TECHNICAL COLLEGE

AUTOMOTIVE/HEAVY EQUIPMENT REPAIR DEPARTMENT

ADVANCED CERTIFICATE IN HEAVT EQUIPMENT ENGINEERING

MODULE 06: 15B ELECTRONICS

Introduction
Today’s machine systems found on mobile off-road equipment are most
often controlled by electronic systems, and technicians are just as likely to
use a computer as they are to use a wrench to service them. Most
machine systems cannot operate without complete or at least some
degree of electronic control. This has not always been the case. Before
the use of electronic controls, mechanical devices such as levers, springs,
linkage, gears, cables, or bellows, controlled system operation. Electronic
systems using microcontroller- and microprocessor-based control now
provide operational capabilities far exceeding any mechanical system
capabilities and can do this with greater precision, efficiency, and
reliability. The dominance and sophistication of electronic control in Heavy
Equipment Engineering makes skill development related to servicing this
technology one of the most important priorities for successful technicians.
Understanding the operating principles of electronic control systems is
foundational for choosing diagnostic strategies, using service tools
effectively, and making sound repair recommendations.
In this module, we will start our learning by first reviewing the basic
fundamental electrical principles.
ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Introduction
CIRCUITS
Circuits are pathways made by electrical conductors that enable the flow
of electrons. A variety of classifications are used to describe circuit
configurations and failures.
As shown in FIGURE 10-1, circuits consist of the following basic parts:
Power source—in the form of a battery or alternator.
Conductors—paths for electricity (e.g., wiring, printed circuits,
chassis frame).
Loads—the working devices that turn electrical energy into some
other form of energy, such as lamps (light), motors (kinetic), radio
(sound), glow plugs (heat), and more. Loads are considered the resistance
of a circuit.
Control—a device, such as a switch, that directs the flow of
electrons though the circuit.
Safety/circuit protection devices—fuses, circuit breakers, and virtual
fuses, which protect the electrical system by interrupting the flow of
current if the current flow becomes excessive

Circuits found in mobile off-road equipment are classified three ways:

Operational state—open or closed
Arrangement—simple, parallel, series, combination
Failure mode—grounded, shorted, open, resistive, and intermittent
circuit malfunctions

Operational State
“Open” and “closed” are the terms used to describe whether current is
flowing through a circuit. An open circuit’s electrical pathway is broken or
unconnected (FIGURE 10-2A). This means current cannot flow because
there is an open gap between two ends of the circuit. Current cannot
move across the gap until the opening is closed.
A closed circuit has a complete electrical pathway for current to flow
between the negative and positive terminal, as in

Electron flow and conventional flow

If an electrical pressure (electromotive force or voltage) is applied to a
conductor, a directional movement of electrons will take place (for
example, when connecting a battery to a wire). This is because the
electrons are attracted to the positive side and repelled from the negative
side. Certain conditions are necessary to cause an electron flow:
 A potential difference (voltage), e.g. from a battery or generator.
 A complete conducting path in which the electrons can move (e.g.
wires).
An electron flow is termed an electric current. Figure 1 shows a simple
electric circuit where the battery positive terminal is connected, through a
switch and lamp to the battery negative terminal.

Fig 1 A simple electrical circuit

With the switch open the chemical energy of the battery will
remove electrons from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal via the battery. This leaves the positive terminal with
fewer electrons and the negative terminal with a surplus of
electrons. An electrical pressure therefore exists between the
battery terminals.
With the switch closed, the surplus electrons at the negative
terminal will flow through the lamp back to the electron-
deficient positive terminal. The lamp will light and the chemical
energy of the battery will keep the electrons moving in
this circuit from negative to positive. This movement from
negative to positive is called the electron flow and will
continue whilst the battery supplies the pressure – in other
words, whilst it remains charged.
 Electron flow is from negative to positive.
It was once thought, however, that current flowed from
positive to negative and this convention is still followed for
most practical purposes. Conventional current flow is said
to be from positive to negative.
Effects of current flow
When current flows in a circuit, it can produce the following
effects:
Heat
The heating effect is the basis of electrical components such as
lights and heater plugs.
Magnetism
The magnetic effect is the basis of relays and motors and
generators.
Chemical
The chemical effect is the basis for electroplating and battery
charging.
Fundamental Quantities
Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law states that in a closed circuit ‘current is proportional
to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance’.
When 1 volt causes 1 ampere to flow the power used (P) is 1
watt.
Using symbols this means:
Voltage = Current X Resistance
(V = IR)
or (R = V/I)
or (I = V/R)
Power = Voltage X Current
(P = VI)
or (I = P/V)
or (V = P/I)
Describing electrical circuits
Three descriptive terms are useful when discussing electrical
circuits.
 Open circuit. This means the circuit is broken therefore
no current can flow.
 Short circuit. This means that a fault has caused a wire
to touch another
conductor and the current uses this as an easier way to
complete the circuit.
 High resistance. This means a part of the circuit has
developed a high resistance (such as a dirty connection),
which will reduce the amount of current that can flow.
CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS
All metals are conductors. Silver, copper and aluminium are
among the best and are frequently used. Liquids that will
conduct an electric current are called electrolytes. Insulators
are generally non-metallic and include rubber, porcelain, glass,
plastics, cotton, silk, wax paper and some liquids. Some
materials can act as either insulators or conductors depending
on conditions. These are called semiconductors and are used to
make transistors and diodes.

Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor

In an insulator, a large voltage applied will produce a very small
electron movement. In a conductor, a small voltage applied will
produce a large electron flow or current. The amount of
resistance offered by the conductor is determined by a number
of factors.
 Length – the greater the length of a conductor the greater
is the resistance.
 Cross-sectional area– the larger the cross-sectional area
the smaller the resistance.
 The material from which the conductor is made – the
resistance offered by a conductor will vary according to
the material from which it is made. This is known as the
resistivity or specific resistance of the material.
 Temperature – most metals increase in resistance as
temperature
increases.

TYPES OF CIRCUITS
Series circuit
When resistors are connected so that there is only one path
(Figure 2), for the same current to flow through each bulb they
are connected in series and the following rules apply:
 Current is the same in all parts of the circuit.
 The applied voltage equals the sum of the volt drops
around the circuit.
 Total resistance of the circuit (RT) equals the sum of the
individual resistance values (R1 + R2 etc.).
 Figure 2 Series circuit
Parallel circuit
When resistors or bulbs are connected such that they provide
more than one path (Figure 3. shows two paths) for the current
to flow through and have the same voltage across each
component they are connected in parallel and the
following rules apply:
 The voltage across all components of a parallel circuit is
the same.
 The total current equals the sum of the current flowing in
each branch.
 The current splits up depending on each component
resistance.
 The total resistance of the circuit (RT) can be calculated
by:
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2
or
RT = (R1 x R2)/ (R1 + R2)

Figure 3 Parallel circuit

Definitions and laws

Ohm’s law
For most conductors, the current which will flow through them
is directly proportional to the voltage applied to them.
The ratio of voltage to current is referred to as resistance. If
this ratio remains constant over a wide range of voltages, the
material is said to be ‘ohmic’.
V = I/R
where: I = Current in amps, V = Voltage in volts, R =
Resistance in ohms.
Lenz’s law
The emf induced in an electric circuit always acts in a direction
so that the current it creates around the circuit will oppose the
change in magnetic flux which caused it. Lenz’s law gives the
direction of the induced emf resulting from electromagnetic
induction. The ‘opposing’ emf is often described as a ‘back
emf’.
Kirchhoff’s laws
Kirchhoff’s 1st law:
The current flowing into a junction in a circuit must equal the
current flowing out of the junction.
This law is a direct result of the conservation of charge; no
charge can be lost in the junction, so any charge that flows in
must also flow out.
Kirchhoff’s 2nd law:
For any closed loop path around a circuit the sum of the voltage
gains and drops always equals zero.
This is effectively the same as the series circuit statement that
the sum of all the voltage drops will always equal the supply
voltage.
Faraday’s law
Any change in the magnetic field around a coil of wire will
cause an emf (voltage) to be induced in the coil. It is important
to note here that no matter how the change is produced, the
voltage will be generated. In other words, the change could be
produced by changing the magnetic field strength, moving the
magnetic field towards or away from the coil, moving the coil in
or out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil relative to the
magnetic field.
Fleming’s rules
 In an electrical machine, the First Finger lines up with the
magnetic Field, the second finger lines up with the Current
and the thumb lines up with the Motion.
Fleming’s rules relate to the direction of the magnetic
field, motion and current in electrical machines. The left
hand is used for motors, and the right hand for generators
(remember gener-righters).
Ampère’s law
For any closed loop path, the sum of the length elements
times the magnetic field in the direction of the elements is
 equal to the permeability times the electric current
enclosed in the loop. In other words, the magnetic field
around an electric current is proportional to the electric
current which creates it and the electric field is
proportional to the charge which creates it.
TABLE OF DEFINITIONS
NAME DEFINITION SYMBO COMMON UNIT ABBREVIAT
L FORMULA N
Electrical charge One coulomb is Q Q = It Coulom C
the quantity of b
electricity
conveyed by a
current of
one ampere in
one second.
Electrical flow or The number of I I = V/R Ampere A
current electrons past a
fixed point in one
second
Electrical pressure A pressure of 1 V V = IR volt V
(PDF) volt applied to a
circuit will
produce a current
flow of 1amp if
the circuit
resistance is 1
ohm
Electrical resistance This is the R R = V/I ohm 
opposition to
current
flow in a material
or circuit when a
voltage is applied
across it.
Electrical Ability of a G G = 1/R siemens S
conductance material to carry
an
electrical current.
One siemens
equals one
ampere per volt.
It was formerly
called the mho or
reciprocal ohm
Electrical power When a voltage of P P = IV watt W
1 volt causes a P = I2R
current of 1 amp P = V2/R
to flow the power
 developed is 1
watt
capacitance Property of a C C = Q/V farad F
capacitor that distance
determines how between,
much charge can permittivity
be stored in it for of dielectric)
a given potential farad F
difference
between its
terminals
Inductance Where a changing L I=(V/R)(1-e-
current in a circuit Rt/L

builds up a (i
magnetic field =instantaneo
which us current,
induces an R=
electromotive resistance, L
force either =
in the same circuit inductance, t
and opposing = time,
the current (self- e = base of
inductance) or in natural logs)
another circuit
(mutual
inductance

Electrical Versus Electronic Circuits

Even though electricity is used to operate electrical and electronic circuits,
the two types of circuit are not identical. What are the differences
between electrical and electronic circuits? Electrical circuits usually
conduct higher amounts of current through heavier conductors and
commonly operate devices such as solenoids, relays, motors, lights, and
more. Electronic circuits use electricity to operate semiconductors such as
transistors, integrated circuits, microprocessors, or microcontrollers.
Electronic circuits use less amperage and often process electrical signals
rather than perform the work of lighting, heating, and movement.

ELECTRONIC CONTROL
Introduction
As earlier said, an electronic system uses electronics to
improve safety, size, costs or efficiency of a system. But this
does not mean that electronics does control the system always.
To illustrate this, we are going to use an example of a motor
vehicle lighting system.
Simple Head Light Circuit

Fig 1 Simple Head Light Circuit

Figure 1, shows a head lamp that is switched on by the driver

when the light switch is turned to the appropriate position.
When the switch is in the correct position, it allows current to
flow from source directly to light bulbs.
The disadvantage with this type of circuit is that it all current
passes through the light switch and through all wiring, the
switch and wiring must therefore be of high quality and able to
carry the relatively high current (which creates heat).

Simple Head Light Circuit with a Relay

Figure 1 Simple Head Light Circuit with a Relay

Figure 2 shows the light circuit fitted with an electromagnetic relay. When
the driver turns the light switch to the appropriate position, it allows
current to the relay, which is then energised. However, to energise the
relay requires a very low current; therefore, the switch and the wiring will
be subjected to neither high current nor heat, and can be produced more
cheaply. When it is energised, the relay contacts (or internal switch) are
forced to close (owing to the magnetic field created by the current flowing
through the relay winding), which then allows a larger electrical current to
pass from the source through to the light bulbs.
If the relay is located close to the bulbs, the wire carrying the current is
relatively short, and because the longer length of the wire between the
switch and the relay, carries only a low current, it can cost less than the
wire required in figure 1. The reduced current and heat passing through
the switch allows a less expensive switch to be used.

Simple Head Light Circuit Using an Electronic Module

Fig 3. Simple Head Light Circuit using an electronic module

Figure 3 shows almost a wiring circuit with an electronic module replacing
a relay. The electronic module performs the function of the relay but does
not have any moving parts; there are no contacts or internal switch. The
module can contain solid state devices (transistors and resistors etc),
which are not expensive but are reliable.
However, the module does not control the lighting circuit but acts ass a
switch (as is the case of a relay). It simply completes the circuit in
response to the input from the driver (when the light switch is turned to
the appropriate position).
COMPUTER (ELECTRONICALLY) CONTROLLED SYTEMS
This system could be generally defined as a system in which some of the
actions or functions are automated as opposed to being controlled by the
driver or passenger. For the system to be fully automated, electronically
controlled systems require:
 i. Inputs (Sensors)
ii. Control (ECU)
iii. Outputs (actuators)
We are going to use the example of the light circuit to illustrate how the
lights can be controlled using a computer.
In figure 4 the light sensor (input) can be used to detect the amount of
light and pass an electrical signal proportional to the amount of light to
the computer (control). The computer would then respond to the electrical
signal; if the signal had a specific value or went above or below a certain
value, the computer would then switch on the lights.

Figure 4 Head Light Circuit using an electronic module and a light sensor
switch

In a simple version of an automated light system, a sensor which is simply

a switch can be used to provide an on or off signal to the computer. When
light fades to a certain level, the switch could close thus completing the
circuit.
Figure 4 shows a head light circuit where a light sensor has been included
between the light switch (operated by the driver) and an electronic
module.
In this circuit the sensor simply forms part of the circuit between main
switch and the electronic module; therefore, if the light switch is in the on
position, the lights will be switched on when the light fades below the
specific level. This system would not be fully computerised.
Computer Controlled Head Light Circuit using an electronic
module and a light sensor
Figure 5 Computer Controlled Head Light Circuit using an
electronic module and a light sensor

Figure 5 shows a circuit where the electronic module has been replaced
by a more sophisticated computer module or electronic control unit.

The light sensor is directly connected to the ECU and provides a signal
that varies with the amount of light, i.e. the voltage generated by the
sensor could increase or decrease as the light reduces. The computer
would then decide to when the lights were switched on.

OPEN LOOP AND CLOSED LOOP ENGINE SYSTEMS

Open Loop:
The output has no effect on and does not modify the input

Benefits of Electronic Control

Electronic control offers many benefits to today’s mobile off-
road equipment, including:
1. increased engine power and efficiency
2. enhanced reporting capabilities
3. telematics
4. increased safety
5. programmable features, and
6. self-diagnostic capabilities.
Increased Engine Power and Efficiency
Diesel engines were some of the first machine systems
transformed by electronic controls (FIGURE 18-1). Diesel
engines mechanical controls had reached their limit of
efficiency, and the next logical step was to apply electronic
controls already used on petrol engines. The immediate
benefits of these refinements to engine operation are:
 1. lower engine emissions
2. improved fuel economy
3. increased reliability and
4. enhanced performance.
Smarter engines continue to deliver ever-increasing power from
smaller displacements, quieter operation, and longer service
intervals, in addition to needing less maintenance. The
increased costs of some of these features are offset through
improved engine efficiency. Many of the electronic control
systems have in fact lowered the cost of machine production
while adding more features with improved operating benefits.
In comparison to mechanical controls, electronic controls
enable far greater flexibility to adjust fuel injection metering,
injection rate, and timing over a large number of operating
conditions. When engine operational problems leading to
excess emissions do occur, self-monitoring and self-diagnostic
capabilities of electronic controls can identify the problem and
alert the operator.
Information Reporting
Capabilities Life cycle costs of operating machines with these
engines is further reduced through the ability of the engine
control systems to interface with tablets and Windows-based
diagnostic and service software. Service technicians can access
a wealth of diagnostic and service data much faster and with
more precise detail than before. Operational reports from the
machine ECM extracted during scheduled maintenance
intervals report details such as diagnostic fault codes, fuel
consumption, idle time, emission system performance, and
machine abuse statistics.
Telematics
In addition to the obtaining machine and operational
information downloaded at scheduled maintenance intervals,
ECM data can be collected and modified by other means. When
equipped with the correct machine interface devices, machine
and engine diagnostics can be performed from distant
locations. Telematics, a branch of information technology, uses
specialized telecommunication applications for the long-
distance transmission of information to and from a machine.
For example, when machines are equipped with radio-,
satellite-, or cellular-based communications, a technician or
equipment manager can remotely monitor any information
about the machine, engine, or product the machine is carrying
that is available from the machine network data link connector.
Messages can be sent back and forth between the machine and
a central location. For example, if the amount of fuel consumed
is above normal, necessary steps can be taken to rectify
equipment or operator error. A GPS can report machine location
to an equipment manager, as well as log hours of run time. A
fault code can be evaluated to determine whether immediate
repairs are needed. For large operations, short-range wireless
technology allows diagnostics and the programming of
machines when they need a service or program update for
increased productivity
Programmable Machine Features
Service technicians and operators can take advantage of
programmable electronic controls. Programmable software
provides flexibility to engines, transmissions, and implements
for adapting to specific job applications, which enhances
machine productivity, longevity, and operator comfort.
Programmable changes may include things as simple as idle
shut-down timers or maximum vehicle speed limits to adding
safety interlocks that prevent the vehicle from moving if a door
is open, a boom is raised, or outriggers are extended. Power
and torque-rise profiles are easily altered electronically.
Depending on the application, it is beneficial to performance
and fuel economy to have maximum torque appear over
different rpm ranges. Instead of replacing an injection pump
and turbocharger to change engine power characteristics,
electronically controlled engines are recalibrated with new
software instructions. In a few minutes with some keystrokes, a
stock machine can be reprogrammed to operate for a customer
specific application.
Self-Diagnostic Capabilities
Electronic systems do not have many moving parts to wear out,
but the systems can be complex. Diagnostics on electronically
controlled machine systems can be performed easily, often
with fewer tools and in less time than on mechanical systems.
When something goes wrong with a component or circuit, it can
be extremely time-consuming and difficult to identify the
problem without some built-in self-diagnostic capabilities. Built
into electronic control systems is a self-monitoring function with
capabilities to check the operation of circuits and electrical
devices and determine whether voltages are out of range,
whether the sensor data is likely correct, and whether the
system is functioning properly. Problems are quickly identified
as they occur. The presence of faults is communicated through
the malfunction indicator lamps. An engine may even lose
power or derate to prevent excessive emission production and
engine damage and provide an incentive to have the condition
repaired. Electronic service tools assist the technicians in
performing off-board diagnostics—that is, perform pinpoint
checks to precisely identify system faults. Software-based
diagnostics deliver huge amounts of data about system
operation, enabling service technicians to identify problems
more quickly than they could with mechanical systems. Since
modules, sensors, and actuators are more compact, they can
be replaced quickly with minimal training and experience
required.
FIGURE 1 An overview of components used for the engine
management system of a common rail diesel engine. Extensive
use of electronics translates into precise control of combustion
events for low emissions, superior performance, and fuel
efficiency.

Elements of Electronics
Signal Processing Systems
At first glance, the operation of electronic control systems looks
mysterious, using a variety of sensors, wires, electrical
actuators, and electronic modules moved with invisible
electrical signals. However, to understand how electronic
control systems operate, it is helpful to observe that any
system functions can be broken down into three major divisions
(elements) (FIGURE 2:
1. Sensing (Inputs)
2. Processing
3. Output (or actuation).
Sensing (inputs) Functions
Sensing functions collect data about operational conditions or
the state of a device by measuring some value, such as
temperature, position, speed, pressure, flow, angle. Sensors are
devices designed to collect specific data in an electronic
format.
Processing (Controlling)
Processing refers to the control system element that collects
sensor data and determines outputs based on a set of
instructions or program software. Operational algorithms, which
are simply mathematical formulas used to solve problems, are
included in the software that determines the steps taken when
processing electrical data.
Outputs (actuation)
The outputs of a system are functions performed by electronic
signals produced by the processor. These may be signals to
operate anything, including a digital display of numeric or
alphabetic information, current to operate solenoids or
injectors, actuators, motors, lights, or other electromechanical
devices

FIGURE 2 All engine management systems process electrical

signals in three distinct stages: data collection from sensor
inputs; data processing inside an ECM; and output devices,
which are electrically operated.
FIGURE 18-8 Three stages of signal processing. Sensors form
input signals, and software-controlled microprocessors are used
to make decisions after interpreting data, while electrically
operated output devices carry out instructions of the processor

MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES

ELECTRONICS;
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Identify types of electronic
components
2. State functions of electronic
components
3. Explain construction of electronic
components
4. Explain operation principles of
electronic components
5. Draw and interpret electronic
schematics
 6. Locate electronic components

UNIT B15.1 IDENTIFYING ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

Introduction
Electronics refers to the control of electrons using electricity,
without any visible moving components.
Electrical/ Electronic Symbols

J1939 (1985)

TYPES OF ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS

Electronic Control Input Devices
The age of electronic control of virtually everything has meant
the increased use of input devices designed to give
microprocessors information about temperatures, positions,
pressures, etc. Virtually every system on the modern vehicle is
processor controlled.
In this unit, we examine how some of the common sensors
perform their job electronically.

SENSORS
Introduction
In modern vehicles, the engine management systems (EMS)
relies on accurate data from digital and analogue sensors
working in adaptive closed-loop.
Closed Loop:
This is a control system with a feedback loop that automatically changes
the output once it detects a difference between its feedback signal and
the input signal. (The output has an effect on and modifies the input)

Open Loop control: The output has no effect and does not modifies the
input
FUNCTIONS OF SENSORS

Devices that convert one form of energy into another are called
transducers.
Sensors are a type of transducer that convert physical
conditions or states into electrical data or simply stated a
sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and
converts it into a voltage signal which can be read by an
electronic control unit (ECU), an observer or an instrument.
(They are designed to register a specific moment and convert a
physical or chemical value into either an analogue or digital
electrical signal).
Examples of the changing physical variables about which
sensors supply electrical data to processors are:
1. Pressure
2. Temperature
3. Angle
4. Speed
5. Mass
The number of sensors required to control a system efficiently
depends on factors that affect the operation of the system.
NOTE
A distinction is made between sending units and sensors.
Sensors provide information to electronic control units, whereas
sending units provide information to instrument gauges.
Types of Sensors
An enormous number of sensor types exist to measure different
types of data required by machine management systems.
These include:
1. accelerometers for machine dynamic control
2. pressure sensors for engine oil, fuel, crankcase, and intake
boost
3. position sensors for machine speed, camshafts,
crankshafts, and pedal position
4. humidity sensors for adjusting air–fuel ratio control and
cabin comfort control
5. sunlight and rain/moisture sensors
6. distance sensors for near obstacle detection and collision
avoidance
7. magneto resistive (MR) sensors that use the earth’s
magnetic field to operate machine electronic compasses
and navigation systems
8. torque sensors
9. fuel level sensors
10. oil quality sensors
11. temperature sensors
12. coolant level sensors
13. barometric pressure sensors
14. mass airflow sensors
15. engine knock sensors
16. exhaust gas—NOx, ammonia, and oxygen sensors
17. yaw sensors using the Coriolis effect to sense yaw
rates
18. global positioning sensors for GPS
CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
Active Versus Passive Sensors
All the types of sensors listed above are more simply classified
other ways. For example, a sensor is considered active or
passive depending on whether they use power supplied by the
electronic control module (ECM) to operate.
ACTIVE SENSORS
Active (or self-generating)- generate their own energy (sensors
do not current supplied by the ECM to operate).
PASSIVE SENSORS
Passive (or modulating) sensors use a current supplied by the
ECM to operate or require an external electrical supply.
Other classifications of sensors include the following:
VOLTAGE GENERATORS:
Examples
 oxygen sensors
 NOx sensors
 ammonia sensors
 variable reluctance sensors
 and piezoelectric sensors
Inductive sensors
Inductive-type sensors are used mostly for measuring speed
and position of a rotating component. They work on the very
basic principle of electrical induction (a changing magnetic flux
will induce an electromotive force in a winding). Figure below
shows the inductive sensor principle and a typical device used
as a crankshaft speed and position sensor. The output voltage
of most inductive-type sensors approximates to a sine wave.
The amplitude of this signal depends on the rate of change of
flux. This is determined mostly by the original design: by the
number of turns, magnet strength and the gap between the
sensor and the rotating component. Once in use though, the
output voltage increases with the speed of rotation. In the
majority of applications, it is the frequency of the signal that is
used. The most common way of converting the output of an
inductive sensor to a useful signal is to pass it through a
Schmitt trigger circuit. This produces constant amplitude but a
variable frequency square wave.
 

Switches as Sensors
Switches are the simplest sensors of all, because they have no
resistance in the closed position and infinite resistance in the
open position.
Switches are categorized as sensors whenever they provide
information to an electronic control system. The data may
indicate a physical value such as open or closed, up or down,
high or low (e.g., a coolant level sensor or oil pressure switch),
or it may indicate on and off (e.g., a brake light switch).
Switches as Digital Signals
The simplest digital signal is a single pole, single throw (SPST)
switch. It is found in either an open or closed state. The on/ off,
open/closed state data provided by this switch can provide
input information to an ECM required for decision-making. For
example, the decision to start an engine based on whether a
transmission is in neutral or the clutch is disengaged depends
on the signal from a switch (FIGURE 16-3). A zero-volt signal
would present as an open switch, while 12 volts would present
as a closed switch. Ignition, brake, or door switches provide
similar data to ECMs to answer simple yes or no, open or
closed, on or off questions posed by operating software.
RESISTIVE SENSORS
Resistive sensors are a class of sensors that will condition or
change a voltage signal applied to the sensor. Examples of
most common resistive sensors are:
  rheostats
 potentiometers
 thermistors
 piezoresistive sensor
 Wheatstone bridge pressure sensors
 Pressure
 Temperature
 position sensors.
Some of these sensors are three-wire active sensors
Thermistors (The thermistor, which could be called a temperature-
dependent resistor).

Thermistors are in use in most vehicles today. They are named

because they are a temperature-sensitive resistor.
Function of thermistors:
They are used to detect various temperatures or changes in
temperature. Thermistors are temperature-sensitive variable
resistors and their most frequent use involve the measurement
of:
a. engine coolant temperature
b. Oil temperatures
c. Fuel temperatures
d. inlet air temperature.
e. inlet air temperature.
The name itself combines the words thermal and resistor.
Thermistors are two-wire sensors that change resistance in
proportion to temperature. This means thermistors provide
analog data to processing circuits.
CONSTRUCTION OF THERMISTORS
When the sensor is measuring air temperature, such as in an
intake manifold, it is often constructed with a plastic body to
minimize heat transfer from surrounding metal. When used to
measure coolant or oil temperatures, the sensor element is
enclosed in a brass case to make it more responsive to
temperature change (FIGURE 4).
 A B C

FIGURE 4 Three thermistor applications. A. For intake manifold

temperature. B. For coolant temperature. C. For intake manifold
temperature. Note the semiconductor material in the fast
response, air-intake thermistor
Thermistors are semiconductor devices with no moving parts.
Two types of thermistors exist:
a. Negative temperature coefficient
b. Positive temperature coefficient.
In a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor, the
resistance decreases as the temperature increases.
FIGURE 3 A thermistor circuit. Note the graph that illustrates
the relationship between temperature and resistance

In a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, the

resistance increases as the temperature increases.
The most common type of thermistor is an NTC, in which the
sensor’s resistance goes down as the temperature goes up So,
when the sensor is cold, the sensor resistance is high and the
ECM measures a lower return signal voltage in comparison to
reference voltage. The voltage drop across the sensor is
interpreted as a temperature value. Likewise, when the engine
warms, the internal resistance of the sensor decreases and
causes a proportional increase in the return signal voltage.
RHEOSTATS
Rheostats are also two-wire variable resistance sensors. They
are not commonly used as input devices to an ECM but are
instead used to signal sending units such as for fuel level and
oil pressure (FIGURE 4).
Rheostats use a variable sliding contact moving along a
resistive wire.

FIGURE 4 Operation of a rheostat controlling the intensity of a

lightbulb.

When current passes through the resistive wire, the sliding

contact will conduct current flow from the wire. Current
intensity at the sliding contact will vary depending on its
position along the resistive wire.
Reference Voltage Sensors—Three-Wire Sensors
Three-wire sensors, regardless of how they appear or what
function they perform, have a common wiring configuration
(FIGURE 5 A, B):
a. they all have ground
b. signal return and
c. positive voltage reference wire leads
Voltage Reference Wire
One wire provides reference voltage to the sensor. If it is an
active sensor, reference voltage will supply current to operate
an integrated chip inside the device. Reference voltage is also
produced by the ECM as a comparison point for voltage
calculations associated with sensor data.
Ground Signal Wire
The second sensor wire provides a negative ground signal
through the ECM and not to engine ground. This ECM return or
ground is also called zero-volt return and is identical to engine
ground except that it is free of any type of electrical
interference. Active sensors will use the zero-volt return or
negative ground for the other source of current to operate the
sensor. In resistive sensors, the zero-volt return acts as a
reference point to measure voltage drop across the sensor.
Signal Return Wire
The third wire is a signal return from the sensor. This circuit
provides a positive voltage proportional to the physical value
measured by the sensor. If pressure is the physical input
measured, the signal wire data will carry an analog voltage
signal proportional to pressure. Typically, low voltage of, for
example, 0.8 volts will represent little to no pressure, while
3.9 volts will represent high pressure depending on the range
of the sensor.
Advantage of using three-wire sensors
The advantage of using three-wire sensors is that they provide
comprehensive diagnostic information about the sensor and its
circuit operation.
Sending units can be constructed with reduced complexity and
expense and yet still provide the ECM with data to operate an
engine, transmission, or other device. However, sending units
lack the capability to self-monitor circuit operation. Consider an
open or shorted to ground signal wire from a single-wire sensor.
In this case, there is no means by which the ECM could
accurately evaluate the situation. The wire could be broken or
rubbed though, and still the unit voltage data received by the
ECM would not be different from normal. It is very labour-
intensive to find an electrical fault based on only an operational
symptom—no fault codes or malfunction indicator lights are
available to identify a circuit problem. The ECM does have
capabilities to monitor and diagnose two- and three-wire sensor
circuits to an extent not possible with single-wire sensors. By
monitoring the voltage range of the ground return path, signal
voltage, and reference voltage, the ECM can determine
whether the sensor and circuit are functioning correctly. Sensor
values can be compared with expected values to determine
whether the data is rational.

FIGURE 5A Potentiometer Passive Type

FIGURE 5B Pressure Sensor Active Type

Reference Voltage
Reference voltage (Vref) refers to a precisely regulated voltage
supplied by the ECM to sensors. Reference voltage value is
typically 5 volts direct current (VDC). The use of a reference
voltage is important in processor operation, because the value
of the variable resistor can be calculated by measuring voltage
drop when another resistor with a known voltage input is
connected in series with it. In FIGURE 3, 5 Vref is used in the
calculations performed by an ECM. Reference voltage also
supplies active sensors with current to operate integrated
circuits contained inside the sensor. Switches will also use +5
Vref to signal the ECM.
FIGURE 3 Reference voltage is supplied to power active sensors
and to accurately calculate voltage drop across the sensor. The
resistor in series with the reference voltage also limits current
to the sensor

Potentiometers
Potentiometers are similar to rheostats in that they vary signal
voltage depending on the position of a sliding contact or wiper
moving across a resistive material. They are three-wire sensors
with the signal wire connected to the internal wiper.
Potentiometers supply analog data to processing circuits.
A common application of a potentiometer is a position sensor
such as the throttle position sensor (TPS) (FIGURE 6). This
sensor is connected to a throttle pedal, lever, or dial and
provides data regarding the operator’s desired engine speed or
power output by measuring pedal, lever, or dial angle or travel.
The ECM will measure the voltage drop between the ground
return circuit and the signal wire to calculate pedal, lever, or
dial position. Voltage produced from the signal wire will be
proportional to the pedal travel. This means that at idle or part
throttle, the voltage at the signal wire will be low. Increasing
pedal travel will produce increasing voltage to the signal wire
as the sensor’s internal wiper moves closer to the +5 Vref end
of the resistive element. When the pedal returns to idle, the
wiper will have less voltage because it is farther away from the
+5 Vref wire and because the current pathway is longer and
therefore more resistive.

FIGURE 6 The TPS circuit commonly uses a potentiometer to

measure throttle angle

Pressure Sensors
Pressure measurements, such as intake manifold boost,
barometric pressure, and oil and fuel pressure, use two types of
sensor technology: variable capacitance sensors and strain
gauge resistive sensors. These are both active sensors that
produce analog output signals
Piezoresistive Sensors
Piezoresistive sensors rely on the ability of certain mineral
crystals to produce voltage or change resistance when
compressed. Rather than using a strain gauge wire
construction, these sensors have a piezoresistive crystal
arranged with a Wheatstone bridge to measure the change in
resistance of the piezo crystal. These sensors produce analog
electrical signals. The advantage of these sensors is their ability
to measure very high pressures. Because of the sturdiness of
the crystal, piezo sensors are better adapted to measuring
vibration and dynamic or continuous pressure changes. Knock
sensors measuring abnormal combustion signals are a common
application of piezoresistive sensors. Another type of
piezoresistive sensor uses mineral crystals arranged on a
substrate of silicon. The crystals behave as a semiconductor to
produce electrical signals that are amplified and conditioned by
internal circuits. Silicon-based piezoresistive sensors are very
sensitive to slight pressure changes.
Voltage Generators

FIGURE 7 Common applications of variable reluctance sensors.

FIGURE 8 The tooth geometry of the crankshaft and camshaft

sensors generates unique waveforms that identify cylinder-
firing position and crank position
This category of these sensors is passive and produces an
analog signal of varying voltage or AC frequency. Variable
reluctance and galvanic sensors are two examples of voltage-
generating sensors. While the gas sensors used on today’s
diesel engines are active sensors with modules that produce
and condition signals, the operating principle is still a galvanic
reaction that produces voltage. Exhaust stream gas sensors are
used to measure oxygen, NOx, or ammonia gases in the
exhaust stream. On diesel engines, data from oxygen sensors is
commonly used to adjust exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rates
and sometimes to adjust the intake throttle plate position to
control the operation of exhaust after treatment systems.
Ammonia and NOx sensors are used to identify faults in the
exhaust after treatment systems on most diesels engines.
Ammonia sensors are more frequently used on diesel engines
from for EATS.
VARIABLE RELUCTANCE SENSORS
Variable reluctance sensors are two-wire sensors used to
measure rotational speed. Wheel speed, machine speed,
engine speed, and camshaft and crankshaft position sensors
are their most common applications (FIGURE 16-22).

FIGRURE 9 Signals of Variable Reluctance Sensor

Signals from the camshaft and crankshaft position sensors are

used to calculate engine position for determining the beginning
of engine firing order and injection timing. The camshaft gear
has raised lugs that generate waveform signals to identify top
dead centre (TDC) for each cylinder. When graphed against
time, the AC waveform produced by the sensor data is used to
precisely calculate not only engine speed but also degrees of
crankshaft rotation (FIGURE 9). The ability of a material to
conduct or resist magnetic lines of force is known as
reluctance. Variable reluctance sensors use changing sensor
reluctance to induce current flow by changing magnetic-field
strengths inside the sensor. A variable reluctance sensor is
constructed with two main elements: a coil of narrow-gauge
wire wrapped many times around a permanent magnet, and a
reluctor ring (also called the sensor wheel, pulse wheel, or tone
wheel), which has soft iron teeth and rotates on a shaft.
Because ferrous metals, particularly soft iron, have low
reluctance and air has high reluctance to magnetic lines of
force, the strength of the sensor’s magnetic field expands and
collapses as the reluctor ring’s iron teeth pass across the
sensor’s magnet. By changing the density of magnetic lines of
force, alternately expanding and contracting the magnetic field
when a gear tooth or gap passes by the sensor, current is
induced in the wire coil around the sensor magnet. Increasing
reluctor wheel speed increases the voltage induced in the
sensor. A small air gap of approximately 0.02–0.03 inch (0.51–
0.76 mm) is maintained between the sensor and the reluctor
wheel. Too much or too little air gap will prevent the sensor
from detecting tooth movement. Software inside the ECM will
detect and count the number of teeth passing by the sensor to
calculate shaft speed. If the processing circuits track how many
teeth complete one rotation of the shaft, rpm is easily
calculated. If the engine software can divide the number of
teeth passing by the sensor per unit of time, it can precisely
calculate the number of degrees of crankshaft rotation
Hall-Effect Sensors
 FIGRURE 10 Signals of a Hall-effect Sensor
Like variable reluctance sensors, Hall-effect sensors are
commonly used to measure the rotational speed of a shaft.
Though they are more complex and expensive to manufacture
than variable reluctance sensors are, Hall-effect sensors have
the advantage of producing a digital signal square waveform
and have strong signal strength at low shaft rotational speeds.
This is especially useful when cranking an engine when engine
rpm is slow. The durability and accuracy of the digital signal is
preferred when more precise injection event timing is
necessary, which is why most engines today use Hall-effect
sensors.
The operation principle of a Hall-effect sensor is simple:
Current flow through a Hall-effect material is made from semi
conductive material that changes resistance in the presence of
a magnetic field. When current is applied to a Hall-effect
material, no conduction occurs. However, in the presence of a
magnetic field, the material will conduct current. The electrical
signal output from the sensor material is analog, but circuits
within the sensor will convert and amplify the rising and falling
voltage into a square-shaped electrical waveform (FIGURE 10).
To produce the signal from the Hall-effect sensor, two
configurations are used. The most common arrangement is the
use of a metal interrupter ring or shutter and a permanent
magnet positioned across from the sensor. Because ferrous
metals have a lower magnetic reluctance than air, magnetic
lines of force from a magnet placed opposite the sensor will
flow through the metal shield rather than the sensor. Gaps in
the interrupter ring will allow magnetism to penetrate the
sensor, changing current flow through the Hall-effect material.
Attaching the interrupter ring to a moving shaft provides
rotational speed information to the control module. Another
configuration for the Hall-effect sensor incorporates the magnet
into the sensor itself. When a gear tooth or other ferrous metal
trigger is present near the sensor, the magnetic field expands.
Movement of the ferrous trigger or tooth away from the magnet
causes magnetic-field contraction. This pulsing magnetic field
generates the signal within the sensor (FIGURE 11).

FIGURE 11 Operation of a camshaft position Hall-effect sensor

using an internal permanent magnet.

OXYGEN SENSORS
Oxygen sensors are used to measure air–fuel ratio in order to
calibrate EGR flow rates and air–fuel ratios for exhaust after
treatment devices. Diesel engines use a heated planar,
wideband, zirconium-dioxide (ZrO2) dual-cell oxygen sensor.
Wideband oxygen sensors are used in diesel engines because
they use lean-burn combustion systems, which normally leave
an excess of air in the exhaust. Wide-band sensors produce a
voltage proportional to a widely varying oxygen level. The type
of ceramic sensing element commonly used by wide-band
sensors is a platinum-coated oxide of zirconium (ZrO 2).
An important property of this ceramic is that it conducts oxygen
ions when voltage is applied at high temperatures. Diesel
oxygen sensors are wide-range planar sensors, which means
the sensing element is flat. They are also wide-band sensors,
which means they generate a signal with a wide air–fuel ratio
between 0.7:1 and infinity. When heated to over 700°C, the
sensor becomes electrically conductive to oxygen ions.
Because the oxygen content in the exhaust sample chamber is
less than the oxygen concentration in the atmosphere, the
oxygen content absorbed by the platinum coating on the ZrO 2
ceramic that contacts the exhaust and the coating that
contacts the air will be slightly different

FIGURE 12 A cross section of a wide-range planar oxygen

sensor

NOx Sensors
NOx sensors are used to evaluate the operation of selective
catalyst reduction (SCR) systems. These sensors measure NOx
from the engine and NOx from the tailpipe, and they should
verify a dramatic drop in NOx emissions. NOx sensors are
constructed and operate similarly to wide-range planar oxygen
sensors using ZrO2 ceramic substrate, except different
concentrations of alloys are used in the NOx sensor’s platinum
sensor walls. Also, NOx sensors include a chamber that first
removes excess oxygen, then separates NOx into nitrogen and
oxygen, and then pumps the resulting oxygen through the
chamber walls. The two-chamber shape and the multi-layered
platinum element enable these sensors to differentiate with
high precision oxygen ions originating from nitric oxide (NO)
from among the oxygen ions present in the exhaust gas. The
NOx sensor’s ZrO2 chamber, which is the size of a thumbnail, is
heated to 700°C. It is housed in a metal can that has a hole for
exhaust gas entrance. The chamber walls break apart the NO
into nitrogen and oxygen components. The amount of oxygen
produced at this stage is proportional to the amount of NO.
ZrO2 ceramic substrate will pump oxygen through the wall
when a current is placed on both sides of the chamber wall. As
oxygen is pumped from the first chamber, the amount of
oxygen can be measured as it passes through the wall of the
second chamber because it generates a voltage proportional to
its concentration. Because the oxygen ions originated only from
NOx, an accurate measure is derived for NOx in the exhaust
gas. A module connected to the sensor conditions the electrical
signal to represent a value for the amount of NOx sensed in the
exhaust stream
Soot Sensors
This sensor measures any soot present in the exhaust. This
sensor is a type of variable capacitance sensor that uses soot
to change the dielectric strength between two charged plates.
Increasing amounts of soot or particulate matter will reduce the
dielectric strength and the electric charge that the plates can
store.
Mass Airflow Sensors
The mass airflow (MAF) sensor is a device that measures the
weight of air entering the engine intake. Its unique design also
reports data about air density and, to some extent, the vapor
content. MAF sensors on the diesel engines operating with an
excess air ratio, the MAF is used as part of the heavy-duty
onboard diagnostics (HD-OBD) component monitor for the EGR.
A variety of electrical signals originate from MAF sensors, but
they all work using a hot-wire operating principle. Heated
platinum wires or a thin film of silicon nitride embedded with
several heated platinum wires are located in the intake air
stream. A heating circuit maintains a fixed voltage drop across
the wires, maintaining a constant resistance and temperature
of the wires regardless of the airflow in the intake system. This
means that if a voltage drop of 5volts is maintained across the
heated wire, more current needs to flow through the wire if it
cools faster due to increased airflow. Similarly, if airflow drops,
less current is needed to maintain the same voltage drop
across the wire. Circuits internal to the MAF measure the
variation in current flow proportional to the cooling effect of air
mass. Due to the large valve overlap characteristic of diesel
engines, some intake air may be forced back out in pulses from
the intake system. MAF sensors on some engines use a reverse
airflow detection circuit. Because colder air is denser than
warmer air, manufacturers will also use an air temperature
sensor to provide additional data for calculations to
compensate for the change in air mass.
SOME COMMON ENGINE SENSORS AND THEIR FUNCTION
 Figure 25

KNOCK SENSOR (KS)

This sensor is usually mounted on the engine block and
it allows the ECU to reference how much knock (or
detonation) the engine is producing. On new common
rail diesels this is very important and the ECU can make
a whole range of adjustments to its pre, post and main
injection processes to reduce the amount of knock to a
minimum. Some systems will use more than one knock
sensor to allow the ECU to measure more accurately.
The ECU will use this information gained from multiple
engine sensors to
determine not only if the engine is knocking, but also
which cylinder has the problem.

EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE SENSOR (EGT)

Mounted in the exhaust system, the purpose of the
exhaust
gas temperature sensor is to accurately monitor the
temperature of the exhaust gases flowing through the
exhaust itself. Again, this is important for DPF function
because the correct exhaust gas temperatures must be
reached to ensure the regeneration process can be
completed. Fuelling will be accurately adjusted by the
ECU to ensure these temperatures meet the desired
level.
EXHAUST PRESSURE SENSOR (EPS)
Mounted in the front exhaust section, the exhaust
pressure
sensor is fitted to monitor the back pressure in the
exhaust
system. Excessive exhaust pressure can be a sign of
clogged silencers, catalysts or on more modern
machines,
particulate filters. In the case of the latter, this pressure
increase signals the need for a regeneration process to
clean
the filter

Figure 16

MANIFOLD ABSOLUTE PRESSURE SENSOR (MAP)

Usually mounted separately from the engine, this sensor reads
manifold absolute pressure. Its reference hose will be piped to
the inlet manifold somewhere, usually behind the throttle body
if fitted. When the throttle is closed the manifold will be in
vacuum, and when on boost the manifold will be filled with
pressure, so this sensor needs to have a wide
range of pressure sensing ability. The signal from this sensor
will determine many important adjustments including which
load sites the ECU will reference in the main fuel table.

FUEL INJECTOR NEEDLE LIFT SENSOR

Due to the high pressures involved in these systems, any tiny
differences between injector lift can cause a large difference in
the amount of fuel delivered by that injector. Most modern
common
rail fuel injectors have a needle lift sensor built in place, which
can
accurately relay information back to the ECU regarding each
injector
needle and how far it has moved. This allows the ECU to make
tiny adjustments individually to each injector to keep the
fuelling as accurate as possible across all cylinders.
CRANKSHAFT CAMSHAFT POSITION SENSORS (CPS)
These sensors usually pick up a signal from lugs on the pulleys
or the camshaft/crankshaft itself. As the indicator lug passes
the sensor an electronic signal is sent to the ECU. This signal
allows the ECU to keep
a track on engine position and speed, so it knows when and
where to inject fuel and can perform any other speed or
position dependant functions that it may need to do. If the ECU
detects a misfire, it can even work out what cylinder the misfire
occurred on by using data from these specific sensors as they
will indicate a speed fluctuation in the engine’s rotation. This
data will usually be stored in a memory which a fault code
reader can later retrieve, making diagnosis of random misfires
much easier for the technician than in earlier years. Likewise,
any issues or timing differences between camshaft and
crankshaft can either be W RNGNaccounted for, or flagged
up as an error if they are deemed to be excessive.
OXXGEN SENSOR
It is usually mounted in front section of the exhaust pipe. It
allows the ECU to reference the amount of oxygen in the
exhaust gases which will relate air to fuel ratio. The ECU can
then adjust the fuel injected as necessary to keep the air to fuel
ratio levels constant.
AIR CHARGE TEMPERATURE SENSOR (ACT)
Usually mounted in the inlet plenum, the air charge
temperature sensor’s function is, as the name suggest, to
measure the temperature of the air entering the engine. This
can vary for many reasons, including varied boost pressures,
varied ambient temperatures,
intercooler efficiency, and EGR function to name but a few. As
the temperature changes it alters the resistance through the
sensor, the signal from this sensor is then fed to the ECU which
will accurately
reference a correction table and adjust fuel injection time and
amount to ensure and correct running.

FUEL TEMPERATURE SENSOR (FTS)

Compressing the fuel to increase its pressure to such a high
level as mentioned earlier dramatically increases
the fuel temperature. Therefore, a sensor is fitted
in the fuel line which can measure and keep a close eye on the
fuel temperature, allowing the ECU to make the required
adjustments to compensate for this change in temperature.
FUEL PRESSURE SENSOR (FPS)
The fuel pressure in the new diesel injection systems is very
high: over 1600 Bar in some cases! The fuel pressure sensor
sits in the fuel rail and accurately reads the pressure, allowing
the ECU to control and adjust
the regulator valve as required to keep the fuel pressure at the
correct level. These sensors have to be very reliable, as the
pumps are capable of making so much pressure that various
components could be damaged
and mechanical failure could occur if the pressure got out of
control.
COOLANT TEMPERATURE SENSOR (CTS)
Usually mounted within the cylinder head itself, the coolant
temperature sensor’s function is to measure the temperature of
the engine’s coolant, and therefore its operating temperature.
As the temperature changes it
alters the resistance through the sensor. This information is fed
to the ECU which again references a correction table, and
adjusts the fuel amount and time to suit. This sensor is also
responsible for lots of other functions like cold start and all
emission-based components which are all
temperature dependant.

MASS AIRFLOW SENSOR (MAF)

The mass air flow sensor takes its signal from the engine’s
intake tract, usually near the air filter unit. It accurately
measures the mass of air
entering the engine, similarly to the map sensor but the MAF
sensor is far more accurate and gives a much more detailed
analysis of the engine’s air consumption. As the air passes by
the sensor it cools a heated wire. The ECU calculates the
amount of air going through the meter by measuring the
current required to maintain the temperature of this wire.
These sensors do suffer badly from getting fouled and dirty,
and can require regular cleaning. Incidentally, when you see
MAF and MAP sensors on the same engine, the MAP is normally
only measuring boost pressure so the ECU can limit it if
required.
SENSORS SIGNALS

To fully understand the operation of solid-state devices, a

technician needs to fully understand signal terminologies.
Analog to Digital Conversion
Because electronic processing units can only handle binary dig-
ital data, analog signals are converted to digital signals in a
process called analog to digital conversion.
To convert analog signals to digital binary information, special
circuits, known as buffers or analog to digital (AD) converters,
are used
i. Square Wave Signal
A square wave signal is a pulse wave form that resembles
a blocks when portrayed on the graph.
Pulse-Width Modulation
An electrical signal that shares similar characteristics with both
a digital signal and an analog signal is the pulse-width–
modulated (PWM) electrical signal

Figure 3
PWM refers to a signal that varies in “ON” and “OFF” time. That
means it is digital in one aspect because it represents data in
two states only—either on or off, or high or low. However,
information is also conveyed by the amount of time the signal
stays on or off. Time on or off is variable, which gives it an
analog characteristic. The units for measuring pulse width are
always expressed in units of time. Time is the measure of how
long the signal is high or on.
To understand PWM, consider a light illuminated by a PWM
signal. In one second of time, the light may be cycled on and
off once. If the signal is applied for one-quarter of a second, the
pulse width would be 0.25 seconds wide (FIGURE 18-21).
Common examples of devices using PWM signals are solenoids,
injectors, and light circuits. A PWM signal is typically reported in
milliseconds. PWM signals are commonly used as an output
signal of an ECM. For example, the current supplied to a fuel
injector or the pressure regulator of a HEUI or common rail
pump is changed by varying the on-time of the electromagnetic
control valve (FIGURE 18-22, FIGURE 18-23).
Output drivers of microprocessors are types of switches, usually
switching transistors, which produce PWM signals to operate
devices in an “ON” or “OFF” state (FIGURE 18-24 and FIGURE
18-25).
The microprocessor device can also easily vary the duration-
time of a driver opening and closing.
Sensors can input PWM signals, and solenoids can receive PWM
signals. If a coil receives a PWM signal, it will be like getting an
average voltage that is below the maximum voltage based on
the amount of on-time or the duty cycle. Some manufacturers
use sensors that use PWM signals to transmit data. One
manufacturer that uses a lot of PWM Signaling will pulse the
signal at either 500 Hz or 5,000 Hz. PWM signals can come from
position, level, pressure, and temperature sensors or can be an
ECM output to a proportional solenoid. Caterpillar uses throttle
position sensors that will transmit throttle position data using
PWM signals. This type of data is unaffected by voltage drops
encountered through long runs of wiring harnesses and
multiple connectors between the sensor and ECM.