Simply click
the cell that has the value then click auto filter on the standard toolbar. Microsoft Excel turns on
AutoFilter and then filters- the list to show only the rows you want.

Subtotals function
Consider the following scenario: A company that has many salespersons will need to know how
much each of them should be paid at the end of a period by looking at individual sales volumes.
Also, the grand total for all the payments has to be calculated. Therefore, if the salespersons are
held in a list, there would be need to calculate the amount due to each of them. This can be called a
subtotal in the list. All the subtotals can then be added together to make the grand total. Consider
the following list:

32
Name Amount Owed
Stephen ` 6000
Joy 3000
Stephen 2000
Virginia 5000
Joy 800
Stephen 200
Virginia 5000

Microsoft Excel can automatically summarise the data by calculating subtotal and grand total values
of the list. To use automatic subtotals, the list must have labelled columns and must be sorted on the
columns for which you want subtotals. In this example, the list is first sorted by name
1. Click a cell in the list that will have subtotals e.g. cell A3.
2. On the Data menu click Subtotals 3. Notice that all the data range is now selected.
3. In each change in box, select Name from the drop down list because we want a subtotal for each
of the names.
4. In the Use function box select the sum function then select the list for which subtotals will be
inserted in the add subtotals box by checking the appropriate label. In this case it is the amount
owed field.
5. Click ok button to apply and the list will now have sub totals inserted
Totals function
Use theAutoCalculate feature in Microsoft Excel to automatically show the total of a selected range.
When cells are selected, Microsoft Excel displays the sum of the range on the status bar. Right
clicking this function displays other functions like Min, Max and Average that can also be used. To
find the total of a range, highlight it then click the autosum icon ∑ on the standard toolbar.

Forms
A form is a specially prepared template that the users can use to enter data in a worksheet. It is
specifically formatted to enable users to enter data in a format that is more convenient to them. If
data is collected on paper before entering in the computer, then a form can be created to have the
layout of the data on the paper to quicken data entry procedures. To display a form: Click 'Data,
then form.

2.10 Charts/graphs
Charts/graphs are graphics or pictures that represent values and their relationships. A chart helps the
reader to quickly see trends in data and to be able to compare and contrast aspects of data that
would otherwise have remained obscure. Microsoft Excel has both two-dimensional and 3-
dimensional charts that can be used instead of the raw data in the table that has to- be studied for a
long time to understand it.

The various types of charts available include column, bar, line. Pie, bubble and area charts among
others. Consider carefully the type of chart that would best represent the base data in the worksheet
before creating one. For example, if the aim is to depict the performance index of a student from
Form I-to 3, a line chart would be most appropriate because it clearly shows the trend in
performance.

Types of charts
1. Line chart - represents data as lines with markers at each data value in the x-y plane.
2. Column chart- represents data as a cluster of columns comparing values across categories. .
3. Bar chart - data values arranged horizontally as clustered bars. Compares values across
categories.
4. Pie chart - it displays the contribution of each value to a grand total.
5. Scatter chart - compares pairs of values on the same axis.
33
 To view types of charts, right click the chart object then select the chart type command.

Creating a chart
A chart must be based on values that are already entered in the worksheet.

Moving and resizing a chart

Once the chart is created, its size and location can be changed in the worksheet. The chart element
is enclosed inside a boundary called the chart area and hence both can be resized independently.
Simply click the object you wish to resize and use the object handles just like in objects to drag to
size. To move the chart, click inside the chart area then drag to the desired position.
Data ranges
A data range is a rectangular block of cells that provides the base data that is used to create the
chart. In charting, a data range is referenced as an absolute range e.g. .
=Sheetl !$B$2:$C$8 which means that the base data is found on Worksheet 1 and absolute range
B2:C8.
To see the data range of a chart, right click it then select the Source data command. .
Labels
Each representation of data on a chart can either be labelled by a value
or text label. For example, in a bar chart that compares the height of pupils, each bar can be given a
value label to make it more readable.

Headings and titles

Each chart must have a heading showing clearly what it represents. To I make the chart
understandable, include axis titles.

Legends
The legend is like a key that explains what each colour or pattern of the data representation in the
chart means. For example, Microsoft Excel may give red colour to one data value and green to the
other. Without a legend it would be difficult to know how to differentiate the two sets of values.

Printing worksheets
A worksheet will finally be printed for sharing with others or for filing purposes. If it contains
objects like charts, it may not fit on a standard printing page using the default printing options and
settings. Therefore, Microsoft Excel allows the user to preview and set up the pages of a' worksheet
in order to fit them on the hard copy page.

Print preview
It displays the worksheet from the point of view of the printer i.e. exactly the way it will look when
printed. Before using this command, make I sure the chart is deselected.
The print what options are:
(a) Selection - this prints the selected worksheet area.
(b) Workbook - prints all the worksheets in the workbook.
(c) Selected chart - prints the selected chart only.

Page orientation
As explained earlier, page orientation refers to the layout of the text on the page. A worksheet can
also be printed on either landscape or portrait depending on the number of columns across the
worksheet.

Pages and copies .

The number of copies box specifies how many copies of a particular worksheet or workbook should
be printed.
34
Sometimes only some specified pages in a workbook are specified for printing e.g. if a workbook
has 100 pages and you wish to print only pages 50 to 60 select the page(s) range button then type 50
and 60 in the from, to boxes respectively before clicking the OK button.

Printing
After selecting all the options, click the OK button to print.

Some common printing problems

A message appears on the screen saying that the printer specified could not be found in the
directory.

Possible problems and solutions

(a) The printer could be off. Switch it on and it will start printing.
(b) The data cable to the printer could be loose. Make sure it is firm at the ports.
(c) The wrong printer could have been selected. Select the right one in the print dialog box and send
the print job again.
(d) A message appears on the screen reading that there is paper jam. I

The printer is clogged with a paper jam. Alert the lab, technician or the Teacher to clear the paper
jam.

35
 EXERCISE
The following data was extracted from Applicants’ file of HITECH COMPUTER COLLEGE. Enter the
data as it appears in a spreadsheet.
A B C D E F G H I
1 NAME ADDRESS TOWN ENG KISW MATH MEAN POSITION REMARK
2 Wanjiku N. 400 Nairobi 40 60 60
3 Otieno D. 3201 Kisumu 55 50 40
4 Nyambane T. 5600 Kisii 70 60 50
5 Simiyu S. 1236 Bungoma 30 80 70
6 Chebet K. 48 Eldoret 75 70 80
7 Fatuma A 6032 Mombasa 40 30 50
8 Kamau J. 8021 Nyeri 50 40 55
9 Amoit C. 2 Busia 80 50 70

(a) (i) Insert two blank rows at the top of the worksheet. (1 mark)
(ii) Enter the following title and subtitle in the blank rows respectively; HITECH COMPUTER
COLLEGE and APPLICANTS FILE. (1 mark)
(iii)Centre the title and subtitle across the columns that contain data. (2 marks)
(b) Using functions, compute:
(i) the mean for each student and format it to zero decimal place. (3 marks)
(ii) the position of each student. (2 marks)
(iii)the highest score for each subject. (2 marks)
(c) The college wishes to analyze the applicants’ data in order to find those applicants who qualify for
admission to pursue a course in IT. Successful candidates MUST meet the following minimum
requirements;
 Must have scored a mean of 45 marks and above;
 Must have scored 60 marks and above in Mathematics;
 Must have scored 50 marks and above in either English or Kiswahili.

Enter an appropriate function in cell I4 and copy it to other cells to determine whether the student
qualifies for admission. If the student qualifies, the function should display ‘Successful’. Otherwise
it should display ‘Unsuccessful’. (7 marks)
=IF(AND(G4>=45, F4>=60, OR(D4>=50,E4>=50)), “SUCCESSFUL”, “UNSUCCESSFUL”)
(d) Create a function to find the number of applicants who are successful. (2 marks)
(e) Copy the entire worksheet to sheet 2 and rename it as Successful Applicants. (3 marks)

36
(f) Filter the ‘Successful Applicants’ sheet to display the records of those applicants who are successful.
(3 marks)
(g) The college wishes to send admission letters to the successful applicants. Using a Word processor, type
the following letter as it appears and save it as Admission letter1.
(8 marks)

(Type today’s date here)

<<NAME>>
<<ADDRESS>>
<<TOWN>>

Dear <<NAME>>,
RE: INVITATION TO PURSUE A COURSE IN IT
We are pleased to inform you that your application to pursue an IT course has been successful.

You are required to report on 2nd January 2010 at 8.00 am. Other details will be given to you on your
reporting day.

Yours faithfully,

Doglas Mayaka
CHIEF PRINCIPAL

(h) Merge the admission letter in (g) above with the ‘Successful Applicants’ Sheet you created in a
spreadsheet to generate personalized letters to the successful applicants. Save as Admission letter2.
(12 marks)
(i) Print: (4 marks)
I. Sheet1;
II. Successful Applicants Sheet;
III. Admission letter1;
IV. any one successful applicant’s admission letter in Admission letter2.

37
 DATABASES

Chapter outline
3.1 Introduction to databases
3.2 Database concepts
3.3 Data organization in a database
3.4 Creating a database using Microsoft Access
3.5 Editing a database
3.6 Form design
3. 7 searching for specific records in a database
3.8 Creating reports
3.9 Creating labels

Introduction to databases
We are often faced with the need to keep, search for or give a report of daily experiences. This is
the reason why many people use data storage methods like recording daily experiences in a diary.
Traditionally, human beings used to manage data and information manually by using simple
devices. However these methods have a number of weaknesses which include:
1. Unnecessary duplication of data
2. Boredom and time wasting especially when searching for a Particular item.
3. Misleading reports due to poor data entry and organisation
4. Poor update of records etc.

Today, computerized systems have radically changec4the way data and information is managed by
use of special programs called Database Management System (DBMS).

A database is a collection of structured and related data items organised so as to provide a

consistent and controlled access to the items.

Database concepts.
Computerised database creation and manipulation is achieved using Database Management System
software. This software facilitates the creation, organisation and maintenance of databases.
Examples of database management softwares include:
 Microsoft Access (Ms Access),
 Oracle,
 FoxPro,
 Dbase/V,
 Lotus Approach etc.
The functions of database management software are to:
1. Allow the user add or delete records.
2. Update or modify existing records.
3. Organise data for easy access, retrieval and manipulation of records.
4. Act as an interface between a database and other application programs.
5. Ensure security for the data in the database by safeguarding it against unauthorized access and
corruption (damage).
6. Keep statistics of data items in a database.
Database models
Databases are classified according to the method used to organise data. The main database models
are;
1. Flat file 2. Hierarchical
3. Network 4. Relational

38
 NB: Current database models are called object relational and object oriented databases. However
these models will not be discussed in details in this book.
Flat files
In a flat file model, a database holds only one set of data and is not any different from the manual
files. For example, the teacher's assessment report may consist of performance cards for every
student in a class. Another example of a flat file database are the cards used in a library books
catalogue. The cards are arranged sequentially for easy access e.g. alphabetically using books' titles
or by authors' names. Figure 3.1 below is a sample record of a flat file.
Name Serah Seki
Admission number 649
Total marks 680
Number of subjects 10
Average 68
Position 4
Fig. 3.1: Sample record in a flat file
Hierarchical model
In this model, data items are arranged in hierarchical (tree) form as shown in Figure 3.2. To access
level two data items, you have to first access level 1 data items. Level 1 item is called the root
component. A specific single path leads to each item at lower levels. Hierarchical model is rarely
used in modem database systems.

------------Level 1 (Root/ main data item)

Path

--------Level 2 (data item)

Fig. 3.2: Hierarchical database model

Network model
In this type of organisation, links are used to express the relationship between different data items,
forming a network of items as shown in Figure 3.3. Access to one item can be through multiple
paths and from any item. This model is also rarely used in modem database systems.

Canteen
Customers
Suppliers

Transactions

Fig 3.3: Network database model

Relational model
This is the most common type of model used on minicomputers and microcomputers. In this type of
organisation, related data items are stored together in structures called relations or tables.
Relationship can be created between tables such that a record or records from one table relates to
another or other records in another table. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 show customers and orders tables that

39
 are related by two fields; the customer number in Table 3.1 and customer ID in Table 3.2. In this
case, the orders table shows that one customer with number 450 (Bat Hori) has made several orders.

Customer Number Name Telephone number

900 Mary Koech 02078907
230 Peter Karimi 0667896
450 Bat Hori 04456000
Table 3.1: Customer number
Customer ID Order Number Date Amount (sh)
900 2380 2/3/2004 90 000
450 811 2/5/2004 5000
'- 450 234 . 3/5/2004 13 000
450 567 3/6/2004 13 000
Table 3.2: Customer ID
Object oriented models .!
The next generation of database model will look at records as objects that are independent and
relate with the other objects in the database. This concept is a bit difficult to conceptualise because
such databases are still at developmental stage. However, many databases today combine object and
relational concepts to come up with object relation models.
Features of a database management software
Most database software contains a collection of features that provides the user with a means to
manipulate data in a database. These features include Tables/files, Queries, Reports generators,
Form interface and a computer programming language within it. Microsoft Access database
software that will be considered in this book has two distinct features used to automate operations
namely Macros and Modules.

Tables/ file structure

This is a database structure that is used to hold related records. Tables are organised in rows and
columns with each row representing a record while each column represents common fields in each
record. Table 3.3 shows a table of six records and each record is made up of four fields.

FIRST NAME MIDDLE LAST NAME ADDRESS

NAME
MBUGUA STEPHEN KIMANI 250 KERUGOYA
ADERA NELSON ODUOR 396 HOMA BAY
MARGARET JUDY WEKESA . 761 NAIROBI
GATO PATRICIA MUILA 170 TALA
MWELU LUCY. MWENI 390 KANGUNDO .
KOECH PETER KORIR 605 KERICHO
Table 3.3: Table of six records and four fields

Queries and query language

A query is a database tool used to search for or question a database on specific records. Because a
query is a question posed to the database, it returns a result for the user. In Microsoft Access, this
result is called a dynaset. For example, assume you work with the National Irrigation Board (NIB),
you may wish to display all those farmers from Mwea Rice Irrigation Scheme who delivered rice in
January to the National Irrigation Board. You can use a query object or statements to get the
required records.
The query statements are written using a special language called
Structured Query Language (SQL). The user creates a, query by writing Structure query language
statements such as:

40
Select
Farmer Number, Name, Month of Delivery
From
Delivery Table
Where
Month of Delivery = "January"

Forms/screen input

A form is a graphical interface that resembles the ordinary paper forms used to collect data.
However, a database form enables the user to view and enter data into a table. Figure 3.4 shows a
sample form used for entering a student's marks scored in four subjects and. the date of admission.
Form interface is a more convenient and easy way of entering and viewing records from a table.

Reports
Most database systems provide the user with a tool for generating reports from an underlying table
or query. It is the report generator that provides the user with a means to specify the output layout
and what is to be output or printed on a report. Table 3.4 shows a sample report for employees'
salaries.

Net Pay Report

fay rol/no .Last.Name First Name. . .Basic salary PAYE Net salary.

07 Wangui Grace sh 80,000.00 Kshs 7,300.00 sh 72,700.00

09 Ochieng Mbenga sh 37,000.00 Kshs 3,800.00 sh 33,200.00
13 Mumbua Peter sh 22,000.00 Kshs 2,300.00 sh 19,700.00
20 Mbuvai Sicily sh 60,000.00 Kshs 5,700.00 sh 54,300.00
Table 3.4: Sample report

Macros
Some database software provides the user with a tool called a macro, that can be used to automate
frequently performed procedures or tasks. For example, if you frequently use a particular form
when you start a database program, you need to create a macro that automates the opening of the
form.

Programming module
When your database becomes more and more complex, you may need a more powerful tool than the
macros to automate your database operations further. Some database software come with their own
computer languages associated with them. For example Microsoft Access comes with a language
called Visual Basic included as a Module in the software. Using this feature, you can create a
program that will print a query result over and over again until a certain condition is true. This can
be illustrated using a simple statement like;

Print Student Report until NumberofStudents = 40 (Not a real command anyway).

NB: For the purpose of this book, only tables, forms, queries and reports, have been covered.

Data organisation in a database

One of the functions of a database system is to organise data for easy access, retrieval and
manipulation. Data is organised from the simplest fQfll1 called a field to a very complex structure
called a data,base.

41
Fields
A field is a character or a logical combination of characters that represent data item. For example,
in a class list, the student name is a field.

Records
This is a collection of related fields that represent a single entity. An example of a record is the
student report card that may contain the. student's name, admission number, class, total marks,
average and grade.

Files/tables
A file is a collection of related records. For example, the students' file in a school database contains
the details of all the students in the school.

Database
This is the highest in data organisation hierarchy that holds all related files 'or tables. For example, a
school database may contain students and staff tables/files.

Creating a database using Microsoft Access

Microsoft Access (Ms Access) is a package in Microsoft Office suite used for creating and
manipulating databases. Because there are different versions of Ms Access such as Ms Access
95/97/2000 and XP, a general approach for carrying out tasks has been adopted in this book.
However most of the illustrations are based on Access 2000 in order to maintain consistency.

Microsoft Access screen layout

Like the other applications discussed earlier, Ms Access application Window has a title bar, menu
bar, toolbars and status bar. However instead of having a work area like that ofMs Word or Excel,
it provides the user with an object window from which you choose the type of an objectto work with
such as tables, forms, reports e,tc. See Figure 3.7.

.Exiting from Microsoft Access

Because Microsoft Access consumes a large amount of computer memory it is advisable to exit
from the application at end of each working session.

Guideline on designing a good databases

To design a good database which will require little time to maintain, consider the following:
1. Carefully study the requirements of the user in order to define all the data inputs, outputs and
relationships required.
2. Design a draft database on the paper to determine the number of files or tables required.
3. Divide the information into separate fields, records and tables to allow flexibility in manipulating
the database. This process of dividing information into independent tables to avoid repetition of data
entries items is referred to as normalizing a database.
4. Define a field for each table that will be
used to identify each record uniquely. This field is referred to as a primary key
5. Give the most important fields the first priority when constructing a table structure. Important
fields are those that are used in sorting' and querying the database. "
6. Design data entry forms needed for the database

Creating a table/file structure

To define a table structure:
1. From the Microsoft Access objects window, click the tables tab then new

42
2. From New table dialog box, select Design View Figure 3.8 appears. :
3. using the grid displayed, enter a unique name for each field in the table. A field name must start
with a letter and can be up to a maximum of 64 characters including letters, numbers, spaces and
punctuation.
4. Choose the correct data type before adding the next field. By default, Ms Access inserts Text as a
data type. Figure 3.8 shows various data types used in Ms Access.
6. To save the table, click the Save button on the standard tool bar or save from the file menu.
7. Access will ask you whether you want to create a Primary Key, click Yes.

Description of field data types

The type of data to be used in a database must be clearly defined for the purpose of manipulation
and storage. For example, if a field is to be used for calculation, it must be defined as a number. The
data types allowed in Ms Access include:

Text
This type includes alphabetic letters, numbers, spaces and punctuation. Use this data type for fields
that do not need to be used for calculations such as names, places, identification numbers etc. This
type of field accommodates a maximum of 255 characters.

Number
These are fields made up of numeric numbers 0 to 9 that are to be manipulated mathematically.

Memo
This is a field made up of alphanumeric (both alphabetic and numeric) data. Instead of using Text
use this data type if you need to enter several paragraphs of text because it accommodates a
maximum of 32 000 characters.

Date/Time
Used to identify a field as either a date or time. This is because date/time values can be manipulated
mathematically in a database. For example, you can calculate the age of a person from the date of
birth to the current data.
Currency
Used to identify numeric values that have decimals or fractions. Use this data type especially when
dealing with monetary values such as fees balance, amount sold etc.

AutoNumber
This is a numeric value used if you wish Ms Access to automatically increment the values in a field.
For example when entering a list of forty students and you have a field labelled StudNumber, the
numbers will increase by one every time you enter a new record.

Yes/No
This is a logical field where an entry is either a yes or a no, true or a
false. For example a field may require you to answer whether you are a male or a female.

OLE Object
OLE stands for Object linking and Embedding. This type of field is mostly used with graphical user
interface applications for inserting graphical objects such as pictures, drawings charts etc. - - --

Field properties
As you create more and more complex tables, you will find a need to use the field properties to
specify finer details related to fields and the table entries expected. The field properties depend on

43
the type of-the field selected. For example when you click on a Text field then the General tab you
will see properties associated to text data type as shown in Figure 3.9. The various properties are:

Field size
This allows the user set the number of characters in a field instead of the default 50 for text fields
for numeric field’s integer and long integer, Byte, Single and Double.
Integer and longer integer: Accept numbers with no decimals.
Byte: Can only accept a number from 0-255.
Single and double: Accept numbers with decimals. Single accommodates up to 38 decimal places
while double, accommodates up to 308.

Format
Determines how information appears on the screen and when printed. For example, you can format
a number to scientific, currency, percentage or general format.

Decimal places
For number and currency fields you can specify the number of decimal places.
Input mask ,
Input mask automatically formats the field entry into a specified format. F or example, if you enter a
number such as 02000 I 00409874 and the input mask is set as 000-(00000)-000000, it is
automatically displayed as 020-(00100)-409874. This property is mostly used to format phone and
address entries.

Caption
This is a more descriptive name for a field to be used in a table or a form display. For example the
caption for StuName could be Student Name.

Default value ,
This is a value that will appear automatically in the datasheet or form if ' nothing is entered by the
user to change it. For example = Date -( ) automatically displays the current date in a date field.

Validation Rule
Logical expression restricts the values to be entered in a field. 'For example, if you want to restrict
marks entered in a field to values between
, zero and a hundred, type >=0 And <= 100.

Validation Text
The message that appears once the validation rule is violated. For example, you may create a
validation text for the above validation rule I to display "Enter a number between 0 and 100"
whenever the user enters I a value outside this range.

Required
Determines if an entry must be made in the field before you proceed to the next field or record. For
example, if a primary key is required, you must enter before you proceed.

Allow Zero Length

This allows the user to proceed without making any entry in the field set as Zero length.

Indexed
An Index, facilitates the organisation of records for easy search. A primary key is an example of an
index set to No duplicates to control double entry of a record (redundancy).

44
Primary key and Indexes
An index is a database feature used to speed up search and sort operations in a table. A key field
also referred to as a primary key is a special index that enforces uniqueness in a table so that one
record is not entered twice.
Ms Access uses the primary key to search for data stored in a table as well as define relationships
between tables. Once a field is set as primary key, its datasheet is automatically indexed or sorted
using the primary key.

Editing a database

Modifying the Datasheet view

To adjust the column size:
1. Point to the column border between the field's header then drag to the require size.
2. Alternatively, click on the format menu then point to column and click on width
3. Type the desired width
To adjust row height
1. Point to the border between two rows in the row header and then drag.
2. Alternatively, use format menu, then Row height.
To reorder fields:
1. Select the column of the field you wish to move by pointing to the desired file name.
2. Drag the column right or left to the top of the field where you want your field to appear and then
drop.

Modifying the table structure

Once you create a table, you may need to add more fields, remove some fields, reorder the fields or
change fields data types and properties. Before you modify the table it is important to save a copy to
avoid losing everything in case you make a mistake
To make a copy of your table:
1. From the file menu, click save as /export
2. From the dialog box that appears, choose whether to save to another (external) database or the
current.
3. Type a new name for your table and click OK.
To modify the original table:
1. Open the table in design view by clicking the button that looks like a pencil and a set square
placed on the edge of a ruler.
2. Select the field or fields to be modified and make the necessary changes.
3. Click the Save button to save the changes.
NB: If a table contains data and you make changes to the field data type, Ms Access may refuse to
implement the changes. To avoid this problem, exit without saving and delete all the records from
the table then return to the design view. You can then import a copy or copies of tables you backed
up.
To import a table from another database:
1. From the File menu, point to Get External Data then click Import
2. From the dialog box that appears, select the database you wish to
import data from then click the Import button. Objects dialog box is displayed as shown in Figure
3.12.
3. From the objects dialog box displayed, click the Tables tab
4. Select the table(s) you wish to import then click OK.

45
Form design
Tables display many records at once from the database and in some cases you may not be able to
see some fields properly. A form is an interface that enables the user to view and make data entries
into an underlying table more easily. Figure 3.13 shows a sample form used to enter records into a
books table.

In Microsoft Access, a form is designed using graphical objects called controls. A control is an
object such as a text box, check box, command button or shapes that you place on a form design
grid to display data or perform actions. There are two types of controls you can place on the grid:
bound and unbound controls. A bound control is one whose source of data is a field in a table or
query while unbound control is a control that is not connected to any data source.

Creating a form layout using form wizard

To create a form layout, you can either use the form wizard or start from scratch. Using the form
wizard you can create either a columnar, a tabular a datasheet or a justified form layout.
Columnar form: The fields for each record are displayed down a column i.e. each value displays on
a separate line with field labels to the left.
Tabular: Records are displayed from left to right across the page and labels appear at the top of
each column and each row represents a new record.
Datasheet: The form resembles a table datasheet view.
Justified: One record occupies the whole form.

To create a form using the form wizard:

1. Open the database for which the form is to be created e.g."EMPLOYEES"
2. Click the Form tab then, New. From the New form dialog box that appears, click Form Wizard.
3. Select the table you want to create a form for then New, A dialog box appears.
4. Click the name of the table or query that includes the data you want to add into the form, and then
click OK.
5. From the fields list window, select the fields to add into the form by clicking the> button or
click>> to add all fields then
6. From the layout dialog box, select the layout you wish to use e.g. Standard then. click Next.
7. In the Form title dialog box, type the name of the form then click Finish. Ms Access will
automatically display the form on the screen.

Creating a form using autoform wizard

You can easily create a form using the Autoform wizard. This wizard creates a form for you
automatically by asking you very minimal questions. The form includes all the fields from the
selected table.
To construct an autoform tabular.
1. Make sure your database is open
2. Click the Form tab, then New.
3. In the new form dialog box, select an auto form layout e.g. columnar
4. In the "Choose the table or query where the object data comes" select the table you wish to create
a form for then click OK. The form with all fields will be displayed.
5. Click the Save button to save the form.

Creating a form from scratch

1. Open your database
2. In the database window, click the Form tab then New
3. From the New form dialog box, select Design view

46
 4. In the "Choose the table or query where the-object data comes" select the table you wish to
create a form for then click The form with all fields will be displayed.
To add controls onto the grid:
1. Click the View menu, then. Field list command . The table you selected fields list is displayed.
2. Drag and drop each field and arrange them on the grid.
3. Save the form by clicking on the save button.

Data manipulating in a form

Adding and displaying records

The form provides the user with navigation buttons located at the bottom that can be used to
navigate the form
The functions of the buttons can be summarized from left to right as follows
1. Displays the first record in the table
2. Displays the previous record.
3. Displays the next record
4. Displays the last record.
5. Add a new record.

Formatting fields/controls in a form

To format fields in a form;
1. Open the form in design view
2. To resize, click the controls then position the pointer on the outline of the control then drag to the
required size.
3. To move, click the control and position the pointer onto the place holder or inside the control
then drag to the required location.

Searching for specific records in a database

One major reason for use of a computerised database is the ability to search and retrieve specific
information more efficiently. Rather than searching through endless filing cabinets, you simply
enter an instruction and let the database do the rest. To search for data in a database, Ms Access
provides the user with two search tools:
1. Find command 2. Queries'

Using the find command

With a large database, the Find command saves your time when you need to move a record pointer
to a particular record.
To search for a record:
1. From Edit menu, click Find. The find dialog box appears in which you specify the field you want to
search for in the" Find What" box as shown in Figure 3.16.
2. Type the name of field you wish to search for in the Find What text box. .
3. In the Search box (Figure 3.16), specify whether to:
( a) Search All
(b) Search Down to up or
(c) Search up to bottom
4. In the match box, you can select one of the match types:
(a) Any part of field - As long as a string of characters to be searched are present in a word, then all
the words having the string will
be searched e.g. "Berg" finds Berger, inselberg etc.
(b) Whole Field - Searches for the whole field for example, "Berg"
will not return Berger, inselberg but specifically berg if it is in the database.

47
(c) Start of Field - Specifies that, the searched word should start with the specified search string
e.g. "Berg"
5. In searching, you can also check or uncheck;
(a) Match case - Finds only text that has the same pattern of upper and lower case as the one
specified in the Find What box.
(b) Search Field As Formatted - Select (check) to find data based on its display format e.g. 'a date
stored asa number 1/5/98 but
displayed as 05-Jan-98
(c) Search Only Current Field:- Select to search through all records for the current field only.
6. After you set the search conditions click the Find First button.
7. If you want to search for the second record or other records with the same field, click Find
Next button.
You can use a wildcard e.g. asterisks (*) if you are not sure of the correct search word that will find
all records that match the specified search string. For example, if you wish to search for all names
that start with letter "J" in a school database, type J *. All names that start with J e.g. John, Jane Joy,
Joyce and James will be displayed.

Using Queries
Queries are the fastest way to search for information in a database. A query is a database feature
that enables the user to display specific records as well as perform calculations on fields from one or
multiple tables. You can analyse a table or tables by using either a select query or an action query.
However, only the select queries will be discussed in detail in this book

Select query
This is the most common type query used for searching and analysing data in one or more tables.
Select query lets the user specify the search criteria and the records that meet those criteria are
displayed in a dynaset

Action query
These are queries that are used to make changes to many records once. They are mostly used to
delete, update, add a group of records from one table to another or create a new table from another
table.

The four types of a action queries found in Microsoft Access are:

1. Update - Updates data in a table.
2. Append query - adds data in a table from one or more tables.
3. Make table Query - Creates a new table from a dynaset.
4. Delete Query - Deletes specified records from one or more tables.

Creating a select query

1. Ensure that the database you want to create a query for is open.
2. Click the Query tab, then New.
3. From the New query dialog box, choose either to create a query from in Design view or using a
Wizard.
4. To design from scratch, click Design View. The Show Table dialog box appears from which you
can add a table or tables you wish to create a query for as shown in Figure 3.17.
5. Click the table from the table/ query list and then click Add.'
6. Click Close to close the show table dialog box.
7. The query design grid opens. In Microsoft Access it is called Query By-Example. This lets the
user to design a query. Figure 3.18 is QBE grid for a table called Exam.

48
Parts of the query grid
Field row- Fields from a table or tables to be used are arranged in this row. Each field should
occupy its column.
Sort row - By clicking the down arrow in the sort cell, you can specify the sort order i.e. ascending,
descending or no sort.
Show row - By clicking the Show box, you specify whether to display the field in the query results:
When the box is not checked, the field will not be displayed.
Criteria row - This is where you type conditional statement that will be used by the query to display
specific records.
Or row - Used to specify an alternative condition e.g. if you want to display records with a field
called City with items Nairobi or Embu, type Nairobi in criteria cell and Embu in the Or cell.
To add fields into the query grid:
1. Open the query in design view
2. From the field list of the underlying table, drag each field and place it in the field row

Specifying the search criteria

In order to search for a particular set of records, you have to enter a conditional statement or
statements in the criteria row. For example if you have a table called employees with one of the
fields as salary, you can display all the employees earning more than Shs. 5,000, by typing >5000 in
the criteria row, salary column.

To define criteria, use either relational or logical operators. Relational operators include less than <,
greater than >, greater than or equal to (>=), less than or equal to <=), not equal to <> and equal to
(=). Logical operators include AND, OR and NOT.

Use AND to display values in a specific range. For example, to display records from the employees
table with salaries above 4000 but less than 6000, type, >4000 AND < 6000 on the criteria row in
the salary column. All the employees who meet this condition will be displayed.

Use OR if you wish to get either one of two values. For example if you wish to get those employees
either in Nairobi OR Embu.

If you want to display data in a particular range use the word Between. For example, instead of
typing , >4000 AND < 6000, type Between 4000 And 6000.

If you want to list all records except those that you do not want to see use NOT. For example if you
type NOT 6000 in the salary column of the employees table, all employees records will be
displayed except. those with their salary as 6000.

To display records you are not sure of the field name but at least you can remember a few
characters, use LIKE and the wildcards. Wildcards are
special symbols mostly an asterisk and a question mark used in place of other characters. For
example, to display all names starting with "Sm" followed by any other character, type Like Sm?
Like */*/1993 lists records created in 1993 regardless of the day or month.

Saving and running the query

1. Click the Save button on the standard tool bar or save command from the file menu.
2. In the name box that appears, type in the name of the query then click OK.
3. To run the query in design view, click the Run button on the toolbar as shown in Figure 3.19 or
Run command from the Query menu.
4. You can view the results of your query any other time by selecting the query, then clicking the
Open button from the database window.
49
Sorting the dynaset To sort a dynaset:
1. In the sort row, click the down arrow that appears to specify the sort order i.e. ascending or
descending of the desired field.
2. Display the dynaset.

Modifying and updating a query

To delete fields from the query grid:
1. Open the desired Query in design view.
2. Select the field column you wish to delete
3. Choose Delete from the Edit menu.
4. Click the Save button to save the changes

To adjust the column size in a query

1. Open the desired query in design view.
2. Position the mouse pointer at the boundary that separates columns then drag it to the required
size. Alternatively, double click the boundary to auto fit cell content.
3. Click the Save button to save the changes
To modify a criteria statement 'select query,
1. Open the desired query in design view.
2. Modify the criteria statements as desired, 3. Click the Save button to save changes.
4. To test whether the changes have been effected, click the Run button to display the results of the
query.

Performing calculations in a query

Unlike tables, queries let the user perform mathematical calculations on numeric data. You can
perform calculations in a query by using the Total functions or by creating basic formulas
Creating basic formulae
To create a formula that calculates the total marks in an underlying table e.g. Exams table:
1. Open your query in design view
2. In an empty cell, preferably the immediate last field cell, type an expression that includes a field
name of your choice such as:
Total: [Math]) + [Physics] + [Chemistry]
3. You can then set the criteria, and other query options.
4. Save the query and run it. The results of the calculations will be displayed in the dynaset as
shown in Figure 3.21. However, this field is not added to the underlying table(s) because query
results must always be based on the most current data in the database.

Using Total functions .

With a query, you can analyze all records fields using the inbuilt functions such as Sum, Average,
Minimum and Maximum etc. To use the total functions:
1. Open your query in design view.
2. Click the Totals button on the query toolbar.
3. Select the field you want to analyze.
4. For each field to be analyzed, click its cell in the Total row, and then select any of the functions
Sum: Adds all the numerical data items.
Avg; Calculates the mean of all numeric data items in the field column.
Min: Returns the minimum value from the field column.
Max: Returns the maximum value from the field column.
Count: Returns the number of items field column.
5. Set criteria and other options then click run to preview the results
6. Save the query.
50
Printing a query:
1. Open the database window of the database containing the query you want to print
2. Click the query tab then the query you want to print.
3. From the file menu, click print Set the printing options then click the OK. Button.
Creating a select query from multiple tables
When you use fields from more than one table in a query, there should be a common link or
relationship between the tables. There are three type of relationships
1. One - to - One
2. One -to - Many
3. Many -to - Many

In a one -to - one relationship, for a particular field in one table (the main table), there is only one
matching record in the related table and vice versa.

In a one -to - many relationships, for a particular field in one table there are several matching
records in another table. This is the most common type of relationship. For example, a person may
make one order, or several orders. For this instance, there is only one record with that person's
details say in customers' table, yet there are several records related to the same person in the Orders
table.
In a many -to - many relationship, for particular records in one table there are several matching
records in the other table and vice versa. This is not very common.

Changing currency to KSHS.

51
Defining relationship between tables

Referential Integrity

Referential integrity is the concept of relationships between tables, based on the definition of a
primary key and a foreign key. The concept states that a row cannot exist in a table with a value (not
null) for a referencing column if an equal value does not exist in a referenced column.

Using referential integrity, you can specify columns within a referencing table that are foreign keys
for columns in some other referenced table. You must define referenced columns as either primary
key columns or unique columns.

Referential integrity is a reliable mechanism that prevents accidental database inconsistencies when
you perform inserts, merges, updates, and deletes.

Referential Integrity Terminology

We use the following terms to explain the referential integrity concept.

Term Definition
Parent The table referred to by a Child table. Also called the ‘referenced table’.
Table
Child A table in which the referential constraints are defined. Also called the
Table ‘referencing table’.
Parent A candidate key in the parent table.
Key
Primary With respect to referential integrity, a primary key is a parent table column set that
Key is referred to by a foreign key column set in a child table.
Foreign With respect to referential integrity, a foreign key is a child table column set that
Key refers to a primary key column set in a parent table.

Advantages of Referential Integrity

 Prevents the entry of duplicate data

 Prevents one table from pointing to a nonexistent field in another table.
 Guaranteed consistency between "partnered" tables
 Prevents the deletion of a record that contains a value referred to by a foreign key in another
table
 Prevents the addition of a record to a table that contains a foreign key unless there is a
primary key in the linked table

Creating reports
Reports are used to summarize and present information from a database. A good database software
should enable the user to generate database reports and print them for presentation and distribution.
This process is referred to as formal presentations. As with forms, a report layout is also designed
by placing controls on to the report layout grid.

Parts of a report layout in design view

Report Header-This contains unbound controls that displays title of the report.
52
Page Header - Contains heading or labels data items to be displayed in every column.
Detail - Holds bound controls that display data items for the table or query it was created from.
Page footer holds a control that is to be displayed on every page such as the page number and date.
For example =Now() displays the current date and time as set in the system clock.
Report footer - Used to display summary from a report such as the grand total for numerical data in
a particular field column.
Creating labels
A label is a sticker or piece of paper put on an item for the purpose of identification. Examples of
stickers are mailing labels, label on the floppy disk where you write your name etc. Using the report
label wizard, Microsoft Access lets you easily create labels of different sizes.

Printing the report and labels

Before you print a report or a label, you should first set the page options i.e. the margins, paper size
and orientation.
1. Open the database that contains the report you want to print.
2. Click the Report tab, select the report you want to print then click the Preview button.
3. From the File menu, click Print.
4. Set the printer options i.e. the printer type, print range and number of copies.
5. Click OK to print.

53
 DESKTOP PUBLISHING (DTP)

Chapter outline

4.1 Introduction.
4.2 Definition of desktop publishing.
4.3 Purpose of desktop publishing.
4.4 Types of desktop publishing software.
4.5 Designing a publication.
4.6 Manipulating text using the toolbox
4.7 Editing a publication.
4.8 Formatting a publication.
4.9 Printing a publication.

Introduction
Publishing is the process of producing publications like newspapers, cards, pamphlets, pictures,
calendars etc. that have special text and graphical layouts and designs.
Today the art of publishing has changed because of the advent of personal computers and smaller
printers that are able to print high quality text and graphics even in an office or at home.

Definition of desktop publishing (DTP)

Desktop publishing refers to the process of producing publications like cards, newspapers etc. by
designing their text and graphics layout and inserting, editing, formatting and printing of text and
graphical objects using special desktop publishing software installed on computers.
The term desktop means that all the publishing processes can now be done on a desk in the office or
at home using a personal computer. The difference between a desktop publisher and a word
processor is that desktop publisher software gives the user more tools and control of the page
layout, text manipulation and graphic design than a word processor.

Examples of desktop publishers include

 Adobe PageMaker,  Adobe InDesign
 CorelDraw,  QuarkXPress
 Microsoft Publisher  Serif PagePlus
 Ventura.  Apple Page 2

Purpose of desktop publishing software

Desktop Publishing programs are very popular in publishing because they give the person designing
publications (typesetter) a lot of control on:
Graphic design: Using desktop publishing software, a typesetter can create and edit very complex text
and graphical objects like pictures to the finest details. For example, the software provides the user with
rulers and ruler guides that can be used to place an object in exactly the correct position.
Page layout design: With a desktop publisher, the user can be able to design a page layout by setting
consistent picture and object locations, dividing a page in a number of columns and creating layers. A
layer can be viewed as the arrangement of objects on top of each other with the one on top being on the
first layer e.g. text can be on one layer while graphical objects on another. Therefore the text layer can
be manipulated separate from the graphical object layer like for example text moves separate from the
objects. Another good example is you can make the graphical object layer transparent in order to make
the text in a layer behind the object visible.
Printing: Because the main purpose of any desktop publisher is to produce publications, this cannot be
accomplished without printing. Desktop publishing software therefore helps the user prepare what is
referred to as an artwork in commercial circles for printing.

54
Advantages of DTPs over word processor

1. Every item on a page is contained in layered frame and can be edited and formatted independently.
2. Content can be contained in a single frame or threaded between several frames.
3. Frames not need flow in logical order. For example, content on page 1 may be continued on page 8.
4. Master pages are used to set common layout which may be repeated on several pages. eg. Logo,
page numbers, etc
5. Publication artwork can be produced in a form suitable for commercial printing eg. using digital or
off-set printers
6. Provide wide range of templates such as brochures, booklets, posters, business cards, etc.
7. Multiple stories from different authors can be handled with ease.
Types of desktop publishing software
There are two main types of desktop publishing software:
Graphical based: They are specifically developed to edit and format graphic objects like pictures.
Examples are Adobe Photoshop, Corel Draw, harvard graphic etc. This desktop publishers have
superior image handling capabilities like setting resolution, brightness, contrast, cropping and filling
images of all types with colour.

Layout based: These types of desktop publishers are specifically developed to create different page
layout designs for text and pictures eg. a newspaper. It is difficult to achieve such without a good layout
based DTP. Good examples of layout based desktop publishers are Adobe PageMaker and Microsoft
Publisher.

Types of publications
There are several types of publications that can be published namely:
Cards: These may be for weddings and other special occasions like graduations and for
congratulations.
Certificates: To show completion of courses and special events. These type of publications are very
sensitive because they must be designed to discourage any type of duplication or counterfeits.
Newspapers, magazines, pamphlets and newsletters: Have news targeting a group of people. They
may have many text and graphical layouts and designs.
Books: Are bulky publications with many pages bound together in the same publication.
Calendars: Apart from showing dates, they are used by companies to advertise their products hence
most of them have heavy catchy graphics.

PageMaker screen layout .

The PageMaker publication window is made up of the following layout components:

1. The pasteboard. 3. The toolbox. 5. Rulers

2. The printable area. 4. Master pages. 6. Control pallete.

The pasteboard
A pasteboard is a large blank area where you place text and graphical objects before arranging them
neatly on the printable work area enclosed with margins.

55
The printable area
It is the area that looks like a page surrounded by margins on the pasteboard. Any object or text that is
placed on the printable area will be printed by the printer.

Master pages icons

At the bottom of the publication window is a bar that holds icons representing each page in the
publication. These icons are called page thumbnails. To move to a page, just click its thumbnail. When
you click the master page thumbnail(s), the master page(s) are displayed. A master page is used to
design the general layout that needs to be applied in all other pages of the publication. (Figure 4.3)

Rulers
Each publication window can include horizontal and vertical rulers. They extend along the top and left
borders of the window. You can display rulers when you need them and hide them when you want more
room on the screen to view a publication. The rulers must be visible to help the user to manually create
ruler guides, which are nonprinting extensions of the ruler as well as measure an object size.

Control pallete
It is a shortcut toolbar mainly having text and paragraph formatting command icons.

The Toolbox.
This is a set of buttons that contains various tools you can use to create and manipulate your
publication. it has the following tools
NB: draw the tool box fig. 4.2 page 132

The function of each tool can be summarized as follows:

Purpose
Tool

Pointer Select, move, and resize text blocks and graphical

Objects
Text Type, select, and edit text.

Rotating Select and rotate objects.

Cropping Crop i.e. trim imported graphics

Line Draw straight lines in any direction

Constrained line Draw vertical or horizontal lines.
Rectangle Draw squares and rectangles.

Rectangle frame Create a rectangular placeholder for text and Graphics.

Ellipse Draw ellipses and circles

Ellipse frame Create a circular or oval place holders for text and graphics
Polygon Draw basic polygons such as triangles, pentagons, stars etc
Polygon frame Create polygonal place holders for text and graphics
Hand Scroll the page or to preview and test hyperlinks

56
Zoom Magnify or reduce the area of the page

57
 Setting up a publication using master pages
A master page is a page used in designing the general layout that is to be replicated in all the
other pages in a publication. Any content set on the left master page appears in all the other left
pages within the publication and vice versa. The master page is used for inserting headers,
footers and layout guides.

Facing pages
This is when the user is able to view two pages on the same window.

Sorting pages

Ms-Publisher enables the user to arrange the pages in a predefined manner.

Duplicate page

Creating an identical page similar to an existing one.

Layout guides and ruler guides

These are non-printing lines that are used to position objects accurately on a page in the
publication. They can be used on the master page or on specific pages.

i. Ruler guides
They are used to define the exact measurement of the positioning of an object or a text block.
They mark the boundaries of the object or text block that is to be inserted within the
publication.
ii. Layout guides
They include margin, column, row and baseline guides.
a. Margin guides
They are used to define the page margins or printable area of a publication. They appear
as blue dotted line and are found on top, bottom, left and right of a page.
b. Column guides
They are used to divide the page into two or more columns. They appear as vertical blue
dotted lines.
c. Row guides
They are used for dividing the page into various sections. They appear as horizontal blue
dotted lines.
d. Baseline guides
They are used to improve the accuracy of text and object placement in the publication.
They assist in the alignment of texts/objects. They appear as gold dotted lines.

58
 1. Margin guides

2. Column guides

3. Row guides

4. Baseline guides

5. Ruler guides

Selecting ruler measurement units

It is possible to set different measurements on both rulers. For example, you can set the vertical rule in
millimetres and the horizontal in inches. Therefore if you want to use common units, you must set each
ruler measurement independently.
To set the measurement units,
Ms Publisher 2007
1. Right click a ruler separately. A drop down list displays available measurement systems that is
inches, decimal, millimeters, picas and Ciceros.
2. Select the measurement system option you want to use.
Ms Publisher 2010
You can specify a default unit of measurement in Publisher, including inches, centimeters, picas,
points, or pixels. Click File > Options > Advanced. Under Display, next to Show measurement in units
of, select the unit of measurement you want to use.
Manipulating text using the toolbox

Manipulating text
A document can be created by typing text box or text frames that can be manipulated as objects. It is the
text frame that defines the space you want the text to occupy.
You can also create a text inside a shape. That becomes a text frame since the text is contained inside it.
Text frames do not change height or width as you add or remove text.

Manipulating graphical objects using the toolbox

The toolbox has several graphic drawing tools. For example, the polygon tool helps a person to draw
polygons and the ellipse tool is used for drawing circular objects. All these tools enable a person to
apply stroke and fill patterns. For more complex graphics, PageMaker allows a person to import pictures
from other applications and to place them in the publication.
A stroke refers to a line style applied around an object.
Fill refers to applying patterns applied to a text or object block such as shading. A fill can either be
based on a colour scheme, non-color scheme tint, pattern, texture, gradient and picture.
 Colour scheme: refers to a predefined set of harmonized colours available for the user to apply to
text or objects.
 Tint: Any colour mixed with white.
 Gradient: Refer to gradual progression of colours and shades.

Editing a publication
The term edit means making changes to a publication. In most cases, editing would include the process
of correcting spelling mistakes, replacing words etc.

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You can search for specific occurrences of a word or group of words in your publication and make the
necessary changes. PageMaker comes with two special editing tools namely the Find and Change tool
and the Spelling tool.

Before editing the publication, you must open it in the story window. PageMaker defines each text
block as a story. Once text is in PageMaker, it is part of a story. A story is a text block that PageMaker
recognizes as a single unit. A story can be one letter or several hundred pages of text, and can be
contained in a single text object or threaded through many different ones.

Find and change tool

This editing tool helps a person to search for a particular word or a phrase and replace it with another
one.

Checking for spelling mistakes

The spelling and grammar checker helps a person to detect and remove spelling and grammar mistakes
in a publication.

Formatting a publication
This refers to applying special attributes to text, graphical objects and pages in order to make them
attractive and appealing to the eye. Therefore, formatting may include things like font sizing, bolding,
changing text colour, adjusting picture brightness and contrast and formatting columns on the page.

Text and paragraph formatting

To format your publication, you can either use commands available in the Type menu or a control
palette. The Control palette is a strip that contains command buttons and list boxes that let you assign
attributes to text and graphical objects:

Formatting text to superscript and subscript

Superscript refers to text that is positioned slightly higher than the rest on the same line e.g. the power
of 3 in 103 while subscript refers to text slightly below the same line such as the number 2 in H2O.
Drop cap

D rop cap refers to text formatting where the first character in a line is bigger and drops down to
occupy the space in the next lines as shown by the first letter D in this paragraph.

Paragraph formatting
The paragraph formatting features that are available include indentation, line spacing, line and
paragraph breaks, alignment, bullets and numbering and setting tabs.
Indents
Indents moves text inward from the right or left margin. Indent options include: flush left, hanging,
original, quotation, custom and firstling indent.
Tabs
Tab stop position text at specified position.
Line and paragraph breaks
This is used to control how text flows when text blocks in two or more text boxes are combined.

Formatting a text box

A text box can be added features to improve its appearance. These formatting features include borders,
alignment on page, changing text box margin, sizing, adding columns, linking text boxes.
Linking text boxes
Text that does not fit within a text box is known as an overflow. The text remains hidden until it can be
placed into a new text box or until the text box being overflowed is resized to include it. Linking of the

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text boxes is done to enable text to overflow from one text block to another so that all text can be
visible.

Changing the text box margins

When text is wrapped around an object, it is possible to change how close or far away the text should be
using the text box formatting option.

Page formatting
This refers to formatting the whole page and may include things like column guides.

Columns guides
Column guides helps you divide the pages into columns that make the publication look more organized.
The idea is to divide a large page into short readable sentence sections. Imagine if a newspaper page
was not divided into columns! Therefore columns are mostly used in designing large publications,
newspapers and journals. The difference between column guides and margin guides is that margin
guides are around the edges of the printable page while column guides may split the page at the center.
Moving and locking columns
You can move the column guides by dragging them. The two lines forming the gutter between columns
move in pairs and the space between the two lines remains consistent. Text and graphics already on the
page are not affected when you drag column guides. Once you have set up your columns, you can lock
them in place to prevent accidental moving.

Page numbering
To print page numbers in a publication, you must set the page numbers in the master pages. You do this
by adding a page-number marker (a special character) that keeps track of the page order in the
publication and ensures that each page is numbered correctly at all times.

To add page-number markers to master pages:

I. Click the master page(s) icon
2. Click where you want the page number to be placed.
3. Press Ctrl + AIt +P. Page-number markers appear as RM (right master) or LM (left master) on the
master pages but actual page numbers are displayed on each page of your document.

Rearranging pages
In PageMaker, you can change the order of your pages by rearranging page thumbnails (icons at the
bottom of the window that represent pages). Changing the order of pages does not affect the text objects
in your publication even though they may have moved to different pages.

Inserting page and column breaks

Sometimes you may want certain text or paragraphs such as a new chapter to start at the top of a column
or page regardless of editing or reformatting elsewhere in the document.

Adding headers and footers to a publication

A header refers to a line of text such as a page number, date, or a company name usually printed on the
top margin of each page in a large document.

A footer on the other hand is a line of text printed in the bottom margin.
Tracking and Kerning

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Tracking refers to changing the visual denseness or openness of characters in a line ie, changing the
spacing between all text characters by either reducing or increasing the spaces.
Five tracks options: No Track, Very Loose, Loose, Normal, Tight or Very Tight.

Kerning is fixing particular pairs of letters that are too close or too far apart from each other such as To,
Ta, We, we, Wo, etc.

Measurements
Using rulers to measure objects
When using Page Maker, you can be able to design page layouts and graphics that are exact in
measurement as specified using the horizontal and vertical rulers. The idea is to drag ruler guides to
mark an area of the screen where you want to insert graphics or text that can fit in the guides.
For example, to draw a rectangle of 5cm by 5cm, set the rulers to measure in millimeters then drag and
place ruler guides from the horizontal and vertical rulers to create a 5 x 5cm region on the screen.
Finally, select the polygon tool and drag a polygon that fits exactly inside the marked region.

Formatting graphical objects

Graphics can either be Autoshape, WordArt, Pictures and design gallery objects.
Using the DTP tools and formatting effects, you can create very complex graphical objects.
Changing fill and stroke of graphics

Reshaping objects
To apply rounded corners to rectangles and squares:
Reshaping a polygon
Once you draw a polygon, you can change it from the default rectangle or square to triangles,
pentagons, hexagons and even a star.

Wrapping text around a graphical object

One of the best ways to enhance a publications visual impact is to wrap text around graphical objects.
Wrapping determines how text behaves around an object. For example, you can select a wrap that
makes text to surround an object without displacing it.
Wrap options in DTP include: top and bottom, through, square and tight.

Importing graphics
You can import a graphic or text directly from another file or application by using a process called
placing in PageMaker and inserting a picture in publisher. In most cases, graphic files will be created in
graphical based desktop publishers or picture editing software then imported into DTP. PageMaker has
a very powerful object import engine that can be activated by the Place command.

Grouping and ungrouping objects

Grouping refers to combining blocks of text or object to one large object. It helps the user when creating
a complex publication with many items.
You can group several objects into one, especially if you want to format, resize or move them as a
single entity.

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Locking objects
You can lock individual objects in place in order to help preserve the design of your pages through all
stages of production. You can change the attributes of a locked object, provided the change does not
affect the object's size or position. For example, you can change a colour or fill applied to a locked
object, but not its degree of rotation or its skewing angle.
Rotating an object
It is the process of flipping an object at a certain degree.
The process of rotating an object falls under a group of operations called transformations because
rotation changes the angular placing of an object.
Transforming operations include skewing, rotating and reflecting objects. However, this book limits
itself to rotating objects.

Cropping an object
It refers to trimming the unwanted edges of a picture frame. When you import a graphic from another
program or publication, you can cut off unwanted parts of the graphic starting from the edges that you
do not want to print by the crop place holders.

Printing a publication
Because. the main purpose of any desktop publisher is to produce publications, it is impossible to do so
without printing. The choice of a printer depends on the quality of hardcopy desired.

Print preview
This gives the user chance to see how the document will appear on the hardcopy. One can correct any
error that might be identified on the preview before making the final print out.

Revision questions 4.1

1. What is desktop publishing?
2. Why is a desktop publisher preferred in designing documents than a word processor.
3. Give three examples of desktop publishing software available in the market today.
4. You have been requested as the patron of journalism club to design for them a 5 page school
magazine. The magazine layout should display the school logo at the top of every page. Explain
how you would achieve this.
5. What are Master pages?
6. What is layering as used in DTP? Why is it a very useful feature in a desktop publisher.
7. Differentiate between the pasteboard and printable page.
8. Explain the importance of each tool on MS-Publisher’s toolbox.
9. What commands are used in place of portrait and landscape page orientation in MS-Publisher?
10. What are the three main purposes of a desktop publishing software?

Revision questions 4.1 - Answers

1. Desktop publishing refers to the process of producing publications like cards, newspapers etc. by
designing their text and graphics layout and inserting, editing, formatting and printing of text and
graphical objects using special desktop publishing software installed on computers.

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 2. Advantages of DTPs over word processor
 Every item on a page is contained in layered frame and can be edited and formatted
independently.
 Content can be contained in a single frame or threaded between several frames.
 Frames not need flow in logical order. For example, content on page 1 may be continued on
page 8.
 Master pages are used to set common layout which may be repeated on several pages. eg. Logo,
page numbers, etc
 Publication artwork can be produced in a form suitable for commercial printing eg. using digital
or off-set printers
 Provide wide range of templates such as brochures, booklets, posters, business cards, etc.
 Multiple stories from different authors can be handled with ease.
3. Examples of desktop publishers include

i. Adobe PageMaker,
ii. CorelDraw,
iii. Microsoft Publisher
iv. Ventura.
v. Adobe InDesign
vi. QuarkXPress
vii. Serif PagePlus
viii. Apple Page 2

4. By placing the logo at the top of the master page.

5. These are default pages in a publication used to define basic design elements such as headers and footers that
are to appear in every page or particular pages in a publication.
6. Layering is placing transparent layer on top of each other. Each page in a DTP is made up of at least one
layer.
7. Paste board is where the text and objects are placed for editing before they are transferred to printable area
while printable page refers to the

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8.
Purpose
Tool

Pointer Select, move, and resize text blocks and graphical

objects
Text Type, select, and edit text.

Rotating Select and rotate objects.

Cropping Crop i.e. trim imported graphics

Line Draw straight lines in any direction

Constrained Draw vertical or horizontal lines.
line
Rectangle Draw squares and rectangles.

Rectangle Create a rectangular placeholder for text and Graphics.

frame

Ellipse Draw ellipses and circles

Ellipse frame Create a circular or oval place holders for text and
graphics
Polygon Draw basic polygons such as triangles, pentagons, stars
etc
Polygon frame Create polygonal place holders for text and graphics
Hand Scroll the page or to preview and test hyperlinks
Zoom Magnify or reduce the area of the page
9. Portrait – Tall while Landscape – Wide.
10. Printing, laying out pages, manipulating graphics.

Revision questions 4.2

1. What are non-printing guides?
2. Give three nonprinting guides used in MS-Publisher.
3. Explain how you would create different columns on the same page.
4. What does the term gutter mean in relation to column setting?
5. Differentiate between margin guides and column guides.
6. Explain how you would lock column guides to avoid accidental moving from the current position.

Revision questions 4.2 – Answers

1. Non-printing guides are lines that help the user position text and graphical objects.
2. Margins, Ruler guides, Column guides.
3. Use layout menu to set number of columns then drag column guide to resize. Use column break to
create several columns.
4. Gutter is space left in addition to page margins to allow for binding. It is also used to refer to space
that separates columns.
5. Margin guides is used to define the printable area while column guide is used to separate columns
in a page.
6. To lock column, from view menu, click Lock Guides.
7.

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Revision questions 4.3
1. Explain how you would create text using
A) Text tool;
B) Text frame;
2. Explain how you would draw a hexagon.
3. What is a text frame? How would you convert a rectangular shape into a text frame so that
you can place text in it.
4. What is a Control Palette?
5. Explain how you would use a Control Palette to format;
A) Characters in a text;
B) Paragraphs;
6. Differentiate between the following:
A) Kerning and tracking;
B) Change case and drop cap;
C) Fill and stroke.

Revision questions 4.3 – Answers

1. Using text tool
To create a text block with the text tool:
1. Click the text tool from the toolbox. The pointer turns into an I-beam.
2. On an empty area of the page or pasteboard click or drag a rectangular area to define a text block
or frame. If you click without dragging, a text block the width of the column or page will be
created. It is the text frame that defines the space you want the text to occupy. The borders of a text
block remain invisible until you click the text with the pointer tool.
3. Type the text you want.

Using text frame

You can create text by using a frame tool or by converting any object you have created with the drawing
tools except a line into a frame. Text frames do not change height or width as you add or remove text.

To add text into a frame:

1. Draw a frame using any of the frame tools that defines the shape you want the text block to take.
Alternatively select a drawn shape, from Elements menu, point to Frame then click Change to
Frame.
2. Do one of the following:
(a) Click the text tool, click in the frame, and then type or paste text from the clipboard
(b) From the File menu click Place, double-click the file that contains the text you want to place in
the text frame. When the cursor becomes a loaded icon, click inside the text frame to place the text.
2. To create a hexagon,
 Selects a polygon you want to reshape.
 From element menu click polygon settings.
 In the polygon setting dialog box, enter number of sides (6).
 Click OK.
3. A text frame is a shape purposely used for creating text objects. To covert an object to a text frame,
from elements menu, point to frames then click change to frame.
4. Control palette is a strip that contains buttons and list boxes that lets the user easily manipulates a
publication.
5. (a) To format text makes sure that the text attribute button is pressed.
(b) To format a paragraph, ensure the paragraph attributes button is pressed.
6. (a) Kerning is fixing particular pairs of letters that are too close or too far apart from each
Other such as To, Ta, We, we, Wo, etc.
Tracking refers to changing the visual denseness or openness of characters in a line ie, changing
the spacing between all text characters by either reducing or increasing the spaces.

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 (b) Change case refers to changing text case from upper to lower while drop cap refers to making the
first character in a line bigger and drops down to occupy the space in the next lines.
© A fill refers to applying background pattern such as shading while stroke refers to a line style.

Revision questions 4.4

1. Give three methods that are used to transform an object.

2. Explain how you would rotate an object.
3. How would you lock an object din order to preserve your publication design?
4. Explain how you would import an object from another file using the Place command.
5. How would you group objects so that you can manipulate them as a unit?
6. What is text wrap? Give three ways you can wrap text on an object.
7. Define the term cropping.
8. Explain how you can rotate a triangle by 30 degrees.
9. What is object grouping?
10. Explain the concept of wrapping text around objects.
Revision questions 4.4 – Answers
1. Transformation: rotating, skewing, and reflecting.
2. To rotate an object with the rotating tool:
1. Select the object.
2. Select the Rotation tool from the toolbox. The pointer changes and becomes a Star bust.
3. Position the Starburst at a fixed point or around the centre of the object.
4. Drag the starburst away from the fixed point, in the direction you want to rotate the object. To
rotate an intervals of 45 degrees, press Shift as you drag clockwise or anticlockwise. The rotation
lever helps you control the amount of rotation. The farther you drag the starburst away from the
fixed point, the more control you'll have when you rotate the object.
5. When the object is in the desired position, release the mouse button.
3. To lock an object, select the object, from elements menu, select lock position.
4. To import an object, from file menu, click place, select the object file that contains the object you
wish to import then double click, position the loaded pointer where you want to place the object
then click.
5. To group objects, click each object while holding down shift key, from elements menu, click group.
6. Text wrap – controlling text flow over or around a graphical object.
Ways to wrap text on an object incude: top and bottom, through, square and tight.
7. Cropping – trimming or cutting off of unwanted edges of an object using a crop tool.
8. Select it then use the rotate tool to hold its place holders then rotate till the value becomes 30° in
the control pallete.
9. Combining objects in order to manipulate them as one.
10. Formatting an object to allow text to flow around it without displaying it.

Revision questions

1. Define the term artwork.

2. What is publishing? How is desktop publishing unique compared to word processing?
3. List any four application window layout components found in a typical desktop publisher.
4. Explain the function of each of the following tools;
A) Pointer
B) Text
C) Rectangle tool
D) Rotate
5. Explain the importance of master pages.
6. Differentiate between margins and column guides.
7. How can you calibrate rules to measure in millimeters?
8. Explain how you can draw a triangle of height 5 cm and base 6 cm.
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 9. Why do you need to lock margins or objects in a publication?
10. Explain terms font style and line stroke.
11. Explain how you can import a graphic into a publication.
12. To change the page orientation to wide, click _________ then _________ and select
_________ from the dialog box.
13. To fill a polygon, click _________then select _________and _________from the
_________dialog box.
14. Rotating means changing the _________of an object.
15. The _________tool is used to change the zoom settings of the application window.
16. _________means cutting off the unwanted edges of a graphic object.
17. The small black objects that appear around a selected graphic are called _________
18. Expert tracking means _________while kerning means _________
19. How can you change the bold face and font size of selected text at once?

Revision questions- Answers

1. It is a publication that is ready for printing.

2. The design and production of text and graphics layouts in mass.
3. Printable area, paste board, rulers and menu bar.
4. A). Selects text and graphic objects.
B). Inserts and selects text in the application.
C). Drawing rectangles.
D). Moves objects around a fixed focal point
5. Helps user set general layout options that apply to all pages in the publication.
6. Margins mark text areas on the page along the edges while column guides divide the page into
several fields
7. Right click a ruler then select millimetres.
8. Drag ruler guides on the screen to mark a rectangle area of 5cm x 6 cm on the screen. Draw a
rectangle in the guides. Select the rectangle and then click element followed by polygon setting
dialog box, select 3 sides then click OK.
9. To hold them in place in order to avoid losing the format.
10. Font style – the size, boldface, italics of font etc.
Line stroke – thickness of a line.
11. Click File then Place command. Browse for the file. Double click its icon. The mouse pointer
changes to become a loaded icon. Click anywhere on the pasteboard to place the graphic.
12. File – Document setup – Wide – Document setup.
13. Element – Fill and colour type – Fill and stroke dialog box.
14. Angular placement.
15. Zoom.
16. Cropping.
17. Place holders/handles.
18. Changing visual denseness by fixing space between a pair of characters.
Fixing particular pairs of letters that are too close or too far apart from each other.
19. Using available style.

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INTERNET AND E-MAIL

Chapter outline

5.1 Introduction.
5.2 Definition of the internet.
5.3 Development of the internet.
5.4 Importance of the internet.
5.5 Internet connectivity requirement.
5.6 Internet services.
5.7 Accessing the internet.
5.8 Electronic mail.
5.9 Accessing information on emerging issues.

Internet refers to the global interconnection of computer networks for the purpose of communication and
resource sharing. Because of its large size and great volume of information it passes through it, it is also
called information superhighway.
Intranet is an organization network that uses internet technology but is dedicated to the organization only.
Only the members of the organization can use the intranet.
Extranet is an organizational network that uses internet technology but also connects to other
organizations that are either suppliers or customers.
Fig. 5.1: Logical view of the internet

IMPORTANCE OF INTERNET
The internet has led to the emergence of an elite society called the information society. The importance of
internet can be seen through its contribution to:-
 Research activities
 News and information dissemination
 Leisure
 Communication
 Business transaction, etc
INTERNET CONNECTIVITY REQUIREMENT
1. Data terminal equipments (workstations)
These are devices used to process, host and transmit data on a network. Eg. Computer, mobile phones
and PDA’s)

2. Transmission media
These are physical or wireless pathways used to transmit data and information from one point to
another. Eg. Telephone lines, radiowaves, microwaves and setillite.

3. Telecommunication lines
Computer is connected to the outside world through a telephone line and has to dial a remote computer
on the net to establish connection for the data transfer.

4. Modem
It’s a special device that changes data from digital to analog so as to be transmitted on telephone lines
and on receiving end the data is changed from analog to digital for computer to understand.

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 5. Satellite transmission
Intercontinental transfer of data is achieved by having satellite base stations transmitting the data
through a wireless uplink channel to the satellite. The satellite then sends the data signal to the base
station on another continent where it is picked up and sent to the telephone exchanges for transfer to
the destination computer.

6. Wireless telecommunication
It is now possible to access internet using devices such as mobile phones, PDAs and notebook/laptops.
Global Systems for Mobile (GSM) provides wireless connectivity to mobile devices users known as
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS).

7. Internet service providers (ISPs)

They are companies that offer internet services to end users. Eg.
 Swiftkenya  Telkom jambonet
 African online  Safaricom
 Today’s online  OrangeKenya
 Wananchi online  Kenya Data Network (KDN)
 Interconnect  Airtel
 AccessKenya

8. Internet software
It helps facilitate access to internet. They include internet protocol, browser and E-mail software.

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 a. Internet protocol
To achieve communication between computers special software called internet protocol is needed.
A protocol is a set of rules that governs how two computers can send and receive data on the
network.
There are two types of protocols used with internet
i. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
It governs how data is transferred from one computer to another.

ii. Internet protocol (IP)

It determines the addressing system on the internet.

b. Browsers
It’s a program that lets the user surf or browse the internet. They include:-
 Internet Exploler  Google Chrome
 Mozilla Firefox  Microsoft Edge
 Netscape Navigator  Konqueror
 Opera  Flock
 Apple’s Safari  AOL Exp
 lorer

Mobile browsers
 Safari  UC Browser
 Android Browser  Opera Mini
 Chrome  Internet Explorer
c. E-mail software
It enables the user to compose, send and receive e-mails. They include:
 Yahoo Mail
 Gmail
 Microsoft Outlook Express
 Eudora
INTERNET SERVICES
(a) World Wide Web
WWW is viewed as a virtual space on the internet where information is made available. It is a set of
internet servers and computer systems that suppert specially formatted documents using a markup
language called Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML). This information is made available on:
i. Website
It is a group of related webpages or other resources located on a web server. The first page
on a website is called a home page.
ii. Web portals
They offer specialized services such as searching, e-mail, sports updates, financial, news
and links to selected websites.
iii. Blog
A website that contains personal information which can be easily be updated. Some blogs
acts as resume, diary and may be used for business, advocacy and campaign purposes.
iv. Multimedia
There are sites that contain photos, movies, music, web TV and internet radio. They are
meant for entertainment.
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(b) Electronic mail (E-mail) and fax
E-mail is a message transmitted over the internet. You can also use computer to send and
receive fax messages instead of using the ordinary fax machine.

(c) Instant messaging

It is a service that allows two or more people to communicate directly. One must register
with an instant messenger such as Yahoo! Messenger.

(d) Electronic commerce (E-commerce)

It is a business strategy where goods and services are sold over the internet. It can be done
through the E-mails, instant messaging among others.
Advantages
 One gets a variety of goods and services to choose from.
 Less physical movement is involved especially when one orders for goods via a broker
who physically delivers the goods.
 Goods and services can be bought at affordable prices
 Offers a wide market for commodities.
 Access to customers all over the world is not limited by space and time.
Disadvantages
 Goods purchased may differ with those delivered.
 Many times good may be ordered and either delivered or not at all.
 The ICT infrastructure must be strong to accommodate there transactions.
 People deal with each other without meeting physically hence there lacks of proper laws
that govern such businesses.

(e) Electronic learning(E-Learning)

This is learning through interaction through the internet. Eg. Open learning where learning
materials and lectures are made available online over the internet.

Advantages
 Enable students to access training conveniently.
 Students can register for studies in institutions across the world without leaving their
home country.
 Learners can study at their own pace.
 The E-learning software is interactive. E-learning engages students by providing
assignments which may come through a variety of media including animated video. The
assignments are marked promptly and results are relayed to the students efficiently.
 It help students to become confident in the content learned because the learning
materials can be accessed anytime.
Disadvantages
 Not all people appreciate the computer technology. Some may not know how to operate
a computer and may not be willing to learn.
 Many people are still fond of the traditional learning done through classroom teaching
and print media.
 Reduced social and cultural interaction amongst the students and teacher. This leads to
students not able to consult with one another and the teacher physically.
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 (f) Newsgroups
They are organized groups of internet users who wish to share ideas and interests.

(g) Searching
Search engines are specialized programs that help the user easily such for information on
the internet. Eg.
 Google
 Alter vista
 Excite
 Yahoo
 Bing
(h) Chatrooms
Users can discuss on the internet through real time typing and reading of replies in special
sites called chatrooms. Chatrooms are dedicated to certain topics eg; politics, music, general
topics, etc.
(i) Internet telephony
It is also called voice over internet protocol. Users can make voice calls over the internet at
cheaper rates.

(j) Electronic bulletin boards

This is the electronic form of a noticeboard found on the web. Users can read messages or
leave their own for others to read. eg; www.usenet.com

ACCESSING INTERNET SERVICES

Browsing the web
To browse also known as surfing is to explore or navigate from one website to another.
Uniform Resource Locator
It is the web address which connects the user to a particular website. URL has two basic parts:
 Protocol – standard used to connect to the resource eg. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http://) and
File Transfer Protocol(ftp://) . Eg. If you type http://www.google.co.ke, Google home page is
displayed
 Domain name – the name of the web server where the resource is located. Eg. www.google.co.ke
is a domain name.
Hyperlinks
They are elements in a website that connect a webpage to other pages in a website. They are links used to
navigate from one page to another.
Navigation toolbar
It consists of buttons used to navigate the web.
Back button Returns the browser to the immediate former web page
Next button Moves the browser to the next web page incase a person had clicked the back button
Stop button Used to stop loading the current web page
Refresh button Used to reload a web page after failing the current attempt.
Home button Takes the user to the first page (home page) of the default website.
Search button Enables a person to search for information on the website
Favorites Displays all the links bookmarked to be revised later
button
History button Displays the websites that were visited in the recent past

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Mail button Used to view and send e-mails
Print button Used to print web pages
Go button Used to load the website whose address is in the address bar.
Media Makes it easy for one to play music, video or multimedia files and listen to a favorite internet radio
station.
URL Address of the site to be visited.
Address box A text box for entering the address of a website to be visited.
Downloading
It is the process of acquiring files form the internet hosts and saving them locally on a storage medium like
the hard disk.
Uploading
It is the process of transferring information to the internet. It is the process of saving local files onto remote
hosts on the internet.
Sign In/login
To be able to use some services of the internet such as e-mails one has to get authentication. This is done
through signing-in or logging-in. it involves a username and a password. A password is a string of
characters which should contain at least six characters entered to login.
Sign up
It is a feature that enables one to create an e-mail account. Person is assigned a unique user name called ID
and a password.
Electronic mail (E-mail)
It refers to the sending and receiving of letters and documents on the internet. To create, receive and send
e-mails, a special program is required. Such programs include:
 Microsoft Outlook Express  Gmail
 Yahoo Mail  Eudora

E-mail facilities
i. Mails
a. Checking mails
It is used for accessing received e-mails. In order to check mails the user has to provide the e-
mail account by providing the correct user name and a password. In e-mail account, click the
inbox command to view a link of list of all received mails.

b. Composing a mail
Composing implies writing. Used for creating a new e-mail to send to recipient. A typical e-
mail compose window has three basic elements:-
 Header : The e-mail header is made up of the following:-
 Address of the recipients
 Subject: presents topic of the message.
 Attachment: files attached form other programs eg. Ms word
 Message: content of the e-mail.
 Signature: provides additional information about the sender such as full name, address
and telephone number.

E-mail address format

The e-mail address determines the destination of the e-mail sent. You can send one mail to
more than one person by typing the other addresses at Cc (Carbon Copy) and Bcc (blind
Carbon Copy).
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 Cc (Carbon Copy) indicates that a duplicate of the message has been sent to another
person.
Bcc (blind Carbon Copy) is sent to someone whose name and address is not visible to
other recipients.
A typical email address would look like this: [email protected]
- chemwex is the user name and is usually coined (created) by the user during e-mail
account registration.
- @ is the symbol for ‘at’ which separates the user name from the rest of the address.
- yahoo.com is the name of the host computer in the network. ie. the computer on
which the e-mail account is hosted.
- The period ‘.’ Is read as dot and is used to separate different parts of the e-mail
address.
- Com identifies the type of organization offering a particular service(s) and is called
the domain, meaning it is a commercial institution.
Other commonly used domain include:-
Domain Type
.edu Educational institution
.gov Government institution
.org Non-profit making organizations
.mil Military orgnizations
.co Commercial institutions
.net An institution or organization providing networking services
.ac An academic institution

NB. Sometimes a two letter extension is added after the domain name to show the country
where the site is located. Eg. [email protected]. .ke is a domain for country Kenya.
Example: below is an e-mail address. Name the parts labeled A,B,C,D
[email protected]
A B C D
A - user name
B - name of the host computer
C - institution domain
D - country domain

c. Send mail
This feature is used to dispatch the e-mails.
d. Forward mail
This feature allows one to pass on an e-mail that was in their inbox to other recipients after
opening it to other recipients.
ii. File attachment
E-mail software allows one to send text, pictures and videos among others as part of the e-mail.
iii. On-line meeting
Most e-mail systems eg yahoo mail and Gmail provide for online meeting where people who
are far away can chat virtually (practically). It is also available in social networking such as
www.facebook.com and www.hi5.com among others. Chatting is a fast and cheap way of
communicating and sending instant messages just like the text messages in mobile phones.

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 iv. Telephone messages
Using a computer system it is possible to send messages to mobile phone. Sites such as
www.sasanet.com and www.safaricom.com allow the sending of simple and short text to
mobile phones.
v. Contact management
Most mails programs allow the user to develop an address book which holds contacts
information like the email address of different people. This avoids the typographical error when
entering an e-mail address.
Advantages of e-mails over traditional mail
 It is possible to send a mail to many people at the same time.
 Are more secure
 Information of different forms (both visual and audio) can be sent as attachments
 It is relatively cheaper
 It is convenient; one can send and access them from anywhere in the world.
Disadvantages
 The initial set up cost is high
 Through email, viruses and worms are transmitted which can cause havoc on the computer system.
 Hackers and crackers easily interfere with people’s privacy.
 Only computer literate people are comfortable with use of e-mail.

EMERGING ISSUES

Some challenges brought about by the internet include:

1. Accessibility to dirty sites eg pornography by young hence affecting their morals. This has resulted
to premarital sex, drug and substance abuse.
This can be controlled by:-
 Having constant adult supervisor to ensure that children do not access inappropriate
information.
 Some browsers allow you to restrict the information children can access on the web.
 Use of filter programs the restrict access to certain web sites eg. CyberPatrol, Cybersitter and
Net Nanny.
2. Security and privacy
Illegal access to organization and individual information has been taking place in the internet. To
improve on security organization should install firewall and antispyware programs.
3. Spread of malicious software
This includes the viruses like Trojan horse and worm. This results to destruction of computer
programs and loss of data. It is necessary to install internet security programs and update them
regularly.

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DATA SECURITY AND CONTROLS

Chapter outline

6.1 Introduction and definition.

6.2 Security threats and control measures.
6.3 Computer crimes.
6.4 Detection and protection
6.5 Laws governing protection of information.

Data Security and Cotrol

Data security is the protection of data against threats that may lead to either loss of confidentiality,
integrity and data or illegal modification of information.
Data control refers to all possible measures taken to ensure protection of information data and enhancing
confidentiality of information.
Data security core principles.
1. Availability-Information must be available on demand. This means that any information system and
communication link used to access it must be efficient and functional. Information may be unavailable
due to the following;
 Power outages/power failure
 Hardware failure
 Unplanned upgrades or repairs
2. Integrity-Data should not be modified without owner’s authority. It is violated when a person
accidentally or with malicious intent erases or modifies a document.
3. Confidentiality-Sensitive data or information belonging to an organization or government should not
be accessed by or disclosed to unauthorized people.

Differences between private and confidential data

Private Data - is that which belongs to an individual and must not be accessed by or disclosed to or by
another person without direct permission from the owner.
Confidential Data-is data held by a group or organization about other people. It may be seen by many
unauthorized people but cannot be used for commercial gain or any other unofficial purpose without the
owners being informed.
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SECURITY THREATS AND CONTROL MEASURES
 Computer viruses
 Unauthorized access
 Computer errors and accidental erasures
 Theft
 Crashing of hard disk
 Power failure

1. COMPUTER VIRUSES

It is a destructive program designed with the intention of attacking and destroying computer files,
programs and the entire computer system
The virus may cause havoc on the computer system e.g. deleting data on storage devices or interfere
with proper functioning of the computer system.

Types of viruses
 Boot sector viruses-They destroy the booting information on storage devices
 File viruses-They attach themselves to computer files.
 Hoax-They come as an e-mail with attractive messages and launch themselves when e-mail is
opened.
 Trojan horse-they appear to perform necessary or useful functions but perform other
undesirable activities in the background.
 Worms-this is a malicious program that self-replicates hence clogs the system memory and
storage media.
 Backdoors/trapdoor-Maybe a Trojan or a worm that allows hidden access to a computer
system.

Features of a computer viruses

 They are sometimes given pleasant or ordinary names so that the user may not suspect a file
could be carrying a virus.
 They attach themselves to files or programs and install themselves on a computer without
permission when the files or programs are open.
 Once on a computer, they replicate (multiply) occupying large space in memory.
 Some amend files or operation of programs in a computer without permission.
 Some delete files or programs in a computer.

Sources of viruses
 Contact with contaminated secondary storage such as flash disk and diskettes.
 Update of software through a network. If software is installed through a network from one
computer to another, the viruses can easily be transferred.
 Pirated software, movies and music- This can also be viruses especially if they are copied from a
computer that is already infected.
 Attachments-some viruses also attach themselves to application programs when the programmer is
in the process of creating them. These application software are known as infected proprietary
software.
 The internet-if a computer is connected for internet then it is more vulnerable to viruses through
freeware, shareware and spyware.

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  Freeware are programs freely available on the net.
 Shareware are programs freely available on the net for some period of time as a trial version
 Spyware are malicious programs that attach themselves to an operating system to monitor the
user’s web surfing activity. They may appear as a prize notification pop-up window.
Symptoms of viruses
 Unfamiliar graphics appearing on the computer files.
 Unusual error messages frequently being displayed on screen for no reason.
 Computer programs taking too long to load or close.
 Available RAM memory decreases in size abnormally.
 Drive light turn on for non-referenced drive.
 Computer restarts and shuts down without being commanded.
 Programs duplicating themselves on the screen.
 Making services/resources to a computer unavailable e.g. keyboard and mouse can be disabled and
in some cases icon on desktop may disappear when one wants to create them.
Control measures against viruses.
 Install updated anti-virus software e.g. Kasperskey, NOD32, MacAfee, AVG etc.
 Scan any secondary devices for viruses before use.
 Avoid buying pirated software.
 Educate all computer users on the dangers of viruses and precautions to be taken against virus
infection
 Install a firewall which is a hardware or software that is installed on a computer to filter the
information coming through the internet or LAN
 Always backup important files or programs to avoid losing them.
 Scan any file or programs for virus before downloading them.
 Disable the computer drives if the computers are used by many people.

2. UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS

This refers to illegal access to or alteration of data and programs.

The intention of unauthorized access is to destroy the information or data.
Control measures against unauthorized access.
 Restricting access to the computer room by;
 Locking doors every time the computer room is not in use.
 Use of speech input device at the access point to ensure that only those whose voices
are recorded in the system have access.
 Use of cards that have unique key number to open the door.
 Employ security guards
 Enforce the weak access points-Access points within a room like the doors, windows, and the roof.
They can be enforced by ;
 Fitting burglar proofing devices at the door.
 Fitting metallic grills on the windows.
 Fitting a security alarm at the door.
 Use of burglar proofing material on the roofs e.g. concrete or hard materials.
 Encryption of data transmitted through a network.
This is converting data to a type that only the sender and receiver are able to understood.

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  Use of passwords: This is a group if characters, numbers or both that restrict access to a computer
or file. A good password should have at least 6 characters. It also has a combination of numbers,
letters that is alphanumeric. Symbols can also be included.
 Enforce data security: In a network the sharing of resources should be restricted. The different
levels of users should have their own passwords to ensure that the work of the administrator is not
executed by anybody.

3. COMPUTER ERRORS AND ACCIDENTS.

These are caused by an authorized user, who by mistake executes a command that causes a computer to
shutdown, delete data without saving, or hands over a confidential computer print out to unauthorized
persons.
Control measures
 Use of error recovery tools-Some OS such as Windows come with an error recovery tool that
automatically receives data that is unsaved. Always make sure the tool is activated.
 Backups-Always backup data periodically so just in case of any error the backup can be used.
 Use of unformatted utilities-This utility enables one to recover data and information from a
formatted computer or secondary storage device e.g. data scavenger.
 Use of recycle bin-Almost all file and folders saved in a computer are deleted and transferred to the
recycle bin. They can therefore be restored to their original location through the recycle bin.

4. THEFT.

The computer equipment including hardware and software may be stolen. In other cases, the important
parts of the computer such as the computer hard disk, processor and RAM are removed and taken
away. This stealing of important parts thereby causing damage to the main system is referred to as
vandalism.
Control measures against theft.
 Keeping backups in different locations to avoid losing data.
 To employ a security guard when the computer lab is not in use.
 Fitting security alarm at the door to detect anyone carrying away any computer parts.
 Building the computer lab in other building so that any illegal entry can be monitored.
 Locking the system unit with padlocks.
 Insure the hardware resources with a reputable insurance firm.
 Motivate workers so that they feel a sense of belonging in order to make them feel proud and
trusted custodians of the computer resources.

5. CRUSHING OF HARD DISK

This refers to permanent damage of the disk causing malfunctioning.

Control measures
 Install updated anti-virus.
 Frequently blow away dust to avoid dust accumulation.
 Shutdown the computer using the correct procedure always.
 Connect the computer to the UPS.

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6. POWER FAILURE
It results to loss or unsaved data and crushing of the hard disk.
Control measures
 Use of power backup called UPS.
 Always save your work frequently.
 Activate the auto save facilities available in the application programs.

COMPUTER CRIMES/CYBERTERRORISM
 Trespass  Sabotage
 Hacking  Eavesdropping
 Taping  Alteration
 Cracking  Industrial espionage
 Piracy  Surveillance
Trespass
Illegal physical entry to restricted places where computer hardware, software and backup are kept.
Tapping
This is gaining unauthorized access to info or data that is on its way from a host computer to the
destination computer. The data is intercepted using intelligent programs that spy on the operation of the
system. This happens when data is being sent over a network.
Piracy
This is a form of intellectual property theft which means illegal copying of software, information or data.
Software, information or data are protected by copyright and patent laws.
Control measures
 Enforce laws that protect the owners of data and info against piracy.
 Make software cheap enough to increase affordability.
 Use licenses and certificates to identify original software.
 Set installation passwords that delete illegal installation.
Hacking
Refers to gaining unauthorized access to a computer by breaking codes or passwords just for fun.
Cracking
This is the process of typing all character combinations likely to be used to access a system in order to
identify an access point in aid with an intention of committing fraud. The person usually has an idea on
how the system works and all the possible password characters that are authorized.
The person therefore tries all possible combinations until the weakness of the system is discovered and
then the cracker gains access
Sabotage
It refers to illegal destruction of data and information with the aim of crippling service delivery, or causing
great loss to an organization. It is usually done by disgruntled (dissatisfied) employees or competitors with
the intension of causing harm to an organization.
Eavesdropping
It refers to taping into communication channels to get information. Hackers mainly use eavesdropping to
access private or confidential data from internet users or from poorly secured information system.
Alteration
It is illegal modification of private and confidential data with an intention of making money and
misinforming the users. It compromises the integrity of data and information making it unreliable.
Industrial espionage
It involves spying on a competitor to get information that can be used to cripple the competitor.
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Surveillance (Monitoring)
Refers to monitoring use of computer system and networks using background software such as spyware or
cookies. Cookies are text files with small pieces of data, like a username and password, that are used to
identify your computer as you use a computer network. Specific cookies known as HTTP cookies are used
to identify specific users and improve your web browsing experience.
The information may be used to e.g. spread propaganda or sabotage.
Fraud
It is the use of computer system to create fake documents, hide information or cheat unsuspecting public
with intention of gaining money e.g. A mail sent to a person’s e-mail address congratulating on winning a
lottery that they have never participated or mobile phone subscribers sending phone text messages
congratulating them on winning prizes.

CONTROL MEASURES AGAINST UNATHORISED ACCESS [COMPUTER CRIMES]

Firewall.
A firewall is a device or software that filters the data or information exchanged between different networks
by enforcing the host networks access control capacity. The main aim of a firewall is to monitor and
control access to or from protected networks. People who do not have permission cannot access the
network and those within cannot access firewall restricted sites outside the network.
Data encryption.
Data on transit over a network faces many dangers of being trapped, listened to or copied to unauthorized
destinations. Such as data can be protected by mixing it up into a form that only the sender and receiver is
able to understand. This is by reconstructing the original message from the mix which is called encryption.
The message to be encrypted is called the plain text document. After encryption, using a particular order
called algorithm or key, the data is sent as ciphertext on the network. The recipient receives it and decrypts
it using a reverse algorithm to the one used during encryption called a decryption key, to get the original
plain text document. Therefore, without the decryption key, nobody can be able to reconstruct the initial
message.
Log files
These are system files that are installed in a computer system to maintain records of how the system is
being used. They keep a record of how the events on the use of computers and the resources of information
system. This is because each user is assigned a user name and a password or account.
The information system administrator can therefore easily track who accessed the system and what they
did on the system. This information can help to track people/monitor those who are likely to violate the
system`s security policies
Security patch
This is a piece of code that is added to software so as to enhance its security features eg firewall protection
against viruses, automatic security updates and an easy way to use interface. This provides protection
against hacking, cracking and alteration of data among others.
Audit trail
It is a thorough study done by information system experts to identify any loop hole that can be used to
illegally access the system.
Also done to try and recover lost information and detect illegal alterations, hacking and trespassing among
others.
Biometric security
It is a growing form of unauthorized control measure that takes the users attributes such as finger prints,
voice and facial recognition.
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Multi-level authentication policies
This is assigning users log on accounts, where a person is supposed to sign in using a user name and a
password in order to access programs and information.

Copyright and software protection laws

There are laws governing software protection even data and information in a country
They have the following provisions
1. Data should not be disclosed to other people without the owner`s permission
2. Data and information should be kept secured against loss of exposure
3. Data and information should not be kept longer than necessary
4. Data and information should be accurate and up to date
5. Data and information should be collected used and kept for specific purpose

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