Chapter 1.

Introductory Digital Concepts

Quantities – are measured, monitored, recorded, manipulated, arithmetically, observed, or in some other way
utilized in most physical systems.
Analog and Digital – Two ways of representing the numerical value of quantities.
Proportional Indicator – A quantity is represented by a continuously variable.
Automobile Speedometer’s- deflection of the needle is proportional to the speed of the car and follows any
changes that occur as the vehicle speeds up or slows down.
Mercury Thermometers – before the digital revolution used analog representation to measure temperature by
using a column of mercury whose height is proportional to temperature.
Outdoor Thermometer – on which the position of the pointer rotates around a dial as a metal coil expands and
contracts with temperature changes.
Physical quantities – are being coupled to an indicator by purely mechanical means.
Electrical analog systems – the physical quantity that is being measured or processed is converted to a
proportional voltage or current (electrical signal).
Voltage or current – is then used by the system for display, processing, or control purposes.
Sound – is an example of a physical quantity that can be represented by an electrical analog signal.
Microphone – is a device that generates an output voltage that is proportional to the amplitude of the sound
waves that strike it.
Tape recorders – can then store sound waves by using the output voltage of the microphone to proportionally
change the magnetic field on the tape.
Analog quantities – no matter how they are represented can vary over a continuous range of values.
Digits – Quantities are represented not by continuously variable indicators but by symbols.
Digital clock – provides the time of day in the form of decimal digits that represent hours and minutes.
Digital system – is a combination of devices designed to manipulate logical information or physical quantities
that are represented in digital form. The quantities can take on only discrete values.
Telephone system - the world’s largest digital system.
Analog system – contains devices that manipulate physical quantities that are represented in analog form. The
quantities can vary over a continuous range of values.
Analog in nature – physical quantities are often the inputs and outputs that are being monitored, operated on,
and controlled by a system.
A typical CD player - accepts digital data from the CD drive and converts it to an analog signal for amplification.
High and Low logic levels - represented by two different voltage levels.
Bit – a single binary number. A bit can have the value of either a Logic 0 or a logic 1, depending on if the
voltage is High or low.
Positive-going pulse – is one that goes from a normally Low logic level to a high level and then back again.
Actual pulses – are not ideal but are described by the rise time, fall time, amplitude, pulse width and other
characteristics.
Digital Waveforms – are made up of a series of pulses.
Periodic pulse waveforms – are composed of pulses that repeats in a fixed interval called the period.
Frequency – is the rate it repeats and is measured in hertz.
Clock – is a basic timing signal that is an example of a periodic wave.
Repetitive pulse waveforms – are described by the amplitude, pulse width, and duty cycle, which is the ratio of
tw to T.
Timing Diagram – is used to show the relationship between two or more digital waveforms.
AND – function produces a high output only when all the inputs are high.
OR – function produces a high output when one or more inputs are high.
NOT – function changes one logic level to the opposite logic level.
Data – refers to groups of bits that convey some type of information. It can be transmitted by either serial
transfer or parallel transfer.
Binary data – which are represented by digital waveforms, must be transferred from one device to another
within a digital system or from one system to another in order to accomplish a given purpose.
AND, OR, NOT – elements can be combined to form various logic functions.
Comparator – compares two quantities and indicates whether or not they are equal.
Adder – adds two binary numbers and generates a sum and a carry output.
Subtracter – requires three inputs: the two numbers that are to be subtracted and a borrow input to output.
Code – is a set of bits arranged in a unique pattern and used to represent specified information.
Code converter – changes one form of coded information into another coded form.
Encoder – converts information, such as a decimal number or an alphabetic character, into some coded form.
Decoder – converts coded information, such as a binary number, into a non-coded form, such as a decimal
form.
Multiplexer – or mux for short, is a logic circuit that switches digital data from several input lines onto a single
output line in a specified time sequence.
Demultiplexer – or demux is a logic circuit that switches digital data from one input line to several output lines
in a specified time sequence.
Storage – is a function that is required in most digital systems, and its purpose is to retain binary data for a
period of time.
Flip-flops – is bistable logic circuit that can store only one bit at a time, either a 1 or a 0.
Register – is formed by combining several flip-flops so that groups of bits can be stored.
Shift register – type of storage function that moves and stores data each time it is clocked.
Counting function – there are many types of digital counters, but their basic purpose is to count events
represented by changing levels or pulses.
Sequence of binary codes – that represent the number of input pulses counted.
Digital techniques – have found their way into innumerable areas of technology, but the area of automatic
digital computers is by far the most notable and most extensive.
Computer – is a system of hardware that performs arithmetic operations, manipulates data and makes
decisions.
Program – is prepared by one or more persons for each job the computer is to do. Program are placed in the
computer’s Memory unit in binary-coded form, with each instruction having a unique code.
The solid lines with arrows – represent the flow of data and information.
The dashed lines with arrows – represent the flow of timing and control signals.
Central Processing Unit – The control and arithmetic/logic units are often considered as one unit.
Input unit – Through this unit, a complete set of instructions and data is fed into the computer system and into
the memory unit, to be stored until needed.
Memory unit – The memory stores the instructions and data received from the input unit.
Control unit – This unit takes instructions from the memory unit one at a time and interprets them.
Arithmetic/logic unit – All arithmetic calculations and logical decisions are performed in this unit, which can
then send results to the memory unit to be stored.
Output unit – This unit takes data from the memory unit and prints out, displays, or otherwise presents the
information to the operator.

Chapter 2. Number Systems

Binary Number System and digital codes – are fundamental to computers and to digital electronics in general
as well as the other number systems such as decimal, hexadecimal, and octal.
Digital Codes – are Binary-Coded Decimal, the Gray code, and the ASCII codes.
Parity method – for detecting errors in codes is also a method for correcting errors.
Alphanumeric codes – include the Extended Binary-Coded Decimal interchange Code, the Baudot Code and
Hollerith code.
Radix – the position of each digit in a weighted number system is assigned a weight based on the base of the
system.
Counting in Binary - a binary counting sequence for numbers from 0-15.
Counting in Hexadecimal – since there are only ten single decimal digits, letter A to F are used to represent
numbers 10-15.
Counting in Octal – the largest octal digit is 7, so that in Counting in Octal, a digit position is incremented
upward from 0-7.
Hexadecimal and Octal – are often used in a digital system as sort of a “shorthand” way to represent strings of
bits.
Binary to decimal – The decimal equivalent of a binary number can be determined by adding the column
values of all of the bits that are 1 and discarding all of the bits that are 0.
Decimal to Binary – You can convert a decimal whole number to binary by reversing the procedure.
Binary to Hexadecimal – Hex uses 16 characters to represent numbers 0 through 9 and the alphabetic
characters A through F.
Hexadecimal to binary – Conversely, hexadecimal numbers can be converted to binary by writing the 4-bit
binary equivalent of each hexadecimal character.
Hexadecimal to decimal – is a weighted number system. The column weights are powers of 16, which increase
from right to left.
Decimal to Hexadecimal – You can convert decimal to hexadecimal by repeatedly dividing by the base which is
16.
Binary to Octal – Octal uses 8 characters, 0 through 7 to represent numbers. There is no 8 or 9 characters in
octal.
Octal to Binary – Conversely, octal numbers can be converted to binary by writing the 3-bit binary equivalent
of each octal number.
Octal to Decimal – Octal is also a weighted number system. The column weights are powers of 8, which
increase from right to left.
Decimal to Octal – You can convert decimal to octal by repeatedly dividing by the base which is 8.
Octal to Hexadecimal – by first writing 3-bit binary equivalent of each octal number, then regroup the binary
numbers into 4-bits and convert each 4-bit binary group to its equivalent hexadecimal character.
Hexadecimal to Octal – Hexadecimal numbers can be converted to octal by first writing the 4-bit binary
equivalent of each hexadecimal number then regroup the binary numbers into 3 and convert each 3-bit binary
group to its equivalent octal number.

Chapter 3. Arithmetic Operations in Number Systems

Digital Computers and Calculators – perform the various arithmetic operations on numbers that are
represented in binary form.
Complement Systems – are used in digital computers for simplifying the subtraction operation and for logical
manipulation.
Radix Complement – also known as the True Complement or R’s complement.
Diminished Radix Complement – Also known as the Radix-Minus-One Complement or (R-1)’s complement
Handwritten arithmetic – use plus (+) sign for positive numbers and minus (-) sign for negative numbers.
Hardware – limitations suggest everything be represented using binary digit (bit) that is placed on the leftmost
position of the number.
Types of Signed-number Systems
1. Signed-magnitude System – The polarity of numbers are represented using the symbol or sign on the
left side of the magnitude of the number in decimal, octal or hexadecimal.
2. Signed-complement System – For all number systems, positive numbers are represented using the
normal unsigned format.
Signed-Magnitude Addition – Addition of two signed-magnitude system follows the rules of ordinary
arithmetic.
Signed-Complement Addition – Addition of two signed binary numbers where negative numbers represented
in a signed 2’s complement is obtained
Signed-Complement Subtraction – Subtraction of two signed binary numbers when negative numbers
represented in a 2’s complement is obtained.
Chapter 4. Digital Codes
Binary Code – While digital systems represent and manipulate binary numbers, they may also represent many
other discrete elements of information.
Straight Binary codes – are used to represent any discrete elements of information that should be distinct
among a group of quantities.
Coding – is done so that digital systems can represent or manipulate non-electrical parameters that were
converted into digital form.
Binary codes for decimal digits – requires a minimum of 4 bits arranged in 10 distinct possible combinations.
Binary-Coded Decimal – for each decimal digit, a straight assignment of the binary equivalent using 4 bits
whose bit positional weights are 8,4,2 and 1 are used.
Excess 3 code – or XS3 has been used in some older computers because of its self-complementing property.
84-2-1 Code – a code that is an example of assigning both positive and negative column weights to a decimal
code.
2421 Code – Weighted code that is similar to BCD for decimal 0 to 4 but uses the leftmost weight to represent
decimal 5 to 9.
Bi-quinary Code – is a numeral encoding scheme used in many abacuses and in some early computers,
including the Colossus.
ASCII Code – Many applications of digital computers require the handling not only of numbers, but also of
other characters or symbols, such as the letters of the alphabet.
Format Effectors – are characters that control the layout of printing.
Information Separator – used to separate data into divisions such as paragraphs and pages.
Communication-Control Character – useful during transmission of text between remote terminals.
Byte – most computers manipulate an 8-bit quantity as a single unit.
EBCDIC Code – extended binary-coded decimal interchange code. 8-bit code but the assignment for characters
is different.
BAUDOT Code – 5-bit code for teletype transmission such as telegraphy
HOLLERITH Code – 12-bit code for transferring information to old computers through punched cords of 80
columns and 12 rows
Hole – is sensed as a logic 1 and the absence of hole is sensed as logic 0.
Nibble – Binary numbers are often broken down into groups of 4-bits, as we have seen with BCD codes and
hexadecimal number conversions
Word – is a group of bits that represents a certain unit of information.
Parity Error-detection Code – detects bit reversal errors when binary information is affected by external noise
during transmission and reception.
Parity Bit – An extra bit that is attached in a message to make the total number of 1’s transmitted either odd
or even.
PARITY – relationship between numbers or a relationship of oddness or evenness between two numbers or
integers.
Transmitter – must attach an appropriate parity bit to each unit of information that it transmits.
Gray Code – is unweighted and is not an arithmetic code; that is there are no specific weights assigned to the
bit positions. Also known as Reflected Binary Code after Frank Gray, is a binary numeral system where two
successive values differ in only one bit.

Chapter 5. Combinational and Sequential Logic Gates

Combinational logic – refers to the type of logic that the produced output depends only in existing or present
conditions of the inputs.
Sequential logic – refers the type of logic whose operation requires some form of memory device such as flip-
flops and latches since the outputs depend not only on the current existing or present input conditions but to
previous input conditions as well.
Logic Gates – they are the basic building blocks in digital electronics.
Truth Table – a tabulated of all possible input and output combinations of a given logic circuit.
Inputs – can either be 1,0 or even a don’t care condition.
Outputs – are either 1,0 or in some rare cases, indeterminate.
Indeterminate condition – is an unpredictable situation. It cannot be determined because of some circuit
limitation issues.
Timing Diagram – It is similar to the truth table in that it shows the outputs for the different possible inputs in
graphical form.
Time – in the context of combinational logic is not an absolute or finite value but denotes a period when such
input conditions might occur.
Inverter – also called a NOT Gate. This gate’s basic function is simply to complement the logic signal to
complement the logic signal at its input.
OR Gate – may have two or more inputs. This logic function provides a high or “1” output when at least one of
its inputs is “1”
AND Gate – Another basic logic gate whose output is a high logic output only when all inputs are high.
NOR Gate – means NOT OR. It produces a high logic output only when the inputs are all at logic low level and a
low logic output when at least one input is at a high logic level.
NAND Gate – Produces a low logic output only when all its inputs are high.
XOR Gate – known as Exclusive OR Gate. Produces a high logic output only when one but not all its input is
high.
XNOR – known as Exclusive NOR Gate. Produces a low logic output only when one but not all its input is high.
Universal NAND Gate – referred to as one of the most versatile gates in digital logic is the 2-input NAND gate.
Universal NOR Gate – meaning that any other gate can be represented as a combination of NOR gate.
Chapter 6. Boolean Operations and Expression