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Structure of English

MODULE 6: Syntactic Structures

INTRODUCTION
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of sentence formations and the
associated grammar rules (Foorman, et al., 2016). Knowledge of syntax enables us to understand
how sentences work in terms of the meanings behind word order, the sentence structures, and the
needed punctuation. Syntax skills are important as they help readers understand increasingly
complex texts.

Syntax also helps in the understanding of how words are combined to create phrases and
clauses in the sentences of a specific language. It helps us to make sensible and clear sentences
that sound right, where words, phrases, and clauses each serve their functions and are correctly
ordered to form and communicate a complete sentence with meaning. The rules of syntax helps in
forming sentences with correct word order and show the relationship between the meaning of a
group of words. Thus, knowledge of syntax is vital in making sensible sentences.

In this module, you shall learn about the various syntactic structures and their components.
You will learn how to diagram elements of sentences to understand structures such as modification,
predication, coordination, and complementation.

Time Frame: One week; 9 hours

Objectives

Image from Google.com

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Describe the syntactic structures;

2. Analyze the syntactic structures of sentences; and
3. Diagram sentences using tree diagram.

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Let us Start.
Your knowledge about a particular language allows you to
understand how words should be ordered to come up with sensible
sentences. Try your skill constructing sentences by arranging words
in correct order.

ENGAGE

Activity 1: Using Correct Word Order to Form Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences
Instruction: Arrange the following groups of words to form meaningful phrases, clauses, and
sentences. Then identify whether the structure formed is Phrase, Clause, or a Sentence.

1. an of the engineer company

___________________________________________________________________________
2. dangerous are animals the Sharks most
___________________________________________________________________________
3. was was There whose once a little Kid Billy Goat growing horns think he him made that
grown-up a
____________________________________________________________________________
4. the the when home flock started pasture from
____________________________________________________________________________
5. Kid the knew hope him little for was there
____________________________________________________________________________

Let’s EXPLORE:
Let us explore your background knowledge about some key terms related to
syntactic structures— the HEAD and the MODIFIER.

Activity 1 : Identifying Heads and Modifiers

Instructions: Identify the head and the modifier in the given phrases. Determine also their word
classes.

Head/Word class Modifier/Word Class

1. a great calamity Calamity - noun a great - adjective
2. the boy raised by dogs
3. went crazy
4. extremely happy
5. dreams to travel the world
6. pleasing to the eyes
7. rather lonely
8. two days before the due date
9. notoriously famous
10. has frequently been seen

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Activity 2 : Identifying the Constituents of a Sentence

Instruction: Identify the function of each element of the given sentences.

Example: The mouse was chased by the cat.

Det N aux MV Prep Det N

Where: Det – determiner, N -noun, Aux – auxiliary verb, MV -main verb, Prep – preposition

1. A man was on the roof.

2. The astronomer saw the quasar with a telescope.
3. Her dream is to travel around the world.

Knowledge is Power.
Explain

In Structural Grammar, groups of words can be analyzed based on the relationship they
hold. This can be represented in terms of structures and their major components. There are five
main types of syntactic structures:

1. Structure of Modification: Head + Modifier

M H H M H M

Ex: large / house sing / sweetly the boy / who cried

2. Structure of Predication: Subject + Predicate

S P S P S P

Ex: they / left your brother / came yesterday It / is marvelous

3. Structure of Complementation: Verbal element + Complement

VB C VB C VB C

Ex: seems / a good place kept / it a secret give / him a call

4. Structure of Subordination: Subordination + Dependent Unit

SUB D SUB D SUB D
Ex: owing to / the delay in / the room after / they left

5. Structure of Coordination: 2 or more conjoins with a coordinator

CN CO CN CO CN CO CN CN CN CO CN
Ex: you / and / me neither / by bus / nor / by train read, / write / or / edit

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Major Components, Principal Pattern of Order, and Functions of the Syntactic Structures

In the following sections, each of the five structures will be presented in terms of its major
components, the principal pattern of order and a range of functions that it may hold.

Structure of Modification

A structure of modification consists of a head (H) and a modifier (M). The head carries the
principal meaning while the modifier serves to describe, limit, intensify the meaning of the head. Both
the head and the modifier may be either single words, phrases or clauses. In terms of ordering, the
modifier can precede or follow the head.
Below, the structures of modification will be presented based on the types of heads.

1. Noun or Noun Phrase as Head

Examples below show a range of modifiers that can occur with nouns or noun phrases as heads; all
the modifiers are underlined. The pronominal modifiers are presented first.
▪ Determiner as modifier: the boy
▪ Noun as modifier (called “noun adjunct”): chocolate cake
▪ Verb as modifier - present participle form: chattering girls
- past participle form: recommended lists
▪ Adjective as modifier: pretty women

The post nominal modifiers include the following.

▪ Noun Phrase as modifier (called “noun phrase in apposition” or “ appositive”):
my uncle, the doctor
▪ Adverb as modifier: the house over there
▪ Infinitive as modifier: a house to rent
▪ Infinitival Phrase as modifier: a book to present to class
▪ Present Participial Phrase as modifier: the boy coming in second
▪ Past Participial Phrase as modifier: people raised in the city
▪ Adjective Phrase as modifier: children, big and small
▪ Prepositional Phrase as modifier: the house on the hill
▪ Relative Clause as modifier: the stranger whom I met

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2. Verb or Verb Phrase as Head

a. Adverb as Verb Modifier

All of the adverb kinds can modify the verb. The position may be after or before verb; or between the
verb auxiliaries.
E.g. After verb Before the verb
He works successfully He successfully tried
He drives rapidly He slowly drove
He is moving ahead
He was looking sidewise Between Auxiliary-Verb
He can swim backward He has sometimes seen
He has looked everywhere He has seldom been heard
He stepped inside It may even rain
Since particular adverb can also modify the noun, it is often ambiguous.
E.g.
Children have nowadays many kinds of toys
In this sentence, the word ‘nowadays’ can modify the word ‘children’, or it may modify the word
‘have’.

b. Noun as Verb Modifier

Several particular nouns can be verb modifier. The position is after verb and this noun has a noun
determiner because noun after verb also can be an object of verb. If the noun can be changed
by it or them, the noun must be an object not modifier.
E.g. Structure of Modification Structure of Complementation
(Noun as Verb Modifier) (Noun as The Object)
He walked this way He likes his own way
He saw a mile He measured a mile

c. Adjective as Verb Modifier

There are some kinds of adjective that have purpose to modify a verb and give a special expression.
E.g. The machine ran true
The dog went crazy
The show fell flat
The same verb can be followed by adjective if they are intransitive verb.

d. Verb as Verb Modifier

Some structure of Modification with verb as the Head can be followed by another verb as modifier.
The verb modifier can be present participle or infinitive form.
E.g. The children came running
He lives to eat
In some cases, it can be found an ambiguity between verb as modifier and verb as object.
E.g. As modifier As Object
He works to succeed He wants to succeed

Verb as Object can be changed by ‘it’ while verb as modifier cannot be changed by ‘it’. However,
some structure of modification may have verb which can be both modifier and object.
E.g. He loves to live
He studies to succeed

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e. Prepositional Phrases as Verb Modifier

It is frequent for the prepositional phrases to modify the verb.

E.g. (He) spoke about his work
(He) came rapidly down the street on a bicycle

Modifiers of different types can occur with verbs or verb phrases as heads. Identify the types of the
underlined modifiers to the verbs phrases below. Pay attention to the position of the modifiers in
relation to the heads.

Type of Modifier Position of Modifiers

- never said a word _______________________ __________________________
- has completely forgotten _______________________ __________________________
- climbed two feet _______________________ __________________________
- went crazy _______________________ __________________________
- works to succeed _______________________ __________________________
- lay gasping for breath _______________________ __________________________
- dreamt about the holiday _______________________ __________________________
- behaved as if he were my master _______________________ __________________________

3. Adjective as Head

Adjective that habitually modify noun or verb also become the Head of structure of modification.

a. Qualifier as Adjective Modifier

The word that is mostly used as modifier of Adjective is Qualifier such as very, rather, pretty, etc.
E.g. She is very pretty
The sound was loud enough

b. Adverb as Adjective Modifier

Adverb that can modify the adjective is adverb that is ended by {-ly}
E.g. The widely famous (singer)
If adjective comes after the linking verb, adverb does not modify the adjective anymore. The function
is as the modifier of the structure of complementation.
E.g. The house seems clean everywhere

c. Noun as Adjective Modifier

In some special expression, noun can modify the adjective.

E.g. Stone cold (coffee)
Sea green (cloth)

d. Verb as Adjective Modifier

Adjective can be modified by the verb in present participle form (-ing) that usually precedes the
adjective, or by to-infinitive that follows adjective
E.g. freezing cold hard to say
boiling hot good to see

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e. Adjective as Adjective Modifier

For special expression, adjective can modify the other adjective

E.g. Icy cold dark blue deathly pale

f. Prepositional Phrases as Adjective Modifier

The position of the prepositional phrases as adjective modifier is after the adjective
E.g. easy on the eyes good for nothing stronger than ever

Adjective may function as head in structure of modification, with different types of words and
phrases as modifiers. Identify the types of the underlined modifiers to the adjectives below. Pay
attention to the position of the modifiers in relation to the heads.

Type of Modifier Position of Modifiers

- extremely important ________________________ ___________________________
- quite hungry ________________________ ___________________________
- helpful in every way ________________________ ___________________________
- house high ________________________ ___________________________
- bright blue ________________________ ___________________________
- boiling hot ________________________ ___________________________
- easy to follow ________________________ ___________________________

4. Adverb as Head

There are four class words that can modify the adverb

a. Qualifiers as Adverb Modifier

E.g. very easily rather slowly happily enough

b. Adverbs as Adverb Modifier

E.g. far away sometimes below

c. Noun as Adverb Modifier

E.g. a meter away some way up

d. Prepositional Phrases as Adverb Modifier

E.g. away for a week behind in his work outside in the cold

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When an adverb is used as head, a range of modifiers is quite limited. Identify the types of the
underlined modifiers to the adverbs below.

Type of Modifier Positions of modifiers

- beautifully indeed _________________________ __________________________

- unbelievably well _________________________ __________________________

- two minutes before _________________________ __________________________

- outside in the dark _________________________ ___________________________

5. Prepositional Phrase as Head

Preposition can be a Head of Structure of Modification. Modifier of preposition is qualifiers, adverbs,

or particular nouns.

E.g. very like (a whale) almost beneath (notice)

Adverb that follows the prepositional phrases becomes the modifier of prepositional phrases, while
adverb that precedes the prepositional phrases becomes the modifier of the preposition only.

Prepositional phrase may occur as head in structure of modifier of modification, with certain
types of modifiers. Identify the types of the underlined modifiers to the prepositional phrases below.

Type of Modifier Positions of modifiers:

- much above average _______________________ ____________________________

- clearly off tune _______________________ ____________________________

- five days before the deadline _______________________ ____________________________

Reference: Structure of American English by W. Nelson Francise. Page 297-325

6. Clause as head

A Whole clause can occur with modifiers of various types. These modifiers are called “sentence
modifiers”. Identify the types of the underlined sentence modifiers below. Pay attention to their
position.
Type of Modifier Position
- He came to my recue, fortunately. _____________________ _________________
- The research, in my opinion, is complete. ____________________ _________________
- Threatened by the police, the criminal confessed. ____________________ _________________
- To win a lotto, you have to start buying one. _____________________ _________________
- When you see him, you will recognize him. _____________________ _________________

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Structure of Predication

A structure of predication consists of a subject (S) and a predicate (P). the subject can be a
word, a phrase or a clause of various types, whereas a predicate can be only a verb or a verb
phrase. The form of the verb in the predicate may be either finite or non-finite. As for ordering,
the subject normally precedes the predicates. Still, in some cases, the predicate may precede
the subject; this is called “Inversion”. One may even find the subject in the middle of the
predicate.

S P
- The girls / gathered wild flowers.

S P
- We / watched a kitten trying to climb a tree.

S P
- We / will get someone to repair the door.

P S
- Down the street came / a mad dog.
P S P
- How did / she / react to your comment?

Identify the type of the underlined subject below.

Type of subject
- The driver of the speeding car signaled for a left turn. ________________________
- Studying demands most of her time. ________________________
- To obey is to follow a command or request. ________________________
- Helpful to the blind is what you should be. ________________________
- Here is too dark. ________________________
- On the pavement is where they are standing. ________________________
- Whoever closed the door must have been real careful. ________________________

Structure of Complementation

A structure of complementation is a verb phrase consisting of two major components: a

verbal element (VB) and a complement (C). The verbal element may be a finite verb or verb phrase,
or a non-finite verb in the form of an infinitive, an infinitive without „to‟ or a present participle. The
complement is an essential part; it cannot be omitted since it helps make the construction
meaningful.
There are four kinds of verbs that occur in the structure of complementation; each has its
own complement or set of complements as follow.

- linking verb + subjective complement

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VB SC
becomes / a real teacher

- mono-transitive verb + direct object

VB DO
drinking / low-fat milk

- di- transitive verb + indirect object + direct object

VB IO DO
to tell / the class / all the instructions

- complex-transitive verb + direct object + objective complement

VB DO OC
considered / the policy / a smart one

Complements may be words, phrases, or clauses of various types.

Circle the linking verb. Identify the type of the underlined subjective complement below.

Type of subjective complement

- Those trainees seem nervous. _____________________________________

- The time to leave is now. _____________________________________
- My brother became an engineer of the company. _____________________________________
- Her job is to bathe the babies. _____________________________________
- The problem is he can’t keep his promise. _____________________________________
-Jane feels happy to return home. _____________________________________

Circle the mono-transitive verb. Identify the type of the underlined direct object below.

Type of direct object

- Jane enjoys swimming. _____________________________________
- The boys think they saw a ghost. _____________________________________
- My girlfriend is planning to open a store. _____________________________________
- Liz likes walking in the park. _____________________________________
- The committee agreed the oral defense was satisfactory. _________________________

Circle the di-transitive verb. Identify the type of the underlined indirect object below.

Type of indirect object

- The teacher told the class her expectation. ________________________________
- The club promised them a farewell party. ________________________________
- I will give whoever wins a kiss. ________________________________

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Circle the complex-transitive verb. Identify the type of the underlined objective complement below.
Type of objective complement
- The board appointed him chairman of the committee. ___________________________
- They will hold you responsible for all the damage. ___________________________
- The judge declared Martha guilty. ___________________________
- We found the little boy alone. ___________________________
- I will have my apartment refurnished. ___________________________
- Their answer keeps us in doubt. ___________________________

Some verbs have homonyms, which are different types of verbs. Identify the type of the underlined
verb of verb phrase below as either linking verb, mono-transitive verb, ditransitive verb, complex-
transitive verb, or intransitive verb.

Type of verb
- He sounded his horn raucously. ___________________________
- The music sounds lovely. ___________________________
- The church bells sounded faintly in the distance. ___________________________
- She made him a good husband. ___________________________
- She is making him a cake. ___________________________
- She has made him promise. ___________________________
- She will make a good wife. ___________________________

Structure of Coordination

A structure of coordination consists of two or more conjoins with a coordinator or

coordinators. The conjoins can be words, phrases, or clauses of any types that are syntactically
equivalent units. The coordinators may be coordinating conjunction e.g. „and, but, or‟, correlative
conjunction e.g. „either…or, not only… but also‟. This is the only structure that contains more than
two components.

CN CO CN
- quickly / as well as / quietly

CO CN CO CN
- either / stay home / or / go out jogging

CO- CN -CO CN
- not only/ what he claimed / but also / what they mentioned

Conjoins usually belong to the same category and may have the same structure. This is a
simple version of conjoins as “syntactically equivalent units”.

CN1 CN2
- both buy the grocery and cook dinner
CN1 = verb phrase, structure of complementation
CN2 = verb phrase, structure of complementation

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CN1 CN2
- (the topic) which surprised everyone and which amazed me
CN1 = relative clause, structure of predication
CN2 = relative clause, structure of predication

Similar to other structures, structures of coordination can perform several functions in larger
constructions such as head, subject or complement.

Syntactic Tree Diagram

The tree diagram is a method for diagramming sentences that is most commonly used by linguists
and other academic professionals.

In a tree diagram, a sentence is divided into two parts: a subject and a predicate. They are made up
of noun phrases or verb phrases. These are groups of words that include a noun or verb and any
words that add as modifiers. The subject is a noun phrase while a predicate is usually a verb phrase.
The noun phrase A big dog is comprised of the indefinite article ‘a’, the adjective ‘big’, and the noun
‘dog’. The verb phrase jumped over the fence consists of the verb ‘jumped’ and the prepositional
phrase ‘over the fence’.

The components in a tree diagram descend from the subject and predicate in the form of lines acting
as branches. This continues until each noun or verb phrase is broken down into its simplest parts. In
the end, a sentence diagrammed in this style should look like a vast tree, with the subject and
predicate acting as the trunk and the sentence modifiers standing in as the colorful and complex
leaves that give it personality.

Now that you understand the basic premise of a Tree Diagram and how it breaks down a sentence,
let’s take a look at an example.

Seen here, the sentence is broken down into a subject and predicate. The subject is a noun phrase
that consists of the indeterminate article ‘the’ and the noun ‘dog’. The predicate is more complex, as
it consists of both a verb and a noun phrase. Breaking down the predicate, the verb is ‘ate’ and the
noun phrase is ‘the’ (indefinite article) and ‘bone’ (noun). As you can see, the tree diagram uses
minimal symbols and little complex jargon, yet clearly illustrates how each of these words relate to
and depend upon each other.

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Here is another example of a tree diagram. As you can see, this one is a bit more intricate. Let’s take
a look and break it down.

Once again, the sentence is divided into a subject and predicate. The subject is composed
of a noun phrase: ‘the’ as an indefinite article and ‘teacher’ as a noun. The predicate is more
complex than before. Its verb phrase consists of three parts: the verb ‘gave’; the noun ‘homework’;
and the prepositional phrase ‘to his students’. Are you starting to get a better understanding of
constituency and dependency now?

As a whole, tree diagrams offer a clear and more nuanced look at sentence structure without
sacrificing traditional word order. While they are primarily used by grammarians and other linguistic
specialists, they are quickly becoming the standard method of sentence diagramming, as the result
is easily comprehensible to everyone. If you are seeking to improve your writing, I recommend that
you try diagramming at least one sentence a day using this method. In doing so, you will gain a
greater understanding of how to compose grammatically correct, diverse, and impactful sentences .

Refer to these links to know more about tree diagramming.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MPWuI9whbEY

https://elearning.cpp.edu/learning-objects/syntactic-tree-structures/

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LET’S APPLY.
Demonstrate your understanding of the lesson by doing these
tasks.

``````````````
Elaborate

Activity 1: Identifying the Head and the Modifiers

For each underlined structure of modification below, draw a vertical line separating the two main
components; put H above the head and M above the modifier.

1. The new book tackles the very origins of America’s racial history.

2. The necklace must have been hidden somewhere.

3. Her maid seemed to have become incapable of any thought.

4. In one intense section a few years ago, a patient cried out loud.

5. To be sure, the orchestra is not the best in the world.

6. Her performance is a bit below average.

7. Police are advising the public against traveling in the fog.

8. That vey shiny tea kettle with a wooden handle was a gift from my sister.

9. He parked a little farther away.

10. Her eyes flashed open when she heard the news.

Activity 2: Structure of Predication

For each underlined structure of predication below, draw a vertical line separating the two
main components; put S above the subject and P above the predicate. Some sentences may
have more than 1 clause.

1. Dorothy encourages her son to pursue his interest in map till he becomes an expert.
2. Fifty yards of tiptoeing brought them to a door which the director cautiously opened.
3. I overheard my husband telling our son about a fishing game he downloaded.
4. From the ranks of the crawling babies came little squeals of excitement.

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5. Workers have reportedly seen Monarch butterflies flutter by their windows.
6. A few feet from my office live some colleagues whose parents come from Ireland.
7. Even in the dry season, I can observe grass shoots springing out.
8. Directly facing him was the box of old Mrs. Mingott, the former beauty queen.
9. “We want to raise some money for the poor”, said Mr. Kenning, the CEO.
10. These waters are frequented by whales, and locals attribute the return of fish to the recent
conservation efforts.

Activity 3: Structure of Complementation

Instructions: For each underlined structure of complementation below, draw a vertical line or lines
separating the components; put VB above the verbal element, SC above the subjective
complement, DO above the direct object, IO above the indirect object and OC above the objective
complement.

1. The sightline provides clients one of the resort’s many memorable view.
2. The high ratio of salinity in the Dead Sea creates an effect on swimming like having yourself
pumped full of air.
3. Whatever the motivations, working adult will bring the classroom life and industry experiences that
contribute to classroom dynamics.
4. Ken has made the molecular tool kit freely available to his colleagues.
5. In the past employers may have been more willing to allow new hires a longer time to learn on the
job.
6. Old-shirts are in a box in the attic, awaiting the day my girls head for college.
7. English has become more than just a tool to gain access to modern technology.
8. The textbook presents the country we lived in as colorless and dull.
9. Indigenous languages seem to have relied more and more heavily on the spoken words.
10. A lengthy competitive campaign means being willing to drop everything.

Activity 4:
Instructions: Underline every complement found; specify whether it is a (n) SC, DO, IO or OC.

The shell in my hand is simple, bare, and beautiful. It once housed a whelk, a snail-like
creature, and then temporarily, after the death of the first occupant, sheltered a little hermit crab,
who ran away, leaving behind him his track on the sand. He vacated, and left me his shell. I play with
the shell in my hand, gazing into the wide open door from which he made his exit. Did he hope to
find a better mode of shelter? I too have run away, I realize.

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Activity 5: Structure of Coordination

Underline the structures of coordination, circle the coordinator, and specify the functions of the
structures of coordination.

Function
1. We heard nothing but were not worried. _________________
2. Air-conditioning both cleans and cools buildings. _________________
3. I can lend him my razor bit not my toothbrush. _________________
4. He sent her red, pink, and yellow flowers. _________________
5. His tone was not only confident but also forceful. _________________
6. She neither slept on the couch nor went to a hotel. _________________
7. Dogs and cats often do not get along. _________________
8. They considered his answer firm but pleasant. _________________
9. He looked everywhere for his keys and wallets. _________________
10. Jane told not only her husband but also Sue the secret. _________________

Activity 6: Syntactic Structures

Draw a vertical line separating each underlined structure into its major components. For the
structure of coordination, circle the coordinator instead. Then identify the structure of each of the
underlined items using the following abbreviations.
Mod – Structure of modification
Subor – Structure of subordination
Pred – Structure of predication
Coor – Structure of coordination
Comp – Structure of complementation

________ 1. Combinations of tones (sound pleasant to the ear) when the individual frequencies are
in proportion.
________ 2. Green tea seems to boost metabolism (above and beyond the lift from caffeine alone.)
________ 3. (Ordinarily a tornado breaks up suddenly and dissipates less than four hours after it was
formed. )
________ 4. When you’re in love, your eyes light up, your face lights up, and apparently, (so do four
tiny bits of your brain. )
_______ 5. His good time as a teenager (was sitting in a coffee shop with a newspaper, writing a line
on the back of a napkin.)
________ 6. John usually says it’s (not the injuries that hurt but the regret that he failed to save the
life of that boy. )
________ 7. (With the Renaissance came advances in the arts, government, philosophy, and
science. )
________ 8. (About 18,500 new private businesses) opened in Vietnam last year bringing the
number established since January 2000 to 33,000.
________ 9. (Light projected from a source or reflected by an object) enters the cornea and lens of
the eyeball.

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________ 10. Potassium argon dating, which is used to calculate the age of ancient volcanic rocks
has caused (anthropologists to revise their estimates of the age of some Stone Age
cultures.)

Activity 7: Tree Diagramming

Instruction: Create a tree diagram to illustrate the syntactic structure of the following
sentences.

1. Mary had a little lamb.

2. Your neighbor found the lost puppy.
3. Alex put the ball in the toy box.
4. The wind chilled the tundra, and the snow battered my face.
5. Rainfall and snowfall are heavier in some areas of Antarctica.

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