Noiseless and Noisy Channel Protocols Step Action

1 Sender encapsulates network-layer packet in a frame and transmits.

These elementary protocols illustrate how the Data-Link Layer provides reliable, orderly 2 No acknowledgements; receiver simply delivers frames to the network layer.
delivery over channels that may be ideal (noiseless) or imperfect (noisy).
They form the logical basis for real-world flow- and error-control schemes such as Limitation: Works only if receiver is always ready—no flow control.
Stop-and-Wait ARQ, Go-Back-N, and Selective-Repeat.
1.2 Stop-and-Wait (Noiseless)
Data Link Adds flow control without error control.
Layer
Protocol
Sender Receiver
Send one frame → wait until ACK Receive frame → pass to network layer →
arrives send ACK
Noiseless Noisy
Channel Channel
 Sequence numbers are 1 bit (0, 1) to distinguish successive frames.
 Ensures that fast sender never outruns a slow receiver.

Simplex Stop & Wait

Stop & Wait Go-Back-N Selective Noisy Channel Protocols
ARQ ARQ Repeat ARQ
Assume a realistic channel where frames can be damaged, lost, or duplicated.

Noiseless Channel Protocols Examples:

Assume an ideal physical channel:  Stop-and-Wait ARQ

 Go-Back-N ARQ
 No bit errors  Selective Repeat ARQ
 No frame loss or duplication
 Finite sender/receiver processing speed (so flow control still matters) 2.1 Stop-and-Wait ARQ

Examples: Extends the noiseless version with error control.

 Simplest Protocol Mechanism Purpose

 Stop-and-Wait Protocol Frame sequence number (0/1) Detect duplicates.
Positive ACK (ACK N) Confirms correct reception of frame N.
1.1 Simplest Protocol Timeout If ACK not received in time, retransmit frame.
Negative ACK (NAK) (optional) Receiver may request immediate retransmission.
One-Way, Stop-and-Proceed
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 2.2.1 Go-Back-N (GBN) ARQ

 Sender keeps window of up to W = 2ᵏ – 1 frames.

 Out-of-order frames are discarded by receiver.
 On error or timeout, sender retransmits from errored frame onward (“go
back N”).

2.2.2 Selective-Repeat (SR) ARQ

 Sender again has window W ≤ 2ᵏ⁻¹.

 Receiver buffers out-of-order frames and ACKs each one individually.
 Only missing frames are retransmitted.

Feature Go-Back-N Selective-Repeat

Receiver buffering Not required Required
Retransmission Many frames Only erroneous frames
Complexity Lower Higher
Bandwidth efficiency Moderate High

Timing Diagram

Pros: Simple, reliable.

Cons: Inefficient on long-delay or high-bandwidth links because channel stays idle while HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control)
waiting for each ACK.
1. Overview
2.2 Sliding-Window Protocol Family
HDLC (High‑Level Data Link Control) is an ISO standard, bit‑oriented data‑link‑layer
Lets the sender transmit multiple frames before needing an ACK, greatly improving protocol that provides framing, flow control, error control, and link management over
channel utilisation. point‑to‑point and multipoint links.

Parameter Meaning  It is the ancestor of many WAN protocols (LAPB/LAPD, SDLC, Frame Relay
Window size (W) Max frames outstanding (un-ACKed). core, PPP frame format).
SeqNum field (k bits) Values 0 … 2ᵏ–1 used modulo-2ᵏ arithmetic.  Works on synchronous as well as asynchronous serial media.

2. Salient Features
Feature Description
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Bit-oriented framing Data treated as a stream of bits; special 8-bit flag 01111110
delimits frames.
Bit stuffing Inserts a 0 after every sequence of five consecutive 1s in the
payload to prevent false flags.
Error detection 16- or 32-bit CRC (Frame Check Sequence).
Flow & error control Stop-and-wait style using sequence numbers,
acknowledgements, and supervisory frames.
Multiprotocol & Supports one-to-one, one-to-many, balanced or unbalanced
multipoint links.
Extensible Several derivatives (PPP, LAPB, LAPD) share the same
flag/FCS structure.

3. HDLC Frame Format

4. Types of Frames

Frame Purpose Control-field layout

 Flag 0x7E marks both ends. (8-bit basic)
I-frame Carries payload, implements flow/error control N(S) 0 N(R) (bit 0
 Address – destination station or group (all 1s = broadcast). One byte in
(Information) with send & receive sequence numbers. = 0)
point-to-point, two in multipoint.
S-frame Acknowledgement & control. Four subtypes: 10 C P/F N(R)
 Control – identifies frame type & carries sequence numbers (formats differ for I-,
(Supervisory) RR, RNR, REJ, SREJ.
S-, U-frames).
U-frame Link management (setup, mode change, 11 M(5 bits) P/F
 Information – user data (present only in I-frames and some U-frames).
(Unnumbered) disconnection). Many codes (e.g., SABM, UA,
 FCS – CRC-16 (x¹⁶ + x¹² + x⁵ + 1) or CRC-32 for higher reliability.
DISC, DM, FRMR).

5. Operational Modes
Mode Topology Master/Slave? Typical Use
NRM – Normal Multipoint Primary (master) controls Legacy
Response dialogue; secondary transmits multipoint
only when polled. lines.
ABM – Point-to-point Both stations are equal; Most modern
Asynchronous full-duplex operation with PPP-style links.
Balanced independent sequence numbers.
ARM – Rare Secondary may transmit Some old
Asynchronous without explicit poll but still half-duplex
Response recognises a primary. lines.

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PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)  Supports multiple network layer protocols like IP, IPX, and AppleTalk.
 Provides error detection using Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).
1. Overview  Allows for authentication using PAP (Password Authentication Protocol) or
CHAP (Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol).
 Supports data compression and encryption (optional).
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol used to establish a direct
connection between two nodes over serial links (like telephone lines, DSL, or fiber).
4. Frame Format
PPP provides framing, error detection, authentication, and multi-protocol support, making
it more advanced than older protocols like SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol). Figure 7 shows the format of a PPP frame and its field has been described in the below
table.
PPP is a byte-oriented protocol using byte-stuffing with the escape byte 01111101.

2. PPP Operation Phases

PPP operates in five phases as shown in Figure 6. Each phase has been described in the
below table.
Figure 7 PPP Frame Format

Field Description:

Phase Description
1. Link Establishment (LCP) Negotiates link parameters (frame size,
compression, authentication).
2. Authentication (optional) Verifies identity using PAP or CHAP.
3. Network Layer Protocol Establishes and configures network layer
Configuration (NCP) protocol (e.g., IP).
4. Data Transmission Transfers encapsulated data using PPP frames.
5. Link Termination Closes the session using LCP packets.
Field Size Purpose
Flag 1 Byte Marks the beginning and end of the frame (01111110)
Address 1 Byte Broadcast address (default: 0xFF)
Figure 6. PPP Operation Process Control 1 Byte Always 0x03 (for unnumbered frame)
Protocol 2 Bytes Identifies the upper-layer protocol (e.g., 0x0021 for IP)
Payload Variable Actual data being transmitted
FCS 2 or 4 Error detection using CRC
Bytes
3. Key Features

 Works at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.

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5. Applications of PPP

PPP is used in various networking scenarios:

Application Description
Dial-up Internet Used in early Internet connections via telephone lines.
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) Used as PPPoE (PPP over Ethernet).
VPN (Virtual Private Network) Some VPNs use PPTP, which is based on PPP.
Serial Line Communication Between routers or modems over serial interfaces.

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