UNIT-III

Wireless Technologies for IoT:

The Internet of Things (IoT) involves different kinds of continuously evolving
technology, allowing for many connectivity options for connected device manufacturers. Each of
these options has a range of advantages and disadvantages that must be weighed together. This
article will help you evaluate the best IoT wireless technology solution for your business.
What is Wireless Technology?
Wireless technology is a method of connection within an IoT system that includes sensors,
platforms, routers, applications, and other systems. Each option has trade-offs between power
consumption, bandwidth, and range. At a high level, there are standard wireless options like
cellular (3G, 4G, 5G) and WiFi, and there are long-range options like LoRaWAN and LPWAN.
Connected device companies should understand the basics of the top IoT technologies to
determine the best wireless technology option for their needs.
5 Types of IoT Wireless Technologies and Their Use Cases
Before we get into how to decide which wireless technology is right for your business, let’s look
at the main options available today. These will meet the requirements of most use cases.
1. Cellular
One of the best-known types of IoT wireless technology is cellular, particularly in the consumer
mobile market. Cellular networks provide reliable broadband communication that supports
everything from streaming applications to voice calls. Since cellular is so well established, it
offers very high bandwidth. Carriers offer Cat-M1 and NB-IoT, cellular options designed to
compete with novel LPWAN technologies.
Cellular works well in low power environments, especially with something like Cat-M1. And for
non-mobile applications where power isn't a factor, cellular is also an excellent choice. With
the introduction of 5G’s ultra-low latency, wireless can effectively support the needs of things
like time-sensitive industrial automation, real-time delivery of medical data, and public safety
surveillance video. It will be exciting to watch this unfold.
2. Bluetooth and BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy)
Another well-known wireless technology in consumer circles is Bluetooth. This wireless
personal area network (WPAN) is a short-range communication technology with optimization
for power consumption (Bluetooth Low Energy) positioned to support small-scale consumer IoT
applications.
Bluetooth and BLE are used for everything from fitness and medical wearables like smart
watches to smart home devices like home security systems, where data is communicated to
smartphones. They work quite effectively with very short-range communications.
3. WiFi
WiFi has played a critical role in providing high-throughput data transfer in homes and for
enterprises — it’s another well-known IoT wireless technology. It can be quite effective in the
right situations, though it has significant limitations with scalability, coverage, and high power
consumption. Due to newer enterprise security practices, IoT devices are discouraged from being
added to the same primary Wi-Fi networks as traditional employee computers or phones. In
Zipit's experience, this has led more OEMs to leverage other technologies like cellular to both
mitigate these security concerns as well as speed up deployment efforts.
The high energy requirements often make WiFi a poor solution for large networks with battery-
operated sensors, such as smart buildings and industrial use. Instead, it’s more effective with
devices like smart home appliances. The latest WiFi technology, WiFi 6, does offer improved

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bandwidth and speed, though it’s still behind other available options. And it carries security
risks that other options don’t.
4. LPWAN (Cat-M1/NB-IoT)
Low power wide area networks (LPWAN) provide long-range communication using small,
inexpensive batteries. This family of technologies is ideal for supporting large-scale IoT
networks where a significant range is required. However, LPWANs can only send small blocks
of data at a low rate.
LPWANs are ideally suited for use cases that don’t require time sensitivity or high bandwidth,
like a water meter for example. They can be quite effective for asset tracking in a manufacturing
facility, facility management, and environmental monitoring. Keep in mind that standardization
is important to ensure the network’s security, interoperability, and reliability. Although
newer LPWAN is gaining popularity.
5. LoRaWAN
LoRaWAN is a powerful and emerging technology. It’s similar to Bluetooth, but it offers a
longer range for small data packets with low power consumption. LoRaWAN manages the
communication frequencies, power, and data rate for all connected devices. So, LoRaWAN
sensors communicate to a cellular gateway to send data to the cloud. It does require a back-haul
transport, and partners like Zipit can provide the necessary cellular support.
The use cases for LoRaWAN are similar to those for LPWAN where there aren’t high bandwidth
requirements or time sensitivity for the transfer of data. But LoRaWAN differs in several ways.
It’s is a point-to-point wireless connection that does not have direct connection to the Internet,
whereas LPWAN is a direct-to-internet connection. LoRaWAN requires a gateway to packet
forward the data to the final destination in the cloud, and that gateway is typically a LoRa to
Cellular gateway.
Since the range is high for LoRaWAN, sensors can be widely deployed over a large area. These
sensors are simple and designed for small data packets that transmit infrequently, so it’s well-
suited for irrigation management, leak detection, logistics and transportation management, and
asset or equipment tracking. Keep your eyes on LoRaWAN as it continues to evolve.
 WPAN Technologies for IoT :
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for data transmission among
devices such as computers, telephones and personal digital assistants.
WPAN works much like a standard personal area network (PAN) except that it uses a
wireless communication medium instead of a wired connection. Typically, the devices in WPAN
include peripheral and hand-held devices such as PDAs, smart phones and tablet PCs. A
WPAN's range depends on the wireless router's capabilities, access point or the device itself, but
it is usually restricted to a house or small office. WPAN can be created using Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
infrared, Z-wave or any similar wireless technologies. In some cases, one of the Internet
enabled/powered devices acts as an access point and provides network and Internet access to
other devices.
A PAN (also known as a WPAN) is a network used for communication among intelligent
gadgets that are physically close to a person (including smartphones, tablets, body monitors, and
so on). PANs can be used to support wireless body area networks (WBANs) (also known as
wireless medical body area networks (WMBANs) and medical body area network systems
(MBANSs). Still, they can also be used to support other applications. Medical uses include vital
sign monitoring, respiration monitoring, electrocardiography (ECG), pH monitoring, glucose

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monitoring, disability assistance, muscular tension monitoring, and artificial limb support,
among others. WBANs’ nonmedical applications include video streaming, data transfer,
entertainment, and gaming.
A PAN’s range is usually a few meters. The gadgets in question are sometimes referred
to as short-range devices (SRDs). PANs can be used to communicate among personal devices
(intrapersonal communication) or to connect to a higher-level network, such as the Internet. The
following table highlights a rough comparison of three wireless technologies, highlighting the
features of BANs/WBANs. WBAN technology can, to varying degrees, meet the following
significant needs that the healthcare industry considers essential.
S.n Sr.No WBAN WSN Cellular Wireless
o. Networks
01. Traffic Application-specific Sporadic/cyclic, Multimedia, high
modest data rate data rate
02. Topology Dynamic Random, dynamic Few infrastructures
changes
03. Configuration/ Some flexibility Self-configurable, Managed by large
maintenance Specialists are needed unattended operation organizations/
carriers
04. Standardization Multiple (IEEE) Relatively little Multiple
standards especially international
standardization
at lower layers standards, ITU-T,
ETSI,
 Introduction of IEEE 802.15.4 Technology
IEEE 802.15.4 is a low-cost, low-data-rate wireless access technology for devices that are
operated or work on batteries. This describes how low-rate wireless personal area networks (LR-
WPANs) function.
Properties:
1. Standardization and alliances: It specifies low-data-rate PHY and MAC layer requirements
for wireless personal area networks (WPAN).
IEEE 802.15. Protocol Stacks include:
 ZigBee: ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with a low rate task group 4. It is a
technology of home networking. ZigBee is a technological standard created for controlling
and sensing the network. As we know that ZigBee is the Personal Area network of task group
4 so it is based on IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.
 6LoWPAN: The 6LoWPAN system is used for a variety of applications including wireless
sensor networks. This form of wireless sensor network sends data as packets and uses IPv6 –
providing the basis for the name – IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks.
 ZigBee IP: Zigbee is a standards-based wireless technology that was developed for low-cost
and low-power wireless machine-to-machine (M2M) and internet of things (IoT) networks.
 ISA100.11a: It is a mesh network that provides secure wireless communication to process
control.
 Wireless HART: It is also a wireless sensor network technology, that makes use of time-
synchronized and self-organizing architecture.
 Thread: Thread is an IPv6-based networking protocol for low-power Internet of Things
devices in IEEE 802.15. 4-2006 wireless mesh network. Thread is independent.

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2. Physical Layer: This standard enables a wide range of PHY options in ISM bands, ranging
from 2.4 GHz to sub-GHz frequencies. IEEE 802.15.4 enables data transmission speeds of 20
kilobits per second, 40 kilobits per second, 100 kilobits per second, and 250 kilobits per second.
The fundamental structure assumes a 10-meter range and a data rate of 250 kilobits per second.
To further reduce power usage, even lower data rates are possible. IEEE 802.15.4 regulates the
RF transceiver and channel selection, and even some energy and signal management features, at
the physical layer. Based on the frequency range and data performance needed, there are now six
PHYs specified. Four of them employ frequency hopping techniques known as Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum (DSSS). Both PHY data service and management service share a single packet
structure so that they can maintain a common simple interface with MAC.
3. MAC layer: The MAC layer provides links to the PHY channel by determining that devices
in the same region will share the assigned frequencies. The scheduling and routing of data
packets are also managed at this layer. The 802.15.4 MAC layer is responsible for a number of
functions like:
 Beaconing for devices that operate as controllers in a network.
 used to associate and dissociate PANs with the help of devices.
 The safety of the device.
 Consistent communication between two MAC devices that are in a peer-to-peer relationship.
Several established frame types are used by the MAC layer to accomplish these functions. In
802.15.4, there are four different types of MAC frames:
 frame of data
 Frame for a beacon
 Frame of acknowledgement
 Frame for MAC commands
4. Topology: Networks based on IEEE 802.15.4 can be developed in a star, peer-to-peer, or
mesh topology. Mesh networks connect a large number of nodes. This enables nodes that would
otherwise be out of range to interact with each other to use intermediate nodes to relay data.
5. Security: For data security, the IEEE 802.15.4 standard employs the Advanced Encryption
Standard (AES) with a 128-bit key length as the basic encryption technique. Activating such
security measures for 802.15.4 significantly alters the frame format and uses a few of the
payloads. The very first phase in activating AES encryption is to use the Security Enabled field
in the Frame Control part of the 802.15.4 header. For safety, this field is a single bit which is
assigned to 1. When this bit is set, by taking certain bytes from its Payload field, a field known as
the Auxiliary Security Header is formed following the Source Address field.
6. Competitive Technologies: The IEEE 802.15.4 PHY and MAC layers serve as a basis for a
variety of networking profiles that operate in different IoT access scenarios. DASH7 is a
competing radio technology with distinct PHY and MAC layers.
The architecture of LR-WPAN Device:

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IEEE 802.15.4
Advantages of IEEE 802.15.4:
IEEE 802.15.4 has the following advantages:
 cheap cost
 long battery life,
 Quick installation
 simple
 extensible protocol stack
Disadvantages of IEEE 802.15.4:
IEEE 802.15.4’s drawbacks include:
 IEEE 802.15.4 causes interference and multipath fading.
 doesn’t employ a frequency-hopping approach.
 unbounded latency
 interference susceptibility
Applications of IEEE 802.15.4:
IEEE 802.15.4 Applications:
 Wireless sensor networks in the industry
 Building and home automation
 Remote controllers and interacting toys
 Automotive networks.
Network Model
Node types
The standard defines two types of network node.
The first one is the full-function device (FFD). It can serve as the coordinator of a personal area
network just as it may function as a common node. It implements a general model of
communication which allows it to talk to any other device: it may also relay messages, in which
case it is dubbed a coordinator (PAN coordinator when it is in charge of the whole network).
On the other hand, there are reduced-function devices (RFD). These are meant to be extremely
simple devices with very modest resource and communication requirements; due to this, they can
only communicate with FFDs and can never act as coordinators.

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  Introduction of ZigBee
ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with low rate task group 4. It is a technology of
home networking. ZigBee is a technological standard created for controlling and sensing the
network. As we know that ZigBee is the Personal Area network of task group 4 so it is based on
IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.
ZigBee is a standard that addresses the need for very low-cost implementation of Low power
devices with Low data rates for short-range wireless communications.
Why another short-range communication standard??

Types of ZigBee Devices:

 Zigbee Coordinator Device: It communicates with routers. This device is used for
connecting the devices.
 Zigbee Router: It is used for passing the data between devices.
 Zigbee End Device: It is the device that is going to be controlled.

General Characteristics of Zigbee Standard:

 Low Power Consumption
 Low Data Rate (20- 250 kbps)
 Short-Range (75-100 meters)
 Network Join Time (~ 30 msec)
 Support Small and Large Networks (up to 65000 devices (Theory); 240 devices (Practically))
 Low Cost of Products and Cheap Implementation (Open Source Protocol)
 Extremely low duty cycle.
 3 frequency bands with 27 channels.
Operating Frequency Bands (Only one channel will be selected for use in a network):
1. Channel 0: 868 MHz (Europe)

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2. Channel 1-10: 915 MHz (the US and Australia)
3. Channel 11-26: 2.4 GHz (Across the World)
Zigbee Network Topologies:
 Star Topology (ZigBee Smart Energy): Consists of a coordinator and several end devices,
end devices communicate only with the coordinator.
 Mesh Topology (Self Healing Process): Mesh topology consists of one coordinator, several
routers, and end devices.
 Tree Topology: In this topology, the network consists of a central node which is a
coordinator, several routers, and end devices. the function of the router is to extend the
network coverage.
Architecture of Zigbee:
Zigbee architecture is a combination of 6 layers.
1. Application Layer
2. Application Interface Layer
3. Security Layer
4. Network Layer
5. Medium Access Control Layer
6. Physical Layer

Physical layer: The lowest two layers i.e the physical and the MAC (Medium Access
Control) Layer are defined by the IEEE 802.15.4 specifications. The Physical layer is closest
to the hardware and directly controls and communicates with the Zigbee radio. The physical
layer translates the data packets in the over-the-air bits for transmission and vice-versa during
the reception.
 Medium Access Control layer (MAC layer): The layer is responsible for the interface
between the physical and network layer. The MAC layer is also responsible for providing
PAN ID and also network discovery through beacon requests.
 Network layer: This layer acts as an interface between the MAC layer and the application
layer. It is responsible for mesh networking.

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 Application layer: The application layer in the Zigbee stack is the highest protocol layer and
it consists of the application support sub-layer and Zigbee device object. It contains
manufacturer-defined applications.
Channel Access:
1. Contention Based Method (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access With Collision Avoidance
Mechanism)
2. Contention Free Method (Coordinator dedicates a specific time slot to each device
(Guaranteed Time Slot (GTS)))
Zigbee Applications:
1. Home Automation
2. Medical Data Collection
3. Industrial Control Systems
4. meter reading system
5. light control system
Difference between Zigbee and Wi-Fi :
S. Zigbee Wi-Fi
No.
1. The Zigbee alliance and IEEE manages Zigbee. The Wi-Fi alliance and IEEE
manages Wi-Fi.
2. The frequency range supported in Zigbee mostly 2.4 Wi-Fi transmits data at 2.4
GHz worldwide. GHz and 5 GHz radio
frequencies.
3. ZigBee network types include Wireless Personal Area Wi-Fi networks are Wireless
Networks (WPAN). Local Area Networks
(WLAN).
4. ZigBee has a range of 10 to 30 meters. Wi-Fi has a range of 30 to 100
meters.
5. It consumes less power. It consumes high power.
6. It uses BPSK and QPSK modulation techniques like It doesn’t use BPSK and
UWB. QPSK modulation techniques
like UWB.
7. It supports less number of users. It supports large amount of
users.
8. CRC 16 is used for data protection. The data is protected by a 32-
bit CRC.
9. The radio signal range of ZigBee is ten to hundred The radio signal range of Wi-
meters. Fi is 100 meters.
10. Zigbee network is more reliable compared to Wi-Fi Wi-Fi network is less reliable
network. as compared to Zigbee
network.
11. It requires low bandwidth but greater than Bluetooth’s It requires high bandwidth.
bandwidth most of time.
12. Zigbee frequencies are less stable. Wi-Fi frequencies are more
stable.
13. Zigbee is for Wide Area Network based applications. Wi-Fi is for Local Area

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 Network based applications.
14. Zigbee is utilized for home automation. Wi-Fi is used for internal
cellular connections.
15. Freescale, Ember, Texas Instruments (CC2530,
CC2531), Marvell, ATMEL, and Microchip are well-
known manufacturers of ZigBee chips.

Difference between Zigbee and Bluetooth

S. Bluetooth Zigbee
No.
1. The Bluetooth SIG (Special Interest The Zigbee Alliance is responsible for
Group) is the organization responsible managing Zigbee and testing and approving
for managing Bluetooth standards and Zigbee-based devices. IEEE standardizes all
devices. Zigbee-based protocols.
2. The frequency range supported in While the frequency range supported in
Bluetooth vary from 2.4 GHz to 2.483 Zigbee mostly 2.4 GHz worldwide.
GHz.
3. There are seventy nine RF channels in There are sixteen RF channels in zigbee.
Bluetooth.
4. It uses GFSK modulation technique. Whereas it also uses BPSK and QPSK
modulation techniques like UWB.
5. There is maximum of 8 cell nodes in While there is more than sixty five thousand
Bluetooth. (65000) cell nodes in zigbee.
6. Bluetooth networks can be built using Zigbee devices can be networked in a variety
the point-to-point master-slave approach of generic topologies, including a star, mesh,
in which there is one master and up to and others. A cluster can be created by
seven slaves form a piconet, which leads connecting different Zigbee-based network
to forming a scatter net which is a topologies. Zigbee Coordinator, Zigbee
linking of two or more piconets. Router, and Zigbee Endpoint nodes make up
any Zigbee network.
7. Bluetooth requires low bandwidth. While zigbee also requires low bandwidth but
greater than Bluetooth’s bandwidth most of
time.
8. The radio signal range of Bluetooth is While the radio signal range of zigbee is ten
ten meters. to hundred meters.
9. Bluetooth was developed under IEEE Whereas it was developed under IEEE
802.15.1. 802.15.4.
10. Bluetooth batteries may be recharged. Although ZigBee batteries cannot be
recharged, they last longer.
11. Blue tooth uses high data rates and a lot Zigbee employs low data rates and little
of power on large packet devices. power on small packet devices.
12. Bluetooth employs the Frequency Zigbee employs the Direct Spread Spectrum
Hopping Spread Spectrum. In frequency technique. In direct spread spectrum; the
hopping, the carrier signal is made to original signal is mixed and recovered from a
fluctuate in frequency. pseudo random code at transmitter and

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 receiver.
13. A network speed of up to 250 megabits A network speed of up to 1 megabit per
per second. second.
14. The time it takes to join a network using The time it takes to join a network using
Bluetooth is about 3 seconds. Zigbee is about 30 milliseconds.
15. Bluetooth’s protocol stack is 250K bytes Zigbee’s protocol stack is 28K bytes in size.
in size.
16. Computer peripherals like wireless Systems built on the Zigbee protocol are
keyboards, mice, headsets, and other intended for wireless sensor networking, and
peripherals are the main use cases for they are more popular with compact and
Bluetooth-based applications. energy-efficient gadgets. Zigbee-based
Additionally, several wireless remote networking is used in a variety of
controls and gesture-controlled devices applications, including SCADA system
communicate data via Bluetooth. sensors, medical devices, and television
remote controls.
 What is HART Protocol?
 HART Overview
The majority of smart field devices installed worldwide today are HART-enabled. But some new
in the automation field may need a refresher on this powerful technology.
Simply put, the HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) Protocol is the global
standard for sending and receiving digital information across analog wires between smart devices
and control or monitoring system or Handheld communicators.
More specifically, HART is a bi-directional communication protocol that provides data access
between intelligent field instruments and host systems (DCS/PLC or Handheld Communicator).
A host can be any software application from technician’s hand-held device or laptop to a plant’s
process control, asset management, safety or other system using any control platform.
HART Technology
HART technology is easy to use and very reliable when used for commissioning and calibration
of smart devices as well as for continuous online diagnostics.
There are several reasons to have a host communicate with smart devices. These include:
 Device Configuration or re-configuration
 Device Diagnostics
 Device Troubleshooting
 Reading the additional measurement values provided by the device
 Device Health and Status
 Much more
How HART Works
“HART” is an acronym for Highway Addressable Remote Transducer. The HART Protocol
makes use of the Bell 202 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) standard to superimpose digital
communication signals at a low level on top of the 4-20mA.

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Frequency Shift Keying
The HART communication protocol is based on the Bell 202 telephone communication standard
and operates using the frequency shift keying (FSK) principle. The digital signal is made up of
two frequencies— 1,200 Hz and 2,200 Hz representing bits 1 and 0, respectively. Sine waves of
these two frequencies are superimposed on the direct current (dc) analog signal cables to provide
simultaneous analog and digital communications. Because the average value of the FSK signal is
always zero, the 4–20 mA analog signal is not affected. The digital communication signal has a
response time of approximately 2–3 data updates per second without interrupting the analog
signal. A minimum loop impedance of 230 W is required for communication.
This enables two-way field communication to take place and makes it possible for
additional information beyond just the normal process variable to be communicated to/from a
smart field instrument. The HART Protocol communicates at 1200 bps without interrupting the
4-20mA signal and allows a host application (master) to get two or more digital updates per
second from a smart field device. As the digital FSK signal is phase continuous, there is no
interference with the 4-20mA signal.
HART technology is a master/slave protocol, which means that a smart field (slave)
device only speaks when spoken to by a master. The HART Protocol can be used in various
modes such as point-to-point or multidrop for communicating information to/from smart field
instruments and central control or monitoring systems.
HART Communication occurs between two HART-enabled devices, typically a smart
field device and a control or monitoring system. Communication occurs using standard
instrumentation grade wire and using standard wiring and termination practices.
The HART Protocol provides two simultaneous communication channels: the 4-20mA analog
signal and a digital signal. The 4-20mA signal communicates the primary measured value (in the
case of a field instrument) using the 4-20mA current loop – the fastest and most reliable industry
standard. Additional device information is communicated using a digital signal that is
superimposed on the analog signal.
HART Networks
HART devices can operate in one of two network configurations—point-topoint or multidrop.
POINT-TO-POINT
In point-to-point mode, the traditional 4–20 mA signal is used to communicate one process
variable, while additional process variables, configuration parameters, and other device data are
transferred digitally using the HART protocol (Figure 2). The 4–20 mA analog signal is not
affected by the HART signal and can be used for control in the normal way. The HART

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communication digital signal gives access to secondary variables and other data that can be used
for operations, commissioning, maintenance, and diagnostic purposes.

The HART Protocol provides for up to two masters (primary and secondary). This allows
secondary masters such as handheld communicators to be used without interfering with
communications to/from the primary master, i.e. control/monitoring system.

The HART Protocol permits all digital communication with field devices in either point-to-point
or multidrop network configurations:

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Multidrop
Configuration
There is also an
optional “burst”
communication mode
where a single slave
device can continuously
broadcast a standard
HART reply message.
Higher update rates are
possible with this
optional burst communication mode and use is normally restricted to point-to-point
configuration.
The multidrop mode of operation requires only a single pair of wires and, if applicable,
safety barriers and an auxiliary power supply for up to 15 field devices. All process values are
transmitted digitally. In multidrop mode, all field device polling addresses are >0, and the current
through each device is fixed to a minimum value (typically 4 mA).

Communication Modes
1. Master Slave Mode
HART is a master-slave communication protocol, which means that during normal operation,
each slave (field device) communication is initiated by a master communication device. Two
masters can connect to each HART loop. The primary master is generally a distributed control
system (DCS), programmable logic controller (PLC), or a personal computer (PC). The

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secondary master can be a handheld terminal or another PC. Slave devices include transmitters,
actuators, and controllers that respond to commands from the primary or secondary master
2. Burst Mode
Some HART devices support the optional burst communication mode. Burst mode enables faster
communication (3–4 data updates per second). In burst mode, the master instructs the slave
device to continuously broadcast a standard HART reply message (e.g., the value of the process
variable). The master receives the message at the higher rate until it instructs the slave to stop
bursting.
DEVICE DESCRIPTION
Some HART host applications use device descriptions (DD) to obtain information about the
variables and functions contained in a HART field device. The DD includes all of the
information needed by a host application to fully communicate with the field device. HART
Device Description Language (DDL) is used to write the DD, that combines all of the
information needed by the host application into a single structured file. The DD identifies which
common practice commands are supported as well as the format and structure of all device-
specific commands. A DD for a HART field device is roughly equivalent to a printer driver for a
computer. DDs eliminate the need for host suppliers to develop and support custom interfaces
and drivers.
A DD provides a picture of all parameters and functions of a device in a standardized language.
HART suppliers have the option of supplying a DD for their HART field product. If they choose
to supply one, the DD will provide information for a DD-enabled host application to read and
write data according to each device’s procedures.
DD source files for HART devices resemble files written in the C programming language. DD
files are submitted to the HCF for registration in the HCF DD Library. Quality checks are
performed on each DD submitted to ensure specification compliance, to verify that there are no
conflicts with DDs already registered, and to verify operation with standard HART hosts. The
HCF DD Library is the central location for management and distribution of all HART DDs to
facilitate use in host applications such as PCs and handheld terminals.
Benefits of Using HART
Engineers operating in analog automation environments no longer need utter the words “if only”
as in “if only I could get the device information without going into the field” or “if only I could
get this configuration information from that pressure transmitter into my PC.”
Users worldwide who have realized the benefits of HART Communication know that they can
gain quick, easy visibility to devices in the field when using HART-enabled handheld test,
calibration devices and portable computers. In fact, device testing, diagnostics and configuration
has never been easier!
However, many have yet to realize HART technology’s greatest benefits which come from full-
time connections with real-time asset management and/or control systems.
HART technology can help you:
 Leverage the capabilities of a full set of intelligent device data for operational
improvements.
 Gain early warnings to variances in device, product or process performance.
 Speed the troubleshooting time between the identification and resolution of problems.
 Continuously validate the integrity of loops and control/automation system strategies.
 Increase asset productivity and system availability.
 What is NFC-Near Field Communication
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As mentioned NFC is the short form of Near Field Communication. It is a short range low data
rate wireless communication technology operating at 13.56 MHz frequency. It is a contact less
mode of communication using electromagnetic waves. This technology allows two devices
housing NFC chip to communicate for various applications for example,
 Data communication between smartphones
 Verification of authenticated person having NFC ID card at the office by NFC reader in the
door.
 Banking payments using NFC compliant credit card to enhance security
 Ticket booking at the airports
 Automatic running of scheduled features in the NFC phone.
Following table summarizes features of wireless NFC (Near Field Communication) technology.
Features NFC (Near Field Communication) Support
RF Carrier Frequency 13.56 MHz
Distance less than 10 cm
Data Rate 106 or 212 or 424 Kbps
NFC Network Devices Tags and Readers
NFC Tag Types Type 1 to 5
Network configuration peer to peer
NFC Network Device Modes Card Emulation, Reader/Writer, Point to Point(active &
passive)
two NFC device communication modes active-passive or active-active
connection establishment time Few seconds (approx. less than 0.1 sec)
Data Coding Schemes NRZ-L, Manchester, Modified Miller
Data Modulation Schemes ASK, BPSK
Collision mechanism (i.e. MAC) Anti-collision support
NFC Standards ISO 14443A/B, ISO 18092, JIS X6319-4
Table:1 NFC network features or NFC capability
There are three types of NFC forum specifications viz. NFC-A, NFC-B and NFC-F.
how NFC network works

Fig:1 NFC Network

Let us understand how NFC network works, as mentioned NFC network consists of two
devices known as initiator device and target device. NFC tag can be active as well as passive
device. NFC reader is always active device. These devices operate either in active-active or
active-passive modes. In active-active mode, both the NFC devices will have their own power

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while in active-passive mode, passive device derive its power from received EM waves of the
active device.
Basic mode of communication is half duplex in NFC, where in one NFC device transmits
while other device receives. This is also referred as “Listen before Talk”. Here one of the two
NFC devices will functionas initiator which first listen on channel and transmits only when no
other signal is there on channel. Here Initiator polls the other devices which comes closer to it/
The other NFC device referred as target listens and responds to initiator as per requested
message.
NFC Network Modes-Card Emulation, Reader/Writer, Point to Point(Peer)
There are three modes in which NFC tag and reader works viz. Card Emulation, reader/writer
and peer to peer (or point to point) as explained below.
NFC Card Emulation Mode
In this mode, usually active device reads passive device .
EXAMPLE#1: ID card, NFC tag or NFC compliant ticket are read by NFC compliant active
reader at office or railway stations .
EXAMPLE#2: Smart phone acts as smart card to allow booking of tickets or to perform online
banking transactions or payments using credit card reader.
Following are the steps involved in card emulation mode
• Step-1: NFC reader oscillates 13.56 MHz RF field. When the card comes near to the RF field, it
gets power due to EM (Electro-magnetic) coupling and gets connected with the reader.
• Step-2: Reader sends commands using RF field
• Step-3: Card responds to the reader as requested.
NFC Reader/Writer Mode
In this mode, one device will be in reading mode and the other one will be in writing mode.
They can be either active device or passive device
Example#1:Product Authentication
Example#2:Smart advertising
Example#2:Device pairing
Following are the steps involved in reader/writer mode
• Step-1: In read mode, NFC reader reads NFC tags either passive or active one.
• Step-2: In Write mode, one NFC device writes to the other NFC device.
NFC Peer to Peer (Point to Point)
In this mode, data is transmitted from one NFC device to the other NFC device in adhoc or peer
to peer mode. Here any device can become initiator and the rest of the device will act as target to
complete the connection establishment
Example#1: smartphone to smartphone communication
Example#2: Automotive (in car operation)
Example#3: Social media applications or games
Following are the steps involved in peer to peer mode (active mode)
• Step-1: Both NFC smartphones establish pairing for data communication. Both have got power
and their own RF fields
• Step-2:Initiator sends commands by modulating RF field and switches off the RF field.
• Step-3:Target device responds to the initiator using its own RF field modulation.
NFC protocol stack

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Fig: 2 NFC Protocol stack
The figure depicts simple NFC device protocol stack in peer to peer mode. As shown it consists
of application layer, data link layers (logical link control and media access control) and physical
layer.
➨Application layer takes care of format of the data to be exchanged between NFC devices or
between NFC device and Tags. NFC uses NDEF (NFC Data Exchange Format).
➨Data link layer takes care of different modes of operation and anti-collision mechanism. LLCP
establishes communication between two peer devices
➨Physical layer takes care of modulation, coding and RF related parameters such frequency,
power etc.
NFC Frame Structure

Fig: 3 NFC Frame

NFC frame uses special encapsulation format referred as NDEF (NFC Data Exchange Format).
Each NFC device transmission is known as message. One message composed of one or more
records. Each record consists of header part and payload part. Header part is made of identifier,
length and type fields. Payload carry data or URL.
NFC Test Equipments
This NFC Near Field Communication tutorial is very useful for beginners as well as experts
who would like to know all about NFC technology right from features till NFC testing including

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how does NFC work in various modes. It covers link to useful NFC test equipments including
NFC protocol analyzer .
 Z-Wave
Z-Wave is a wireless communications protocol used primarily for residential and commercial
building automation. It is a mesh network using low-energy radio waves to communicate from
device to device, allowing for wireless control of smart home devices, such as smart lights,
security systems, thermostats, sensors, smart door locks, and garage door openers. Like other
protocols and systems aimed at the residential, commercial, MDU and building markets, a Z-
Wave system can be controlled from a smart phone, tablet, or computer, and locally through a
smart speaker, wireless keyfob, or wall-mounted panel with a Z-Wave gateway or central control
device serving as both the hub or controller. Z-Wave provides the application layer
interoperability between home control systems of different manufacturers that are a part of its
alliance. There is a growing number of interoperable Z-Wave products; over 1,700 in 2017, over
2,600 by 2019, and over 4,000 by 2022.
Specification z-wave support
Standard ITU-T G.9959 (PHY and MAC)
RF Frequency Range 868.42 MHz in Europe, 908.42 MHz in US
Data rate 9.6, 40, 100 Kbps
Maximum Nodes 232
Architecture Master and slave in mesh mode
MAC layer CSMA/CA
RF PHY modulation FSK (for 9.6kbps and 40 kbps),
GFSK with BT=0.6 (for 100 kbps)
Coding Manchester(for 9.6kbps), NRZ(for 40 and 100 kbps)
Distance 30 meter in indoors, 100 meters in outdoors
Table-1: z-wave features
z-wave network

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The z-wave network consists of controllers (one primary controller and more than one
secondary controllers) and slaves. Controller devices are the nodes in a z-wave network which
initiates control commands. It also sends out the commands to other nodes. The slave devices are
the nodes which replies based on command received and also execute the commands. Slave
nodes also forward the commands to other nodes in the network. This makes it possible for
controller to establish communication with the nodes who are not in radio frequency region.
Controllers:
A controller device will have full routing table for this mesh network and it will host it. Hence
controller can communicate with all the nodes of z-wave network. There are two types of
controllers viz. primary and secondary.
The controller which creates new z-wave network initially will become primary controller. This
primary controller is master controller in the network and there will be only one in each z-wave
network. Primary controller will have capability to include and exclude the nodes in the network.
Hence primary controller always keeps latest topology of the network. Primary controller also
takes care of managing allocation of node IDs.
The controllers which are added to the z-wave network using the primary controller are known
as secondary controllers. They do not have capability to include or exclude any nodes. They will
get copies of the routing tables from primary controller.
Slaves:
The slave devices/nodes in z-wave network receive the commands and performs action based on
the commands. These slave nodes are unable to transmit information directly to the other slave
nodes or controllers unless they are instructed to do so in the commands. The slave nodes do not
compute routing tables. They can store routing tables. They will act as a repeater.
Home ID
The z-wave protocol uses Home ID field to separate the networks from each other. It is 32 bit
unique identifier which will be pre-programmed in all the controller devices. At the start, all the
slave nodes will have Home ID value as zero. All the slave devices need Home ID value in order
to communicate in the z-wave network. This will be communicated to all by the controller.
Controllers exchange Home ID which makes it possible for more than one controller to control
slave nodes.
Node ID
This node ID is 8 bit value. Similar to Home ID, they are also assigned to slave nodes by
controller. Node ID’s are used in order to address individual nodes in a z-wave network. These
Node ID’s are unique within a network defined by a unique Home ID.
Z-Wave Advantages and Disadvantages
Like all things, Z-Wave has both advantages and disadvantages. We will discuss them one after
the other.
Pros of Z-Wave
Some of the advantages of Z-waves include;
1. The ability to support 232 devices in theory and at least 50 in practice.
2. Signals can travel up to 50 feet indoors allowing for obstructions and up to 100 feet
unobstructed. This reach is extended considerably outdoors. With the four hops between
devices further enhancing the range, coverage won’t be a problem in sprawling connected
homes.
3. The Z-wave alliance is made up of up to 600 manufacturers producing over 2600
certified devices to ensure compatibility.
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 4. Less interference due to the ISM band being used.
5. Less dead spots compared to other networks, thanks to the robust mesh topology
6. It is Affordable and easy to use.

z-wave frame structure

As shown in the fig-1, z-wave frame consists of a preamble part, SOF(Start of Frame), Frame
data and EOF(End of Frame) symbol. The data part is manchester codes or NRZ coded based on
data rate. MAC layer controls the RF spectrum. Data part comes from the upper layers and z-
wave frame as mentioned in formed at the MAC/PHY layers. After this is done the z-wave frame
as depicted is transmitted by the RF antenna after necessary radio frequency conversion as
desired using RF Transceiver.
z-wave protocol stack
The z-wave protocol stack consists of PHY layer, MAC layer, Transport layer, Network layer
and application layer. Other than servicing their peers all the layers have their own tasks.
z-wave Physical layer(z-wave PHY)
The z-wave Physical layer takes care of preamble insertion in the z-wave frame. It takes care of
modulation and demodulation as well as RF channel selection. It takes care of data frame
transmission and reception.
z-wave security
As z-wave open protocol architecture does not specify security layer specifications it is
implementation specific. z-wave security layer provides secured communication between nodes
as well as between controllers and nodes.
Z-wave Protocol Stack
The z-wave protocol layers main function is to communicate very short messages of few
bytes long from a control unit to one or more z-wave nodes. It is a low bandwidth and half
duplex protocol to establish reliable wireless communication. z-wave protocol stack need not
have to take care of large amount of data as well as any kind of time critical or streaming data.

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 As shown in the fig-1, z-wave protocol stack consists of 5 layers viz. PHY layer, MAC
layer, Transport layer, network layer and application layer. The security layer is not defined in z-
wave open protocol specifications and hence it is implementation specific. Following are the
major functions of these protocol layers
➤Physical layer takes care of modulation and RF channel assignment as well preamble addition
at the transmitter and synchronization at the receiver using preamble.
➤MAC layer takes care of HomeID and NodeID, controls the medium between nodes based on
collision avoidance algorithm and backoff algorithm
➤Transport layer takes care of transmission and reception of frames, takes care of
retransmission, ACK frame transmission and insertion of checksum.
➤Network layer takes care of frame routing, topology scan and routing table updates.
➤Application layer takes care of control of payloads in the frames received or to be transmitted.

 BLE
 What is Bluetooth Low Energy?

It is simple to see BLE as a type of Bluetooth that uses less power, consumption or
energy. It is an eco-friendly form of Bluetooth that has been developed specifically to facilitate
the “Internet of Things”.
However, a new wave of technological advancement is on the horizon known as the
Internet of Things or for short (IoT). This next wave of mainstream tech will enable the
connectivity of your everyday household devices (like the washing machine, cooker, toaster,
kettles, etc.) to one another and to the internet. These devices will be able to communicate with
you directly or be controlled by a smart device such as your smartphone or tablet. Yes, that’s
right! You won’t need to border about turning “on” or “off” the washing machine or heating the
kettle manually as these would be possible just by the touch of a button on your smartphone.
How cool is that?
what is the Internet of Things?
In short, the Internet of Things is the connection of a device to other devices (usually
through some form of wireless connectivity such as Bluetooth low energy) and to the Internet to
help them communicate and share data across wireless networks. Therefore, IoT is a humongous
connection of “things” which also includes people, animals and basically whatever you choose to
connect. Bluetooth chips can be used to make animals part of the internet of things, as some

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people do with their pets already. So, the connection could be between people-to-things, people-
to-people, people-to-animals, things-to-things, things-to-animals, etc… you get the point, the
possibility is endless!
The “Internet of Things” is not limited to within the house; it extends to the workplace, cars and
even entire cities. It is extraordinarily huge. The scale at which it will change the way we live
and work is yet to be determined. For example, in cities think about the connection of traffic
lights and security cameras to share data with security offices. Through IoT, our devices will be
able to communicate to us by voice or text just like our smartphones and computing devices do
today (e.g. Cortana, Siri, Google Now). Our energy meters will tell us when to turn them off; our
cars will tell us to stop driving if they’re tired of being driven without being serviced properly.
Okay, might be a bit exaggerated! But who knows? The limit to your imagination is your only
limitation with the Internet of Things.
But what is the role of BLE in IoT?
BLE’s energy efficiency has made it a preferred and and one of the most compatible options for
IoT. BLE, for example, is more energy efficient than ZigBee, Bluetooth classic and Wi-Fi. What
this means is that BLE can better support the connectivity of IoT devices for longer periods than
the above (especially when the devices are battery-powered). Also, BLE’s low data rate makes it
extremely suitable for utilization in cases where only state data has to be exchanged such as
sensors. It is also the dominant low power technology in smartphones these days, unlike ZigBee,
Z-Wave, LoRa and others.
Applications
BLE (Bluetooth low energy) was introduced by the Bluetooth SIG in the 4.0 spec of Bluetooth.
As the name suggests, BLE focuses on low energy consumption. Low energy focus comes with
some sacrifices particularly around data transfer rates and the range of operation. But that’s not a
bad thing, in fact BLE is very suitable for many applications. With all the hype around IoT
(Internet of Things) and the slew of technologies and devices out in the market, BLE is
attempting to position itself as a leader for the future of IoT. Some of the many suitable
applications for BLE are:
 Fitness trackers (such as Fitbit, Misfit..etc)
 Smart watches (such as the Apple Watch, Moto 360, and Pebble)
 Beacons (Apple iBeacon, Google Eddystone)
 Medical devices such as glucose meters, insulin pumps
 Home automation devices such as door locks, light bulbs, sensors, and others
Advantages
 Low power consumption
 Low bandwidth – perfect for collecting data from sensor devices
 Proliferation in smartphones
 Relatively simple development process
 No fees to access the core spec
 Low development and module costs
 No outrageous licensing costs compared to other low power wireless technologies
Disadvantages
Every technology has its disadvantages and BLE is no exception. The main ones are:
 Low bandwidth – not suitable for large data transfer applications
 Limited range (typically 30 -100 m, but steadily increasing with each iteration of the
spec)
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  Requires a gateway device to connect the end devices to the Internet (smartphones,
dedicated gateway devices)
 Interference and noise from other protocols in the 2.4 GHz spectrum (WiFi, Bluetooth
classic, ZigBee..etc)
 Can be difficult to debug issues with communications especially relating to longer ranges
and interference
 A bit of a learning curve for newcomers to the technology
Types of Bluetooth devices
There are 4 types of Bluetooth devices in regards to support for low energy and classic:
 Bluetooth devices implementing a pre-4.0 spec -> do not support BLE
 Bluetooth devices implementing both the classic and low energy features. Typically
smartphones, PCs, tablets..etc (formerly known as Bluetooth Smart Ready devices)
 Bluetooth devices implementing only the low energy features – sensor devices, and
others typically running on batteries. Examples include smart watches, fitness trackers,
beacons…etc (formerly known as Bluetooth Smart devices)
 Bluetooth devices implementing only the classic features. Think headsets, wireless
speakers, car infotainment systems..etc
Architecture of a BLE device
There are three main software levels in the architecture of a BLE device:
 Application: the application interfacing with the stack and implementing the specific
user applications
 Host: high level layer of the protocol stack.
 Controller: low level layer of the protocol stack including the physical layer
Modes of operation
HCI (Host Controller Interface) is a standard communications protocol defined by the Bluetooth
SIG to allow developers to use multiple processors from different vendors (one as a radio device,
and another as the main processor for implementing the application).
Two main modes in BLE:
 Broadcasting: a broadcaster device initially advertises its presence and an observer
device will discover these broadcasters by scanning the surroundings. Some devices stay
in this phase, such as Apple iBeacons and Google Eddystone devices. This allows the
broadcasting device to make itself visible to any observer and advertise a limited amount
of useful info.
 Connection: starts with a device advertising (Peripheral/Slave) and another
(Central/Master) scanning the specific advertising channels. The connection is then
initiated by the central device. This mode connects the two devices allowing data transfer
and a private communications channel between the two (this is the typical case outside of
beacon devices). Once a connection is established, the end device (the embedded device)
can turn off the radio leading to a lower power consumption.
Profiles
 Generic profiles: these are the generic profiles defined by the Bluetooth spec. They lay
out the fundamentals for all BLE devices.
 GATT (Generic Attribute Profile): a basic data model that allows devices to discover,
write, and read elements.
 GAP (Generic Access Profile): layer responsible for managing connections,
advertisements, discovery and security features.
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  Use-case profiles: Adopted by the Bluetooth SIG and defining common behavior to
make implementation simple for specific use-cases. Examples: Glucose profile, Heart
Rate Monitor profile, Proximity profile.
 What is BACnet?
BACnet is "a data communication protocol for building automation
and control networks." A data communication protocol is a set of rules governing the exchange
of data over a computer network that covers everything from what kind of cable to use to how to
form a particular request or command in a standard way. What makes BACnet special is that the
rules relate specifically to the needs of building automation and control (BAC) equipment, i.e.,
they cover things like how to ask for the value of a temperature, define a fan operating schedule,
or send a pump status alarm.
BACnet was developed by a committee formed by the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). The committee's main objective was
to create a protocol that would allow building systems from different manufacturers to
interoperate, that is to work together in a harmonious way. Prior to the advent of BACnet there
was simply no practical way to achieve this goal.

To achieve interoperability across a wide spectrum of equipment, the BACnet specification

consists of three major parts. The first part describes a method for representing any type of
building automation equipment in a standard way. The second part defines messages that can be
sent across a computer network to monitor and control such equipment. And the third part
defines a set of acceptable LANs that can be used to convey BACnet communications. Let's look
at each of these components of the BACnet spec in a bit more detail

Representing BAC equipment in a standard way - BACnet objects

To pull off this seemingly impossible trick, BACnet provides a standard way of representing the
functions of any device, such as analog and binary inputs and outputs, schedules, control loops,
and alarms, by defining collections of related information called "objects," each of which has a
set of "properties" that further characterize it. Each analog input, for instance, is represented by a
BACnet "analog input object" which has a set of standard properties like present value, sensor
type, location, alarm limits, and so on. Some of these properties are required while others are
optional. One of the object's most important properties is its identifier, a numerical name that
allows BACnet to unambiguously access it. Once devices have common "appearances" on the
network in terms of their objects and properties, it is then possible to define messages that can
manipulate this information in a standard way.
Providing standard messages for monitoring and control - BACnet services
BACnet currently defines 35 message types, or "services," that are divided into 5 classes. For
example, one class contains messages for accessing and manipulating the properties of the
objects described above. A common one is the "ReadProperty" service request. This message
causes the server machine to locate the requested property of the requested object and send its
value back to the client. Other classes of services deal with alarms and events; file uploading and
downloading; managing the operation of remote devices; and virtual terminal functions
(accessing equipment across the network as if you were using a directly-connected terminal or
laptop).

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Note that the ability to read and write binary, analog, and text data; schedule control actions;
send event and alarm notifications; and similar functions are required by all kinds of BAC
equipment, not just HVAC gear. Nonetheless, the committee realized that these capabilities
might not cover all situations and developed the standard with an eye toward accommodating
future, unknown building automation and control applications. As a result, one of the real
strengths of the BACnet object and services model is that it can be easily extended. If a vendor
comes up with some new functionality for which communication is required, the vendor can add
new properties to existing object types or create new object types that are accessed in exactly the
same way as the eighteen defined in the standard. Moreover, a vendor could even dream up new
services that go beyond the standard ones. Of course, proprietary features may not be
interoperable without vendor cooperation.
This is probably a good time to point out that while BACnet makes multi-vendor installations
possible, it in no way requires the use of multiple suppliers. Since many vendors will probably
choose, and some have already chosen, to use BACnet as their "native" protocol, you could
easily end up with a single-vendor BACnet system.
Leveraging standard network technologies - BACnet LANs
Up until now I have just been talking about the BACnet object-oriented model and the various
message types. The system designer will still need to pick an appropriate network technology to
connect everything together. The BACnet committee spent a lot of time on this part of the
standard and ended up with 5 different options, each of which fills a particular niche in terms of
the price/performance tradeoff. The first is Ethernet, the fastest at 10 Mbps with 100 Mbps also
recently available. ("Mbps" stands for "millions of bits per second.") Ethernet is also likely to be
the most expensive in terms of cost per device. Next comes ARCNET at 2.5 Mbps. For devices
with lower requirements in terms of speed, BACnet defines the MS/TP (master-slave/token-
passing) network designed to run at speeds of 1 Mbps or less over twisted pair wiring. Echelon's
proprietary LonTalk network can also be used on various media. All of these networks are
LANs. BACnet also defines a dial-up or "point-to-point" protocol called PTP for use over phone
lines or hardwired EIA-232 connections. A key point is that BACnet messages can, in principle,
be transported by any network technology, if and when it becomes desirable to do so. See Figure
1.

From the electrical contractor's perspective, these networks all use standard, hopefully familiar,
wiring technology. Both Ethernet and ARCNET can use a variety of physical media – coaxial
cable, twisted pairs, as well as fiber optic cable. Although the types of coax are different - RG-58
for "thinwire" Ethernet and RG-62 for ARCNET - the types of connectors and tools are
essentially identical. Contractors should also be knowledgeable about recent standards from the
Electronic Industries Association / Telecommunications Industry Association such as EIA/TIA

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568 which defines wiring practices for telecommunications in commercial buildings such as the
CAT-5 specification for high-speed LANs.
Comparing BACnet with LON
Given the tremendous amount of advertising and promotion that has been dedicated to
Echelon Corporation's Local Operating Network (LON), LonTalk (the LAN technology it uses),
and LonMark (the Echelon certification program), it is not surprising that there is some
confusion in the marketplace as to just what this technology is and how it relates to BACnet. For
example, there is the myth that any equipment that uses LonTalk can automatically talk to
BACnet systems. This is unfortunately not true.
Let me give you a little background. LonTalk is Echelon's specification for a recently
developed LAN technology that many people thought would be a useful addition to the BACnet
standard. BACnet in fact specifies the optional use of LonTalk to convey BACnet messages in an
identical manner to the way BACnet messages are transported by Ethernet, ARCNET, MS/TP,
and PTP. Confusion stems from the fact that Echelon has its own generic control language that is
also transported by LonTalk LANs. In order for LonTalk devices to be interoperable, even using
Echelon's language, there has to be agreement between implementers as to what the generic
messages mean in a particular context. To obtain such agreements, Echelon has set up the
LonMark Interoperability Association which has working groups made up of people from a
variety of industries, including building controls, that are trying to reach implementers'
agreements on how to use Echelon's proprietary control language in a common way for their
applications. The point is that the BACnet language and the Echelon language are fundamentally
different and devices using one of the languages can never interoperate directly with devices
using the other, even though they might possibly share a common LonTalk LAN.
BACnet was designed specifically for building automation and control applications while
LON was designed to be a general purpose control network solution. The consequence is that
some of the functions intimately associated with building controls, and central to BACnet, such
as time-of-day scheduling, alarm generation, and control prioritization, are simply not present in
LON. Moreover, BACnet is designed to be scalable, i.e., it can be applied to very small or very
large systems with equal effect. LON, as it exists today, is most suitable for systems with a small
number of nodes.
Finally, there are commercial issues. Unlike LON, there are no fees for using BACnet and no
license is required. The people promoting BACnet, unlike those promoting LON, have no direct
financial stake in its success. BACnet is not a product. Rather it is a specification for making
products that can work together for the purpose of achieving better building automation and
control.
Again, all of this doesn't make BACnet "good" and LON "bad." It simply means that it is
important to understand the differences and, if a decision is made to use LON, either with or
without BACnet, it should be done in manner that suits the intended application.
BACnet was designed specifically for building automation and control applications while LON
was designed to be a general purpose control network solution. The consequence is that some of
the functions intimately associated with building controls, and central to BACnet, such as time-
of-day scheduling, alarm generation, and control prioritization, are simply not present in LON.
Moreover, BACnet is designed to be scalable, i.e., it can be applied to very small or very large
systems with equal effect. LON, as it exists today, is most suitable for systems with a small
number of nodes.

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Finally, there are commercial issues. Unlike LON, there are no fees for using BACnet and no
license is required. The people promoting BACnet, unlike those promoting LON, have no direct
financial stake in its success. BACnet is not a product. Rather it is a specification for making
products that can work together for the purpose of achieving better building automation and
control.
Again, all of this doesn't make BACnet "good" and LON "bad." It simply means that it is
important to understand the differences and, if a decision is made to use LON, either with or
without BACnet, it should be done in manner that suits the intended application.

other BACnet activities

Besides the SSPC activities, there are several BACnet demonstration projects underway. One
that has been in the news quite a bit is the General Services Administration's rehab of the Phillip
Burton Federal Building in San Francisco. The impressive thing about this project is its scale and
complexity. It will involve more than a thousand controllers, four (possibly five) different
vendors, several applications including lighting control and end use energy monitoring, and an
interface to the local electric utility. It is on track to be completed by the end of this year.
There is also activity on the international standards front. BACnet has been selected by the
European Community's standards committee CEN TC247 as a European "pre-standard" meaning
that it will undergo an evaluation process over the next couple of years to see whether it should
become a full-fledged EC standard. The International Organization for Standardization's
committee TC205 is also considering whether BACnet should be designated as an ISO standard.
All of this is quite remarkable, considering that BACnet was only published in January of 1996.
The future of BACnet

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The big question, of course, is how real is BACnet? Although it is hard to get a precise tally, the
number of BACnet sites up and running at this moment was estimated by various BACnet
manufacturers at the July ASHRAE meeting in Boston to be around 2500. Of these, perhaps one-
third are multivendor installations. About one-third of these sites are in the United States. Other
jobs have been reported in Canada, Mexico, Brazil, Germany, Switzerland, UK, Hong Kong,
Singapore, Australia, and Taiwan. It wouldn't surprise me if there were more installations that I
haven't heard about.
 ModBus
Many protocols have been designed for the needs of industrial automation and metering. These
protocols generally use simple query/response models and allow for extremely simple
implementations. Many protocols derived from the frame formats defined by IEC 870-5 such
as:
– T101 (IEC 870-5-101) that was generated by the IEC TC57 for electric utility com-
munication between master stations and remote terminal units, it is also based on the
IEC-870-5-x link layer, using frame format FT 1.2.
– DNP 3.0, a protocol originally designed by Westronic, Inc. that was released into the
public domain in 1993, based on the IEC-870-5-x link layer with a few modifications
(e.g., use of FT3 frames for asynchronous, rather than synchronous, communication,
inclusion of both source and destination addresses).
– M-Bus (see Section 9.3)
– Profibus, a fieldbus initially designed by Siemens and later standardized as IEC 61 158
(“Digital Data Communication for Measurement and control, Fieldbus for use in in-
dustrial control systems” for versions DP-V0, DP-V1 and DP-V2) and IEC 61 784
(Communication Profile Family DPF3
ModBus Standardization
ModBus is a trademark of Modicon (Schneider Electric group), which also maintains the
standard.
ModBus is an application layer messaging protocol that provides client/server
communication between devices connected on different types of buses or networks.
Because of its simplicity, ModBus has become one of the de-facto standards for industrial
serial- message-based communications since 1979.
ModBus typically runs on top of RS 232, RS 442 point to point or RS 485 point to
multipoint links. The ModBus/TCP specification published in 1999 defines an IP-based link
layer for ModBus frames.
ModBus devices communicate using a master-slave model: one device, the master, can
initiate transactions, which can address individual slaves or be broadcast to all slaves. The
slaves take action as specified by the query, or return the requested data to the master
ModBus Message Framing and Transmission Modes
The transmission mode defines the framing and bit encoding of the messages to be
transmitted on the ModBus network. In a given ModBus network, all nodes must use the
same mode and serial parameters:
. In the ASCII Transmission Mode, each byte is encoded on the serial link as 2 ASCII
characters. Each ASCII character is sent separately as 1 start bit, 7 data bits, zero or one
parity bit, one or two stop bits. The message is framed by a starting “:” ASCII byte, and
ends with a “CR-LF” byte sequence.
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 . In the RTU (remote terminal unit) transmission mode, the message is transmitted in a
continuous stream. Each 8-bit byte is framed by 1 start bit, 8 data bits, zero or one parity bit, one
or two stop bits. The message itself starts after a silent period of at least 3.5 character times.
ModBus Addresses: ModBus messages begin by the target 8-bit address that can take any
decimal value between 1 and 247. 0 is used for broadcasts. The address field of the message
frame contains two characters in ASCII mode, or 8 bits in RTU Mode. Each query contains
the address of a specific slave. When it responds, the slave includes its own address in the
message.
ModBus Functions: The function code field contains two characters in ASCII mode, and 8
bits in RTU mode, which can take any decimal value between 1 and 255 and are selected
based on the device application profile. Some example functions are listed:
ModBus MASTER ModBus SLAVE
Query
:
DeviceAddress (2 bytes)
(0x3A) Function code (2 bytes)

Query Data (variable)

CRLF

ErrorCheck (2 bytes)
(0x0DOA)
Response
:
DeviceAddress
(0x3A) Function code

Response Data

CRLF
Function cod ErrorCheck
(0x0DOA) e Functi

Figure 5.1 ModBus message framing (ASCII mode).

n code
. 0x02: Read Input Status. Parameters: starting register address, and number of consecutive
addresses to read. Response data: 1 bit per input read.
. 0x11: Report Slave ID. Parameters: none. Response data: slave ID, run indicator, device
specific data.
ModBus Data Field: The data field provides the application level information, as required by
the ModBus function. When a given ModBus function requires variable size data, the data field
begins with the “byte count” of the data.
ModBus/TCP
ModBus/TCP provides TCP/IP access to the ModBus functionality. Each ModBus
Request/response is sent over a TCP connection established between the master and the slave,
using well-known port 502. The TCP connection may be reused for several query/ response
exchanges.

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 The byte content of the ModBus request and response frames (i.e. without framing start- stop-
parity bits specific to the serial physical layer) is simply transported over the TCP connection,
in big indian order. The only addition of ModBusTCP is to add a seven-byte message prefix:
ref ref 00 00 00 len unit
The ref bytes are simply copied by the slave from the request, and may be used as a handle
by the master. The length information in the message prefix allows proper reassembly of the
ModBus message when it has been segmented in several IP packets. The slave address has been
renamed “unit identifier” and is contained in unit. The rest of the message conforms to the
regular ModBus structure, but the error check fields may be omitted for obvious reasons.
 IP Based Protocols for IoT:
 IPV6
IPv6 Is The Most Latest Version Of The Internet Protocol. Devices That Use The Internet Are
Recognized By Their Own IP Addresses So That Internet Communication Can Work. IPv6 In
IoT Identifies These Devices So That They Can Be Located Through The Internet Easily.
IPv6 Was Created In 1998 Which Uses 128-Bit Addressing. It Supports Approximately 350
Trillion Trillion Devices. The Addressing Method Of IPv6 Includes Eight Groups Of Four
Hexadecimal Digits, While The IPv4 Addresses Used To Have Four Sets Of One To Three
Digits Numbers.
It provides transition strategies that convert IPv4 into IPv6, and these strategies are as follows:
o Dual stacking: It allows us to have both the versions, i.e., IPv4 and IPv6, on the same
device.
o Tunneling: In this approach, all the users have IPv6 communicates with an IPv4 network
to reach IPv6.
o Network Address Translation: The translation allows the communication between the
hosts having a different version of IP.
This hexadecimal address contains both numbers and alphabets. Due to the usage of both the
numbers and alphabets, IPv6 is capable of producing over 340 undecillion (3.4*10 38) addresses.

Types of IPv6 addresses

There are three types of IPv6 addresses which are used for different purposes:
 unicast which corresponds to IPv4 public address and is publicly routable;
 multicast is used to communicate with particular devices on a given network that are
“listening out” for that address;
 anycast is an address that is shared by different devices in different locations, of which only
the nearest one will receive a package when it’s sent.

The address format of IPv6:

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The above diagram shows the address format of IPv6.An IPv6 is a 128-bit hexadecimal address.
It contains 8 fields separated by a colon, and each field is 16-bit in size.
Advantages Of IPv6 In The Internet Of Things
 IoT Is A Vast Field Of Technology. This Field Includes A Large Number Of Devices
And Their Working Is Mainly Focused Via The Internet. IPv6 Is Capable Of Giving Out
Various IP Addresses To These IoT Devices So That They Can Be Easily Recognized On
The Internet And Can Work Efficiently To Transfer Data From One IoT Device To
Another.
 IPv6 Networks Have Auto-Configuration Capabilities Which Are Quite Simple And Can
Be Managed Easily In Larger Installations. With The Help Of This Feature Of IPv6,
Configuration Effort And Deployment Cost In The Field Of IoT Reduces Drastically.
 IPv6 Is Capable Of Sending Large Data Packets Simultaneously To Conserve Bandwidth.
With The Help Of Fast Transmission Of Data Due To IPv6 In IoT, Devices Used In IoT
Will Also Be Able To Interact With Each Other.
 IPv6 Provides Far Better Security Than IPv4. It Provides Confidentiality, Authenticity,
And Data Integrity As Well. This Security Given By IPv6 Is Of Utmost Importance To
IoT Because Of Its High Dependency On Network.
 IPv6 In IoT Has A Highly Efficient Multicast Communication Feature That Eliminates
The Requirement For Routine Broadcast Messaging. This Improvement Helps In
Preserving The Battery Life Of IoT Devices By Reducing The Number Of Packets
Processed.
 IPv6 Provides Multiple Addresses To Devices. Its Routing Mechanism Is Also
Distributed In A Better Way Than IPv4. With The Help Of This Feature, Programmers
Will Have The Liberty To Assign IoT End-Device Addresses That Are Consistent With
Their Own Applications And Network Practices.
 6LoWPAN
6LoWPAN stands for IPv6 over Low-power Wireless Personal Area Networks. It is a
standard protocol for realizing IPv6 communication on wireless networks composed of low-
power wireless modules. 6LoWPAN specification contains packet compression and other
optimization mechanisms to enable the efficient transmission of IPv6 packets on a network with
limited power resources and reliability, which makes efficient IPv6 communication over low-
power wireless networks possible.
6LoWPAN is an IPv6 protocol, and It’s extended from is IPv6 over Low Power Personal
Area Network. As the name itself explains the meaning of this protocol is that this protocol
works on Wireless Personal Area Network i.e., WPAN.
WPAN is a Personal Area Network (PAN) where the interconnected devices are centered
around a person’s workspace and connected through a wireless medium. You can read more
about WPAN at WPAN. 6LoWPAN allows communication using the IPv6 protocol. IPv6 is
Internet Protocol Version 6 is a network layer protocol that allows communication to take
place over the network. It is faster and more reliable and provides a large number of addresses.

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6LoWPAN initially came into existence to overcome the conventional methodologies that were
adapted to transmit information. But still, it is not so efficient as it only allows for the smaller
devices with very limited processing ability to establish communication using one of the
Internet Protocols, i.e., IPv6. It has very low cost, short-range, low memory usage, and low bit
rate.
Optimized control of a smart house requires the information to be collected from various
sensors. The control system consolidates the information to recognize the real-world context then
gives appropriate optimized feedback to the real-world environment using actuators.
Management of a smart house by executing control logic on the reliable cloud server
infrastructure is cost-effective from the viewpoint of high scalability, usability, and low
maintenance cost. To realize such a control framework, 6LoWPAN‘s conformance to the
Internet protocol plays an important role.
Currently, 6LoWPAN is published as a series of standard specifications, including RFC6282.
Related specifications also have been discussed actively and are being standardized one by one.

Usage of 6LoWPAN for Smart House

Based on the status of IoT devices inside the house, a virtual house reflecting the real house
environment will be created on the cloud.Using the status of the virtual house, the IoT
application framework will control the equipment inside the real house.The status of the virtual
house can be monitored from smartphones, etc
It comprises an Edge Router and Sensor Nodes. Even the smallest of the IoT devices can now
be part of the network, and the information can be transmitted to the outside world as well. For
example, LED Streetlights.

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 It is a technology that makes the individual nodes IP enabled.
 6LoWPAN can interact with 802.15.4 devices and also other types of devices on an IP
Network. For example, Wi-Fi.
 It uses AES 128 link layer security, which AES is a block cipher having key size of
128/192/256 bits and encrypts data in blocks of 128 bits each. This is defined in IEEE
802.15.4 and provides link authentication and encryption.

Basic Requirements of 6LoWPAN:

1. The device should be having sleep mode in order to support the battery saving.
2. Minimal memory requirement.
3. Routing overhead should be lowered.
Features of 6LoWPAN:
1. It is used with IEEE 802.15,.4 in the 2.4 GHz band.
2. Outdoor range: ~200 m (maximum)
3. Data rate: 200kbps (maximum)
4. Maximum number of nodes: ~100
Advantages of 6LoWPAN:
1. 6LoWPAN is a mesh network that is robust, scalable, and can heal on its own.
2. It delivers low-cost and secure communication in IoT devices.
3. It uses IPv6 protocol and so it can be directly routed to cloud platforms.
4. It offers one-to-many and many-to-one routing.
5. In the network, leaf nodes can be in sleep mode for a longer duration of time.
Disadvantages of 6LoWPAN:
1. It is comparatively less secure than Zigbee.
2. It has lesser immunity to interference than that Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
3. Without the mesh topology, it supports a short range.
Applications of 6LoWPAN:
1. It is a wireless sensor network.
2. It is used in home-automation,
3. It is used in smart agricultural techniques, and industrial monitoring.
Security and Interoperability with 6LoWPAN:

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 Security: 6LoWPAN security is ensured by the AES algorithm, which is a link layer
security, and the transport layer security mechanisms are included as well.
 Interoperability: 6LoWPAN is able to operate with other wireless devices as well which
makes it interoperable in a network
 RPL
RPL specifies a routing protocol specially adapted for the needs of IPv6 communication over
“low-power and lossy networks” or LLNs, supporting peer to peer traffic (point to point),
communication from a central server to multiple nodes on the LLN( point to multipoint P2MP)
and vice versa (multipoint to point MP2P). The base RPL specification is optimized only for
MP2P traffic (upward routing or converge cast used, e.g., in metering networks) or P2MP, and
P2P is optimized only through use of additional mechanisms such as draft-ietf-roll-p2p-rpl.
Such LLNs are a constrained environment, which imply specific requirements explored by the
IETF ROLL working group in RFC5867, RFC5826, RFC5673, and RFC5548. RPL has been
designed according to these LLN specific requirements (typically on networks supporting
6LoWPAN), but is not limited to operation over LLNs.
Multiple concurrent instances of RPL may operate in a given network, each RPL
instance is characterized by a unique RPLinstanceID. The following sections describe the
behavior of an individual RPL instance.
RPL is a...
● Distance Vector (DV) protocol
● Source Routing Protocol
• What is a Distance Vector (DV) protocol?
• The term distance vector refers to the fact that the protocol manipulates
vectors (arrays) of distances toother nodes in the network
• Intra-domain routing protocol
• Requires that a router inform its neighbors of topologychanges
periodically
• Have less computational complexity and messageoverhead
• Distance-vector protocols are based on calculating the Direction and
Distance to anylink in a network.
• "Direction" usually means the next hop address and the exit interface.
• "Distance" is a measure of the cost to reach a certain node.
• The least cost route between any two nodes is the route with minimum distance.
• Each node maintains a vector (table) of minimum distance to every node.
• The cost of reaching a destination is calculated using various route metrics
What is a Source Routing (path addressing) protocol?
Allows a sender of a packet to partially or completely specify the route the packet takes
through the network.Enables a node to discover all the possible routes to a host.
The RPL routing protocol builds one or more destination oriented direct acyclic graphs
(DODAG). Each DODAG is a directed graph with no cycles and with a single root node (see
Figure 12.6). The graph is built according to optimization objectives specified by an objective
function. The objective function is not specified by RPL itself, but in other companion
documents according to domain-specific requirements: for the available network metrics, the OF
computes the “rank” measuring the “distance” between the node and the DODAG root and also
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defines the parent node selection policy, for instance an objective function could seek to
minimize the expected packet delay, while another might want to avoid routing through any
battery-operated node .
RPL requires bidirectional links. Bidirectional connectivity must be verified before accepting a
router as a parent, for example, by using IPv6 neighbor unreachability detection

RPL Instance: DODAGs sharing the same RPL InstanceID

DODAG The DODAG root is DODAG
characterized by its
DODAG ID
root 1 root 2
1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Router Leaf node Node rank (*)

Figure 12.6 RPL builds a destination-oriented direct acyclic graph (DODAG).

Protocol Configuration
RPL creates a tree-like topology ( DAG or directed acyclic graph ). Each node within the
network has an assigned rank (Rank), which increases as the teams move away from the root
node (DODAG ). The nodes forward packets using the route with the lowest rank as route
selection criteria.
Three types of ICMPv6 packets are defined :
 DIS (DODAG Information Request ): used to request information from nearby DODAGs,
analogous to router request messages used to discover existing networks
 DIO ( DAG information object ): message that shares information from the DAG , sent in
response to DIS messages, as well as periodically used to refresh the information of the
nodes on the network topology
 DAO (update object to destination): sent towards the DODAG, it is a message sent by the
equipment to update the information of its "parent" nodes throughout the DAG .

RPL Security
RPL defines three security models:

– The “unsecured” model does not implement specific security features at RPL level,
however the layer 2 network may implement some level of security (e.g., a 802.15.4
network key).
– The “preinstalled” model requires all RPL nodes to be configured with preprovisioned
keys, which they use to code and decode secure RPL messages. Secure RPL messages
have the high order bit of the code field set .
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 - The “authenticated” mode that also uses a preinstalled key, but only to join the network
as a leaf node. The node will need to obtain a key or a certificate from an authentication
authority to join an authenticated RPLInstance as a router. This last mechanism is not
fully defined yet and will require future companion specifications.
IP Based Internet Protocols
Multiple electronic devices which are equipped with a unique IP address and communicated
with over internet are called the Internet of Things (IoT). In multiple ways, we can define IoT
but finally, in this technology, we can control the number of electronic devices through a single
device with the help of the Internet. Here, the electronic devices in IoT technology should have
the sensors and it should sense the signal through electrically and functions according to it. And
the sensed data transferred to the other device through the Internet. IoT will make our life so
simple and accurate. Present this technology has huge job opportunities and still there are many
developments are going on. Examples for IoT devices like a smart watch, smart speakers, smart
TV’s, Amazon Alexa, Google Home devices are internet-connected devices come under
examples of IoT. This article discusses what is IoT, IoT protocols, and architectures
The protocol is defined as a set of rules and regulation guidelines having how to react for
commands from another device. These protocols are very important while in communication
devices. The general-purpose protocols like CDMA, WAP, etc are not suitable for this
specific IoT technology. This technology needs some more powerful protocols.

Some of the Specific IoT Protocols List

 MQTT – Message Queue Telemetry Transport Protocol
 DDS – Data Distribution Service
 AMQP – Advanced Message Queuing Protocol
 CoAP – Constrained Application Protocol
1)Message Queue Telemetry Transport Protocol
Machine to machine communication can be with this MQTT. It was developed by IBM. Message
queue telemetry transport protocol is a messaging protocol. This protocol collects the data from
the devices and forwards to the network. So the connection between the devices and network can
be done by this protocol. It’s a simple protocol which sends the data from the sensors to devices
and then towards the network. This is the top protocol of the TCP/IP protocol reference model.
The three elements in MQTT protocol in IoT. They are subscriber, publisher and dealer/broker.
The data can be interchanged between subscriber and publisher. The dealer/broker enables the
safety connection between the subscriber and publisher. MQTT runs over the TCP/IP model.
Because of this MQTT protocol cannot be used for all types of IoT applications.

2). Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP)

This advanced message queuing is a suitable protocol for the message-oriented middleware
environments. This was developed by John Hara from JP Morgan Chase, London. This IoT

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communication protocol useful for the exchange of reliable message can be done with this
AMQP.
The publisher can communicate with subscriber through AMQP carrier. The messages from the
publisher can be store in the carrier of AMQP and as per the message queue and order, they will
be forwarded to the relevant subscriber with proper security system line. AMQP has the
following three capabilities which make it more reliable and secure. This protocol has the below
processing chain.

amqp-protocol
Exchange: Receives the messages from the publishers and based on priorities they are
forwarded to message queues.
Message Queue: Stores the messages until they are properly processed with client software.
Binding: The connection between the exchange and message queue will state by this binding
component.
3). Data Distribution Service (DDS)
This protocol is an IoT standard which is developed by Object Management Group (OMG). This
DDS can be used in small devices which occupies less area and as well as in the cloud. This is a
middleware protocol (lies between operating system and application) and API (Application
Programming Interface) which enables the data connectivity between devices. This architecture
is best suitable for IoT application. This protocol software is best for interchanging the
information and quick data integration in IoT systems. This one supports the major
software programming languages. Scalable, real-time and reliable communication can be
possible with this Data Distribution Service (DDS).
dds-protocol
This DDS standard has two layers. They are:
 Data-Centric Publish-Subscribe (DCPS)
 Data Local Reconstruction Layer (DLRL)
DCPS layer delivers the information to all subscribers whereas DLRL providing the interface to
the functionalities of DCPS.

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4). Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
This protocol is an internet utility protocol for the few (restricted) IoT gadgets. It is useful in
most of IoT applications. Initially, CoAP is used in the machine to machine communications.
CoAP is the alternate protocol for the HTTP. This protocol has an effective XML interchange
data format technique. It is a different technique of binary data format has more preferable in
terms of space. This could be better than plain text HTML/XML file. CoAP has four different
types of messages. They are: non-confirmable, confirmable, reset and acknowledgment. For
reliable and secure transmission over UDP confirmable messages are used and the responses can
be in the form of acknowledgment. CoAP is a very lightweight protocol and it uses DTLS
(Datagram Transport Layer Security) for providing more security and reliable communications.
These are the important protocols of the Internet of Things protocols or IoT protocols.
IoT Protocol Architecture
The most interesting point here is, IoT has don’t have any particular architecture. The researchers
proposed different IoT architectures. But in that most proposed architectures three-layer
architectures & five-layer architecture.
Three-layer IoT Architecture
This architecture introduced in the early days of research of IoT technology. The three-layers are
in IoT architecture is for

3-layer-iot-architecture
Application Layer: This layer is to deliver the specific application to the end-user. The
specific applications can be done with this application layer. Example of this layer like a smart
watch, smartphone, smart TV, etc. which is used for a specific application.
Network Layer: Network layer have an important role in IoT architecture. It connects to the
other smart electronic devices (smart watches, servers, etc). The network layer is for transmitting
and processing the sensor data.
Perception Layer: It is the physical layer and it gathers the surroundings data by sensing the
area with help the of sensors.
Five-layer IoT Architecture

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Another architecture which is five-layers IoT architecture is proposed by the researchers who
were worked on IoT. In this five-layer IoT architecture, the three-layers which are the
application, network, and perception layers are having same architecture like three-layer IoT
architecture. Additionally, the Business layer, Transport layer, and processing layer are the new
one.

5-layer-iot-architecture

Transport Layer: This layer forward the data from the processing layer to perception layer and
vice versa through wireless networks like LAN, 3G, and Bluetooth, etc.
Processing Layer: It is in the middle of the IoT architecture. It’s having an important role in this
five-layer IoT architecture. This layer stores the data and process the data which comes from the
transport layer. This processing layer able to implement latest technologies like big data, DBMS
and cloud computing, etc.
Business Layer: This layer is the head of the IoT architecture. It manages the complete IoT
system even applications, user’s privacy, profit models, etc.
The smart home consists of all the devices are connected with a network and communicated with
the internet. To develop a smart system like this five-layer IoT protocol stack is the best one.
This concept having more weight in the research area. And there are tremendous changes are
happening in IoT technology day today. We can do more research on this IoT protocols and
architectures. Here, we have discussed some of the important IoT protocols only. And the few
regular protocols like Bluetooth, WiFi, ZigBee, NFC, Cellular, Long ranged WAN and RFID are
not discussed here. You can get more data from those on our leprous portal.
 REST API (Introduction)
Representational State Transfer (REST) is an architectural style that defines a set of constraints
to be used for creating web services. REST API is a way of accessing web services in a simple
and flexible way without having any processing.
REST technology is generally preferred to the more robust Simple Object Access Protocol
(SOAP) technology because REST uses less bandwidth, simple and flexible making it more
suitable for internet usage. It’s used to fetch or give some information from a web service. All
communication done via REST API uses only HTTP request.
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Working: A request is sent from client to server in the form of a web URL as HTTP GET or
POST or PUT or DELETE request. After that, a response comes back from the server in the form
of a resource which can be anything like HTML, XML, Image, or JSON. But now JSON is the
most popular format being used in Web Services.

In HTTP there are five methods that are commonly used in a REST-based Architecture i.e.,
POST, GET, PUT, PATCH, and DELETE. These correspond to create, read, update, and delete
(or CRUD) operations respectively. There are other methods which are less frequently used like
OPTIONS and HEAD.
 GET: The HTTP GET method is used to read (or retrieve) a representation of a resource. In
the safe path, GET returns a representation in XML or JSON and an HTTP response code of
200 (OK). In an error case, it most often returns a 404 (NOT FOUND) or 400 (BAD
REQUEST).

 POST: The POST verb is most often utilized to create new resources. In particular, it’s used
to create subordinate resources. That is, subordinate to some other (e.g. parent) resource. On
successful creation, return HTTP status 201, returning a Location header with a link to the
newly-created resource with the 201 HTTP status.
NOTE: POST is neither safe nor idempotent.
 PUT: It is used for updating the capabilities. However, PUT can also be used to create a
resource in the case where the resource ID is chosen by the client instead of by the server. In
other words, if the PUT is to a URI that contains the value of a non-existent resource ID. On
successful update, return 200 (or 204 if not returning any content in the body) from a PUT. If
using PUT for create, return HTTP status 201 on successful creation. PUT is not safe
operation but it’s idempotent.
 PATCH: It is used to modify capabilities. The PATCH request only needs to contain the
changes to the resource, not the complete resource. This resembles PUT, but the body
contains a set of instructions describing how a resource currently residing on the server
should be modified to produce a new version. This means that the PATCH body should not
just be a modified part of the resource, but in some kind of patch language like JSON Patch
or XML Patch. PATCH is neither safe nor idempotent.
 DELETE: It is used to delete a resource identified by a URI. On successful deletion, return
HTTP status 200 (OK) along with a response body.
Idempotence: An idempotent HTTP method is a HTTP method that can be called many times
without different outcomes. It would not matter if the method is called only once, or ten times
over. The result should be the same. Again, this only applies to the result, not the resource itself.
Example:

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 1. a = 4 // It is Idempotence, as final value(a = 4)
// would not change after executing it multiple
// times.

2. a++ // It is not Idempotence because the final value

// will depend upon the number of times the
// statement is executed.

Request and Response

Now we will see how request and response work for different HTTP methods. Let’s assume we
have an API(https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/api/students) for all students data of gfg.
 GET: Request for all Students.

Request

GET:/api/students

 POST: Request for Posting/Creating/Inserting Data

Request

POST:/api/students
{“name”:”Raj”}

 PUT or PATCH: Request for Updating Data at id=1

Request

PUT or PATCH:/api/students/1
{“name”:”Raj”}

 DELETE: Request for Deleting Data of id=1

Request

DELETE:/api/students/1

RESTful web services are very popular because they are light weight, highly scalable and
maintainable and are very commonly used to create APIs for web-based applications.
 What Is the Edge in IoT and Where Is It Located?
The Internet-of-Things (IoT) edge is where sensors and devices communicate real-time data to a
network. IoT edge computing solves latency issues associated with the cloud, as data is
processed closer to its point of origin. Along with reduced latency, IoT edge architecture brings
enhanced safety and a smoother end-user experience.

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On a high-throughput network, such as 5G, IoT edge can be used to process large amounts of
data nearly instantaneously, creating a more immersive, comprehensive experience for the user.
At the same time, even when relatively small sums of data are transmitted, IoT edge can make
machines and other devices that impact human safety work faster, keeping operators and others
safer.
Why IoT Edge Computing is Important
Edge computing involves processing data near its source instead of sending it long distances to
be processed by a remote server. This solves several important problems, many of which are
associated with the latency created when data has to travel long distances.

For example, if a factory uses machines on its assembly line and their inputs are processed using
a remote, cloud-based server, there could be significant safety issues. The time it takes for an
input to be received by the device, get sent to the server in the cloud, processed, and then have
the corresponding command sent back to the machine could be too much. If the command
involves telling the machine to stop functioning because a human limb is in the way, serious
injury could result.

With IoT edge, the data may only have to travel yards instead of miles, saving precious time and
enhancing safety.
IoT Edge Devices
IoT edge computing depends on devices to receive, process, and output IoT data. This involves a
system of connectivity dependent on devices and sensors. The data gets sent through a
messaging system, processed by a computer, and then stored. Because IoT devices generate,
process, and implement large amounts of data, keeping the computing process near the edge
prevents latency and operational issues.

An IoT edge device is internet-enabled and typically comprised of sensors. These sensors collect
data and then pass it on to the processing unit. Here, it is processed locally instead of going
through the time-consuming sequence of sending it to the cloud and back. IoT devices can save
network resources by collecting and processing data in a distributed fashion. In this way,
workloads are spread among available devices, ensuring that none gets overworked or
underutilized.
Examples of IoT Devices
Some common IoT edge devices include an IoT server, which processes data at the edge, and an
IoT router, which works as an IoT hub, transmitting data to the necessary recipients. Self-driving
cars are also IoT devices in that they produce, process, and use data without needing the cloud—
for at least some of their processes.
Role of Machine Learning
Machine learning (ML) plays a key role in IoT edge runtime and IoT applications, and many
DevOps teams include it as they design applications. ML can be used to help certain IoT edge
devices understand and make predictions based on the data they store and process.

An ML application programming interface (API) can gather data from an IoT edge device and
recognize patterns of inputs, user behavior, atmospheric conditions, and more. It can then predict

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what the next input may be and apportion the proper resources to handle it, thus reducing the
amount of time it takes to process and return the data.

Going back to the example of a factory with IoT edge devices, ML can help predict what will
happen next when a person crosses a certain threshold. For example, suppose the danger zone of
a machine consists of a three-foot radius around it. If people continually pass by sensors within
eight feet of the machine but not cross into the danger zone, ML can recognize that pattern and
keep the machines functioning normally when those conditions are met.

However, if sensors are placed at four feet and the algorithm learns that 80% of the time
someone who passes within four feet proceeds to cross the three-foot barrier, it can use this data
to prep the machines for going offline. The same inputs can be used to set off alerts or even set
up a series of safety alerts that are triggered by various distances.
Role of an IoT Gateway
An IoT gateway enables communication between devices, as well as between devices and the
cloud. Its main functions include data filtering and analytics. It can also be programmed to
handle the authentication of data that should be sent to cloud services, making it capable of
enhancing data safety in real time, thereby improving IoT security.

If an edge agent has to communicate with another device or the cloud, the IoT gateway processes
the request, clears it, and sends the information to its destination. The data that gets sent can be
analyzed, and the results of the analysis can be used to identify ways to increase the efficiency of
the system.

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