SRI VENKATESHWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING STUDENT

OBSERVATION

Course Code & Name : ME3781 / MECHATRONICS AND IOT

LABORATORY
Program : Mechanical

Engineering Academic year / Semester : 2024-25 /

VII

Year / Semester / Section : IV / VII /

Name of the Student :
Register No :
 Course code 19ME404L Semester VII
Category Professional Core Course (PCC) L T P C
Course Name MECHATRONICS LABORATORY 0 0 2 2
OBJECTIVES:
This course impart knowledge to
 Design and simulate the basic hydraulic and pneumatic with electrical control and
Programmable Logical Controller.
 Learn the basic programming in microprocessor/microcontroller and its interface with stepper
motor and traffic light.
 Gain knowledge on various steps in image processing technique.
PREREQUISITE:
 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems
 Electrical Drives and Control.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:
1. Study of basic pneumatic circuits to simulate single or double acting cylinder.
2. Study of basic hydraulic circuit to understand the working of various types of valves and linear
actuators.
3. Study of electro pneumatic circuits to simulate single or double acting cylinder.
4. Study of PLC pneumatic circuits to simulate single or double acting cylinder.
5. Design and simulate pneumatic circuits using pneumatic simulation software
6. Design and simulate hydraulic circuits using hydraulic simulation software
7. Arithmetic operation (Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division) using 8085
Microprocessor.
8. Study on Traffic Light Interface with 8051 Microprocessor using 8255 Programmable
Peripheral Interface.
9. Stepper of Stepper Motor control using 8051 Microcontroller.
10. Study of image processing technique.
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
COURSE OUTCOMES:
Upon the completion of this course the students will be able to
CO 1 Design and simulate basic pneumatic circuits using electrical and Programmable Logic
Controller.
CO 2 Program in microprocessor/microcontroller to perform arithmetic operations
CO 3 Program in microprocessor/microcontroller to control stepper motor and traffic
lights. CO 4 Explain the various process in image processing technique.

LIST OF EQUIPMENT FOR A BATCH OF 30 STUDENTS

S. No. Component or Equipment Required number
1. Basic Pneumatic Trainer Kit 1
2. Electro Pneumatic Trainer Kit 1
3. PLC Pneumatic Trainer Kit with System 1
4. Basic Hydraulic Trainer Kit 1
5. Pneumatic Simulation Software 5 Users
6. Hydraulic Simulation Software 5 Users
7. 8085 Microprocessor 1
8. Traffic Light Interface Circuit for 8085 Microprocessor 1
9. Stepper Motor drive circuit with 8051 Microcontroller 1
10. Image processing system with hardware and software 1
11. Systems 10
Exp. Page
Date Name of the Experiment Mark
No. No.
Study of Basic Components of Pneumatic System and its
1
Symbols
Controlling of the Single Acting Cylinder using 3/2-way push button
1.a
operated NC direction control valve
Regulating the movement of single acting cylinder using 3/2-way
1.b
push button actuated NC direction control valve.
Control of a single acting cylinder using OR valve ‘OR’ LOGIC
1.c
(Shuttle Valve or Double Check Valve)
Control of a single acting cylinder using AND valve ‘AND’ LOGIC
1.d
(Dual Pressure Valve)
Study of 3/2 roller lever operated valve
1.e
Controlling of the double acting cylinder using 5/2-way spring
1.f
returned pilot operated valve
Operation of double Acting Cylinder through Double Pilot Operated
1.g
5/2 Way Valve
Controlling of double acting cylinder (forward movement)
1.h
using 4/2-way direction control valve
Controlling of double acting cylinder and single acting cylinder
1.i
using 5/2 hand lever operated and 3/2 roller operated valve
Continuous reciprocation of double acting cylinder through
1.j
double pilot operated 5/2-way valve and 3/2 roller operated
Study of Hydraulic Circuits
2
Study of Double Acting Cylinder (Linear Actuator)
2.a
Study of speed control circuit using Flow Control Valve. (Meter-in
2.b
and Meter-Out Circuit)
Study of Pressure Relief Valve (Fail-Safe Circuit)
2.c
Study of Electro Pneumatic Circuits
3
Controlling of double acting cylinder with 5/2 solenoid operated
3.a
direction control valve using SPDT switches, Push button switches
Design and Testing of Electro Pneumatic Reciprocation Circuit to
3.b
Control the Direction of Actuators
Festo Pneumatics Simulation
4
Simulation of Pneumatic double acting cylinders with the sequence
4.a
of A+B+A-B- using Pneumatic controls
Simulation of Electro Pneumatic double acting cylinders with the
4.b
sequence of A+B+A-B- using Electrical controls
Simulation of Electro Pneumatic double acting cylinders with the
4.c
sequence of A+B+A-B- using Logic Module
Simulation of Pneumatic double acting cylinders with the sequence
4.d
of A+B+B-A-C+C- using Pneumatic controls

Festo Hydraulics Simulation

5.
 Simulation of Hydraulic Double Acting Cylinder with
5.a
Sequence A+B+A-B- using Hydraulic Controls
Simulation of Electro Hydraulic Double Acting Cylinder with
5.b
Sequence A+B+A-B- using Electrical Controls
Simulation of Electro Hydraulic Double Acting Cylinder with
5.c
Sequence A+B+A-B- using Logic Module
Simulation of Hydraulic double acting cylinders with the sequence
5.d
of A+B+B-A-C+C- using Hydraulic controls (2 Group)
Programable Logic Controllers (PLC)
6
Design and Testing of Basic Electro-Pneumatic with PLC
6.a
Reciprocating Circuit to Control the Direction of Actuators using
Design and Testing of Basic Electro-Pneumatic with PLC
6.b
Reciprocating Circuit to Control the Direction of Actuators using
Design and Testing of Basic Electro-Pneumatic with PLC
6.c
Reciprocating Circuit to Control the Direction of Actuators using
7 8085- Microprocessor

7.a Addition of Two 8-Bit Numbers

7.b Subtraction of Two 8-Bit Numbers. (Display of Borrow)

7.c Multiplication of Two 8-Bit Numbers by Bit Rotation Method

7.d Division of Two 8-Bit Numbers by Repeated Subtraction Method

8. 8031/8051 Microcontroller with Stepper Motor Interfacing

8.a To Run a Stepper Motor at Different Speed

8.b To Run a Steppe Motor for Required Angle Within 360°, Which is
Equivalent to 256 Steps
9 8031/8051 Microcontroller with Traffic Light Controller
Interfacing
9.a Program for Micro controller-based Traffic light system

10 Study of various types of transducers

11 Study of image processing technique

 STUDY: 1 STUDY OF BASIC COMPONENTS OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEM AND
ITS SYMBOLS

DATE:

Aim: To study the basic components of pneumatic system and their symbols.

Basic Components of a Pneumatic System

A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a

fluid for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to
accomplish useful work. Figure shows a simple circuit of a pneumatic system with basic
components The functions of various components shown in figure are as follows:
1. The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform useful work.
2. The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
3. The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
4. The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
5. External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.
6. The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.
Air is drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to required pressure by an air
compressor. As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises; hence, an air cooler is provided
to cool the air with some preliminary treatment to remove the moisture. The treated pressurized
air then needs to get stored to maintain the pressure. With the storage reservoir, a pressure switch is
fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reaches the required level,
respectively. The three-position change over the valve delivering air to the cylinder operates in the
following ways
1. When the piston of the valve is changed to upper position, the pipe pressure line is connected
to port A and thus the load is raised.
2. When the position of the valve is changed to lower position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port B and thus the load is lowered.
3. When the valve is at center position, it locks the fluid into the cylinder (thereby holding it
in position).

Basic Components of Pneumatic Systems

SYMBOLS
Result: Thus, the basic components and their symbols are studied.
 EXP. NO. 1 a) Controlling of the Single Acting Cylinder using 3/2-way push button
operated NC direction control valve
DATE:

Aim:
To Control of the Single Acting Cylinder using 3/2-way push button operated NC direction control
valve
Components Required:
1. Compressor
2. FRL
3. 3/2 Push Button operated NC Directional Control Valve
4. Single Acting Cylinder
5. Manifold
Procedure:
1. Select components as shown in the components required.
2. Make the pneumatic connections as shown in circuit diagram.
3. Ensure that the valve for air supply from compressor to pneumatic trainer is not open.
Ensure that the unused outlets of the manifold are blocked.
4. Switch ON the compressor. Let the pressure build up to 10 kg/cm2.
5. Set inlet pressure to FRL 5-6 kg/cm2.
6. Turn the regulator knob of FRL fully anticlockwise. Open the ball valve provided at the inlet
of the trainer.
7. Gradually turn the regulator knob of FRL in clockwise direction and observe the pressure on
the pressure gauge. Pressure should start increasing. Set the pressure to approximately to 5-6
kg/cm2.
8. Press and hold the push button of 3/2 valve. The piston of the cylinder should extend.
9. Open the flow control valve gradually and check the forward motion of piston of
the cylinder. You will find the forward motion slower than the reverse motion.
10. Close the flow control valve fully. Check the forward and reverse speed of the
cylinder piston. There is no difference in two speeds.
11. Close the ball valve provided at the inlet of the trainer.
12. Disconnect all the pneumatic connections.

Result: The spring return single acting cylinder retracts to its original position after
the removal of air pressure.
 EXP. NO. 1 b) Regulating the movement of single acting cylinder using 3/2-way push
button actuated NC direction control valve.
DATE:

Aim:
To regulate the movement of single acting cylinder using 3/2-way push button actuated NC direction
control valve.
Components Required:
1. Compressor
2. FRL
3. 3/2 Push Button operated NC Directional Control Valve
4. Inline type flow control valve
5. Single Acting Cylinder
6. Manifold
Procedure:
1. Select components as shown in the components required.
2. Make the pneumatic connections as shown in circuit diagram.
3. Ensure that the valve for air supply from compressor to pneumatic trainer is not open.
Ensure that the unused outlets of the manifold are blocked.
4. Switch ON the compressor. Let the pressure build up to 10 kg/cm2.
5. Set inlet pressure to FRL 5-6 kg/cm2.
6. Turn the regulator knob of FRL fully anticlockwise. Open the ball valve provided at the
inlet of the trainer.
7. Gradually turn the regulator knob of FRL in clockwise direction and observe the pressure on
the pressure gauge. Pressure should start increasing. Set the pressure to approximately to 5-6
kg/cm2.
8. Press and hold the push button of 3/2 valve. The piston of the cylinder should extend.
9. Release the button of 3/2 way direction control valve. The piston of the cylinder should
retract. Air from the cylinder is exhausted through exhaust port ‘R’ of 3/2-way direction
control valve.
10. Close the ball valve provided at the inlet of the trainer.
11. Disconnect all the pneumatic connections.

Result: Speed of single acting cylinder can be regulated by placing flow control valve in the suction
line.
 EXP. NO. 1 c) Control of a single acting cylinder using OR valve ‘OR’ LOGIC
(Shuttle Valve or Double Check Valve)
DATE:

Aim:
To Develop ‘OR’ Logic by Using Pneumatic Components
Components Required:
1) Compressor
2) FRL
3) 3/2 Push Button operated NC Directional Control Valve
4) 5/2 hand lever operated spring return valve
5) Dual pressure valve (AND logic valve)
6) Single Acting Cylinder
7) Manifold
Procedure:
1. Select components as shown in the components required.
2. Make the pneumatic connections as shown in circuit diagram.
3. Ensure that the valve for air supply from compressor to pneumatic trainer is not open.
Ensure that the unused outlets of the manifold are blocked.
4. Switch ON the compressor. Let the pressure build up to 10 kg/cm2.
5. Set inlet pressure to FRL 5-6 kg/cm2.
6. Turn the regulator knob of FRL fully anticlockwise. Open the ball valve provided at the
inlet of the trainer.
7. Gradually turn the regulator knob of FRL in clockwise direction and observe the pressure on
the pressure gauge. Pressure should start increasing. Set the pressure to approximately to 5-6
kg/cm2.
8. Initially both the valves are kept in original position. The piston of the cylinder should not
extend.
9. Change the position of valve V1 and keep the valve V2 in original position .the piston of the
cylinder should extend.
10. Bring the valve V1 to original position and change the position of valve V2. The position of
cylinder should extend.
11. Bring V2 to original position.
12. Now operate V1 and V2 simultaneously. The piston of the cylinder should extend.
13. Close the ball valve provided at the inlet of the trainer.
14. Disconnect all the pneumatic connections.

Result: OR logic is developed using the given components.

 EXP. NO. 1 d) Control of a single acting cylinder using AND valve ‘AND’ LOGIC (Dual
Pressure Valve)
DATE:

Aim:
To Develop ‘AND’ Logic by Using Pneumatic Components.
Components Required:
1) Compressor
2) FRL
3) 3/2 Push Button operated NC Directional Control Valve
4) 5/2 hand lever operated spring return valve
5) Dual pressure valve (AND logic valve)
6) Single Acting Cylinder
7) Manifold
Procedure:
1) Select components as shown in the components required.
2) Make the pneumatic connections as shown in circuit diagram.
3) Ensure that the valve for air supply from compressor to pneumatic trainer is not open.
Ensure that the unused outlets of the manifold are blocked.
4) Switch ON the compressor. Let the pressure build up to 10 kg/cm2.
5) Set inlet pressure to FRL 5-6 kg/cm2.
6) Turn the regulator knob of FRL fully anticlockwise. Open the ball valve provided at the inlet
of the trainer.
7) Gradually turn the regulator knob of FRL in clockwise direction and observe the pressure on
the pressure gauge. Pressure should start increasing. Set the pressure to approximately to 5-6
kg/cm2.
8) Initially both the valves are kept in original position. The piston of the cylinder should
not extend.
9) Change the position of valve V1 and keep the valve V2 in original position. The piston of the
cylinder should extend.
10) Bring the valve V1 to original position and change the position of valve V2. The position of
cylinder should extend.
11) Bring V2 to original position.
12) Now operate V1 and V2 simultaneously. The piston of the cylinder should extend.
13) Close the ball valve provided at the inlet of the trainer.
14) Disconnect all the pneumatic connections.

Result: AND logic is developed using the given components.

 EXP. NO. 1 e) Study of 3/2 Roller Lever Operated Valve
DATE:

Aim:
To study the working of 3/2 roller lever operated valve

Components Required:
1) Compressor
2) FRL
3) 5/2 Hand lever operated spring Return Valve
4) 3/2 Roller lever valve
5) Double Acting Cylinder
6) Single Acting Cylinder
7) Manifold
Procedure:
1) Select components as shown in the components required.
2) Make the pneumatic connections as shown in circuit diagram.
3) Ensure that the valve for air supply from compressor to pneumatic trainer is not open. Ensure
that the unused outlets of the manifold are blocked.
4) Switch ON the compressor. Let the pressure build up to 10 kg/cm2.
5) Set inlet pressure to FRL 5-6 kg/cm2.
6) Turn the regulator knob of FRL fully anticlockwise. Open the ball valve provided at the inlet
of the trainer.
7) Gradually turn the regulator knob of FRL in clockwise direction and observe the pressure on
the pressure gauge. Pressure should start increasing. Set the pressure to approximately to 5-6
kg/cm2.
8) Operate the 5/2 lever operated valve and observe position of double acting cylinder and
single acting cylinder.
9) Close the ball valve provided at the inlet of the trainer.
10) Disconnect all the pneumatic connections.

Result: Study of 3/2 roller lever operated valve is carried on.

 EXP. NO. 1 f) Controlling of the double acting cylinder using 5/2-way spring returned
pilot operated valve
DATE:

Aim:
To control the double acting cylinder using 5/2-way spring returned pilot operated valve
Components Required:
1) Compressor
2) FRL
3) 3/2 push button operated NC Direction Control valve
4) 5/2 External Pilot operated valve with spring return
5) Double Acting Cylinder
6) Manifold
Procedure:
1) Make the pneumatic connections as shown in circuit diagram.
2) Ensure that the valve for air supply from compressor to pneumatic trainer is not open.
Ensure that the unused outlets of the manifold are blocked.
3) Switch ON the compressor. Let the pressure build up to 10 kg/cm2.
4) Set inlet pressure to FRL 5-6 kg/cm2.
5) Turn the regulator knob of FRL fully anticlockwise. Open the ball valve provided at the inlet
of the trainer.
6) Gradually turn the regulator knob of FRL in clockwise direction and observe the pressure on
the pressure gauge. Pressure should start increasing. Set the pressure to approximately to 5-6
kg/cm2.
7) Press and hold push button of 3/2 direction control valve. Pneumatic supply is applied to
pilot of 5/2 way pilot operated spring return valve
8) This actuates 5/2-way pilot operated valve. This causes the cylinder to move in forward
direction.
9) Release push button of 3/2 way direction control valve. This removes the pilot signal to 5/2
way pilot operated valve. This causes the cylinder to retract. Air from the piston end of the
cylinder is exhausted through the exhaust port of 5/2 way pilot operated direction control valve.
10) Close the ball valve provided at the inlet of the trainer.

Result: Control of the double acting cylinder using 5/2-way spring returned pilot operated valve is
carried on.
 EXP. NO. 1 g) Operation of double Acting Cylinder through Double Pilot Operated 5/2
Way Valve
DATE:

Aim:
To operate double acting cylinder through double pilot operated 5/2-way valve
Components Required:
1) Compressor
2) FRL
3) 5/2 Double external pilot operated direction control valve
4) 3/2 Roller Lever Valve (2no’s)
5) Double Acting Cylinder
6) Manifold
Procedure:
1) Select components as shown in the components required.
2) Make the pneumatic connections as shown in circuit diagram.
3) Ensure that the valve for air supply from compressor to pneumatic trainer is not open.
Ensure that the unused outlets of the manifold are blocked.
4) Switch ON the compressor. Let the pressure build up to 10 kg/cm2.
5) Set inlet pressure to FRL 5-6 kg/cm2.
6) Turn the regulator knob of FRL fully anticlockwise. Open the ball valve provided at the inlet
of the trainer.
7) Gradually turn the regulator knob of FRL in clockwise direction and observe the pressure on
the pressure gauge. Pressure should start increasing. Set the pressure to approximately to 5-6
kg/cm2.
8) Piston of single acting cylinder moves in outward direction.
9) Due to the movement of piston roller of roller lever valve gets pressed which gives pilot
signal to 5/2 way single pilot operating valve and piston moves back to its original position.
10) Close the ball valve provided at the inlet of the trainer.

Result: Operation of single acting cylinder through double pilot operated 5/2-way valve is carried
on.
 EXP. NO. 1 h) Controlling double acting cylinder (forward movement) using 4/2-way
direction control valve
DATE:

Aim:
To control the double acting cylinder (forward movement) using 4/2-way direction control valve.
Components Required:
1) Compressor
2) FRL
3) 4/2 Way Direction Control Valve
4) Double Acting Cylinder
5) Manifold
Procedure:
1) Select components as shown in the components required.
2) Make the pneumatic connections as shown in circuit diagram.
3) Ensure that the valve for air supply from compressor to pneumatic trainer is not open.
Ensure that the unused outlets of the manifold are blocked.
4) Switch ON the compressor. Let the pressure build up to 10 kg/cm2.
5) Set inlet pressure to FRL 5-6 kg/cm2.
6) Turn the regulator knob of FRL fully anticlockwise. Open the ball valve provided at the inlet of
the trainer.
7) Gradually turn the regulator knob of FRL in clockwise direction and observe the pressure
on the pressure gauge. Pressure should start increasing. Set the pressure to approximately to
5-6 kg/cm2.
8) Operate the lever of 4/2 way valve, so air enters from piston side of the cylinder and
piston moves in forward direction.
9) Operate the lever of 4/2 way valve, in other direction so the air enters from the rod end side of
the cylinder and piston inside the cylinder is retracted and air from exhaust port R of 4/2 way
direction control valve.
10) Disconnect all the pneumatic connections.

Result: Control of double acting cylinder (forward movement) using 4/2-way direction
control valve is carried on.
 EXP. NO. 1 i) Controlling of double acting cylinder and single acting cylinder using 5/2
double pilot operated and 3/2 roller operated valve
DATE:

Aim:
To control the double acting cylinder and single acting cylinder using 5/2 double pilot operated
and 3/2 roller operated valve.
Components Required:
1) Compressor
2) FRL
3) 5/2 Way double pilot operated Direction Control Valve
4) 3/2 roller operated valve
5) Double Acting Cylinder and Single Acting Cylinder
6) Manifold
Procedure:
1) Select components as shown in the components required.
2) Make the pneumatic connections as shown in circuit diagram.
3) Ensure that the valve for air supply from compressor to pneumatic trainer is not open.
Ensure that the unused outlets of the manifold are blocked.
4) Switch ON the compressor. Let the pressure build up to 10 kg/cm2.
5) Set inlet pressure to FRL 5-6 kg/cm2.
6) Turn the regulator knob of FRL fully anticlockwise. Open the ball valve provided at the inlet of
the trainer.
7) Gradually turn the regulator knob of FRL in clockwise direction and observe the pressure on
the pressure gauge. Pressure should start increasing. Set the pressure to approximately to 5-6
kg/cm2.
8) Operate the lever of 3/2 way valve, so air enters from piston side of the cylinder and
piston moves in forward direction.
9) Operate the lever of 5/2 way valve, in other direction so the air enters from the rod end side
of the cylinder and piston inside the cylinder is retracted and air from exhaust port R of 3/2
way direction control valve.

Result: Controlling of double acting cylinder and single acting cylinder using 5/2 double pilot
operated and 3/2 roller operated valve is carried on.
 EXP. NO. 1 j) Continuous reciprocation of double acting cylinder through double pilot
operated 5/2-way valve and 3/2 roller operated valves with an emergency
hand lever operated valve
DATE:

Aim:
To control the double acting cylinder for a Continuous reciprocation through double pilot operated
5/2-way valve and 3/2 roller operated valves with an emergency hand lever operated valve.
Components Required:
1) Compressor
2) FRL
3) 5/2 Way double pilot operated Direction Control Valve
4) 3/2 roller operated valve
5) Double Acting Cylinder
6) Manifold
Procedure:
1) Make the pneumatic connections as shown in circuit diagram.
2) Ensure that the valve for air supply from compressor to pneumatic trainer is not open.
Ensure that the unused outlets of the manifold are blocked.
3) Switch ON the compressor. Let the pressure build up to 10 kg/cm2.
4) Set inlet pressure to FRL 2-3 kg/cm2.
5) Turn the regulator knob of FRL fully anticlockwise. Open the ball valve provided at the inlet of
the trainer.
6) Gradually turn the regulator knob of FRL in clockwise direction and observe the pressure on
the pressure gauge. Pressure should start increasing. Set the pressure to approximately to 5-6
kg/cm2.
7) Operate the lever of 5/2 way valve, so air enters from piston side of the cylinder and
piston moves in forward direction.
8) Operate the lever of 5/2 way valve, in other direction so the air enters from the rod end side of
the cylinder and piston inside the cylinder is retracted and air from exhaust port R of 5/2 way
direction control valve.

Result: Controlling the double acting cylinder for a Continuous reciprocation through double pilot
operated 5/2- way valve and 3/2 roller operated valves with an emergency hand lever operated valve
is carried on.
 STUDY: 2 Study of Basic Components of Hydraulic System and its Symbols

DATE:

Aim:
To study the basic components of hydraulic system and their symbols.
Basic Components of a Hydraulic System
Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish
useful work. Figure shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic components.
Functions of the components shown in Fig. are as follows:
1. The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical power to
do useful work.
The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder) or rotary type (e.g., hydraulic
motor) to provide linear or rotary motion, respectively.
2. The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the hydraulic circuit
by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
3. Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing through
the circuit.
4. External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
5. Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.
6. Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
7. Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and efficient,
as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
8. Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the hydraulic
fluid. The piping shown in Fig. is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred from the storage tank
to one side of the piston and returned back from the other side of the piston to the tank. Fluid is
drawn from the tank by a pump that produces fluid flow at the required level of pressure. If the
fluid pressure exceeds the required level, then the excess fluid returns back to the reservoir and
remains there until the pressure acquires the required level. Cylinder movement is controlled by a
three-position change over a control valve.
1. When the piston of the valve is changed to upper position, the pipe pressure line is connected to
port A and thus the load is raised.
2. When the position of the valve is changed to lower position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port B and thus the load is lowered.
3. When the valve is at center position, it locks the fluid into the cylinder (thereby holding it in
position) and dead-ends the fluid line (causing all the pump output fluid to return to tank via
the pressure relief).
In industry, a machine designer conveys the design of hydraulic systems using a circuit diagram.
Figure 1.2 shows the components of the hydraulic system using symbols. The working fluid,
which is the hydraulic oil, is stored in a reservoir. When the electric motor is switched ON, it runs
a positive displacement pump that draws hydraulic oil through a filter and delivers at high
pressure. The pressurized oil passes through the regulating valve and does work on actuator. Oil
from the other end of the actuator goes back to the tank via return line. To and fro motion of the
cylinder is controlled using directional control valve.
The hydraulic system discussed above can be broken down into four main divisions that are
analogous to the four main divisions in an electrical system.
1. The power device parallels the electrical generating station.
2. The control valves parallel the switches, resistors, timers, pressure switches, relays, etc.
3. The lines in which the fluid power flows parallel the electrical lines.
 4. The fluid power motor (whether it is a rotating or a non-rotating cylinder or a fluid power motor)
parallels the solenoids and electrical motors.

Basic Components of Hydraulic Systems

SYMBOLS
Result: Thus, the components of hydraulic system and their symbols are studied.
 EXP. NO. 2 a) Study of Linear Actuator
DATE:

Aim:
To study the working of linear actuator
Components Required:
1. Pressure manifold
2. Tank manifold
3. Power Pack
4. 4/2 Hand Lever operated Detent type DC valve
5. Double acting cylinder
Procedure:
1. Make hydraulic connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Start the trainer power pack using the following procedure
 Check the level of the fluid in the reservoir. Add oil through the oil
breather, if necessary.
 Connect single phase power supply to the trainer.
 Start the motor by using ON/OFF switch provided on trainer.
 Ensure that the pressure setting of the power pack is between 10 kg/cm2.The
power
 pack has a relief valve on to it.Adjust the relief valve setting, if required.
3. Turn ON the power pack. Shift the handle of DC valve in both directions to see
the movement of the piston accordingly.
4. Turn OFF the power pack.
5. Shut down procedure.
 Switch OFF the power supply.
 Disconnect hydraulic connection.
 Wipe off all the oil from the work table, components, hoses, test area, etc.
 Clean up any oil spilled on the floor, if any.

Result: Study of linear actuator is carried on.

EXP. NO. 2 b) Study of speed control circuit
DATE:

Aim:
To study the working of speed control circuit
Components Required:
1. Pressure manifold and Tank manifold
2. Power Pack
3. 4/2 Hand Lever operated Detent type DC valve
4. Double acting cylinder
5. Unidirectional Flow Control Valve
Procedure:
1. Make hydraulic connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Start the trainer power pack using the following procedure
 Check the level of the fluid in the reservoir. Add oil through the oil breather.
 Connect single phase power supply to the trainer.
 Start the motor by using ON/OFF switch provided on trainer.
 Ensure that the pressure setting of the power pack is between 10 kg/cm2.The
power pack has a relief valve on to it. Adjust the relief valve setting, if
required.
3. Turn Unidirectional Flow Control Valve knob so that it is fully open.
4. Shift the lever of DC valve in both directions. The cylinder extends/retracts. Note
the speed of the cylinder movement in both the directions.
5. Close the Unidirectional Flow Control Valve partially.
6. Shift the lever of DC valve in both directions. The cylinder extends/retracts. Note
the speed of the cylinder movement in both the directions.
7. Try to repeat above steps with Unidirectional Flow Control Valve completely closed.
8. Because the flow control valve used is Unidirectional, flow of the oil is controlled in
one direction and it is free flow in the opposite direction. Because of this, the
cylinder retracts at normal speed but extends at a controlled speed.
9. Turn OFF the power pack.

Result: Study of speed control circuit is carried on.

EXP. NO. 2 c) Study of pressure relief valve
DATE:

Aim:
To study the working of pressure relief valve
Components Required:
1. Pressure manifold
2. Tank manifold
3. Power Pack
4. Pressure Relief Valve
5. Pressure Gauge
Procedure:
1. Identify components on the test area.
2. Make hydraulic connections as per the circuit diagram.
3. Start the trainer power pack using the following procedure
 Check the level of the fluid in the reservoir. Add oil through the oil breather.
 Connect single phase power supply to the trainer.
 Start the motor by using ON/OFF switch provided on trainer.
 Ensure that the pressure setting of the power pack is between 10 kg/cm2.
 The power pack has a relief valve on to it. Adjust the relief valve setting,
if required.
4. Rotate the knob of pressure relief valve provided on panel clockwise.
5. Observe the pressure-on-pressure gauge
6. Repeat the procedure for various settings of pressure.
7. Turn OFF the power pack.

Result: Study of pressure relief valve is carried on.

 EXP. NO. 3 Electro Pneumatic Circuits
a) Controlling of double acting cylinder with 5/2 solenoid operated
direction control valve using SPDT switches.
DATE:

Aim:
To design and test the basic electro pneumatic reciprocation circuit to control the direction using
double acting cylinder, 5/2 solenoid operated direction control valve and SPDT switches
Components Required:
1) Compressor
2) FRL unit
3) Double acting cylinder,
4) 5/2 solenoid operated direction control Valve
5) SPDT switches
Procedure
 Using 8 mm dia. tube, FRL unit with compressor is connected.
 According to the circuit diagram, the components are arranged on the working table.
 According to the circuit diagram using 4 mm dia. tubes the circuit connections are given.
 By operating SPDT switches, the simulation of reciprocation is made and simultaneously the
direction of the piston is controlled.

Result: Thus, the design and test the basic pneumatic reciprocation circuit to control the
direction using double acting cylinder, 5/2 direction control valve and SPDT switches are
done.
 EXP. NO. 3 b) Design and Testing of Electro Pneumatic Reciprocation Circuit to
Control the Direction of Actuators
(Electrical Push Button/Relay module/selector switch)
DATE:

Aim:
To design and test the basic electro pneumatic reciprocation circuit to control the direction
Components Required
1) Compressor
2) FRI. unit
3) Double acting cylinder.
4) Q) 4 mm & Q) 8 mm tube
5) 5/2 solenoid operated direction control valve
6) Electrical push button /Relay module/selector switch/AND logic/OR logic/on delay
timer/ off delay timer/up counter as per the requirement
Procedure
 Using 8 mm dia. tube, FRL unit with compressor is connected.
 According to the circuit diagram the components are arranged on the working table
 According to the circuit diagram using 4 mm dia. tubes the circuit connections are given.
 By operating electrical push buttons, the simulation of reciprocation is made
and simultaneously the direction of piston is controlled

Result: Thus, the design and test the basic pneumatic reciprocation circuit to control the
direction using double acting cylinder, 5/2 direction control valve and electrical push buttons are
done.
 EXP. NO. 4 Draw and Simulate the Following Circuits using Festo Pneumatics

a) Simulation of Pneumatic Double Acting Cylinders with

Sequence A+B+A-B- using Pneumatic Controls
DATE:

Aim:
To design and operate double acting cylinders sing pneumatics control for the sequence A+ B+ A- B-
by FESTO PNEUMATIC software.

Software Used:
FESTO PNEUMATIC

Components Required:

Number Description
2 Double acting cylinder
1 Compressed air supply
1 Air service unit, simplified representation
1 3/2-way valve with pushbutton
4 3/2-way roller lever valve
2 5/2-way valve, with selection switch
2 Distance rule

Procedure:
1. Select the above mentioned components from the insert menu and pneumatic controls.

2. Assign proper position symbols for the cylinders and pneumatic switches in the
properties menu of the cylinders and pneumatic switches.
3. Connect all apparatus as per the circuit using links of FESTO PNEUMATIC software.
4. Switch on the pressure source (i.e. compressed air supply) to operate the entire circuit.
5. Allow the compressed air to flow through the check valve.
6. Then the compressed air is allowed to operate double acting cylinder through 5/2
direction controlled valve.
7. The operation of double acting cylinder can be controlled by pneumatic pilot line.
8. Run id for checking its proper operation.
RESULT:
Thus, the double acting cylinder sequence is designed and operated for the sequence A+, B+, A-, B-
by FESTO PNEUMATIC Software.
 EXP. NO. 4 b) Simulation of Electro Pneumatic Double Acting Cylinders with
Sequence A+B+A-B- using Electrical Controls
DATE:

Aim:
To design and operate double acting cylinders using Electrical controls for the sequence A+ B+ A-
B- by FESTO PNEUMATIC software.

Software Used:
FESTO PNEUMATIC

Components Required:

Number Description
2 Double acting cylinder
1 Compressed air supply
1 Air service unit, simplified representation
1 3/2-way valve with pushbutton
2 5/2-way valve, with selection switch
4 Make switch
4 Valve solenoid
1 Electrical connection 24V
1 Electrical connection 0V

Procedure:
1. Select the above mentioned components from the insert menu and pneumatic controls and
electrical controls.
2. Assign proper position symbols for the cylinders and electrical switches in the properties
menu of the cylinders and electrical switches.
3. Connect all apparatus as per the circuit using links of FESTO PNEUMATIC software.
4. Switch on the pressure source (i.e. compressed air supply) to operate the entire circuit.
5. Allow the compressed air to flow through the check valve.
6. Then the compressed air is allowed to operate double acting cylinder through 5/2
direction controlled valve.
7. 5/2 direction controlled valve are controlled by solenoid using electrical circuit and
proper labelling.
8. Run id for checking its proper operation.
RESULT:
Thus, the double acting cylinder sequence is designed and operated using electrical control for the
sequence A+, B+, A-, B- by FESTO PNEUMATIC Software.
 EXP. NO. 4 c) Simulation of Electro Pneumatic Double Acting Cylinders with
Sequence A+B+A-B- using Logic Module
DATE:

Aim:
To design and operate double acting cylinders using logic Modules for the sequence A+ B+ A- B- by
FESTO PNEUMATIC software.

Software Used:
FESTO PNEUMATIC

Components Required:

Number Description
2 Double acting cylinder
1 Compressed air supply
1 Air service unit, simplified representation
1 3/2-way valve with pushbutton
2 5/2-way valve, with selection switch
4 Make switch

4 Valv e solenoid
1 Electrical connection 24V
1 Electrical connection 0V
1 Logic module

Procedure:
1. Select the above mentioned components from the insert menu and pneumatic controls
and electrical controls and logic modules.
2. Assign proper position symbols for the cylinders and electrical switches in the properties
menu of the cylinders and electrical switches.
3. Connect all apparatus as per the circuit using links of FESTO PNEUMATIC software.
4. Switch on the pressure source (i.e. compressed air supply) to operate the entire circuit.
5. Allow the compressed air to flow through the check valve.
6. Then the compressed air is allowed to operate double acting cylinder through 5/2
direction controlled valve by logic module.
7. By energizing the solenoids of the valve, the operation of double acting cylinder can be
controlled.
8. Run id for checking its proper operation.
RESULT:
Thus, the double acting cylinder sequence is designed and operated for the sequence A+, B+, A-, B- using
Logic Module by FESTO PNEUMATIC Software.
 EXP. NO. 4 d) Simulation of Pneumatic Double Acting Cylinders with Sequence A+
B+ B- A- C+ C- using Pneumatic Controls (Two Group Cascade Method)
DATE:

Aim:
To design and operate double acting cylinders using Pneumatic controls for the sequence A+ B+ B- A- C+ C-
by FESTO PNEUMATIC Software.

Software Used:
FESTO PNEUMATIC

Components Required:

Number Description
1 Double acting cylinder
2 Compressed air supply
3 Air service unit, simplified representation
4 5/2-way valve, with selection switch
5 3/2-way v alv e, manually operated

Procedure:
1. Select the above mentioned components from the insert menu and pneumatic controls.

2. Assign proper position symbols for the cylinders and pneumatic switches in the
properties menu of the cylinders and pneumatic switches.
3. Connect all apparatus as per the circuit using links of FESTO PNEUMATIC software.
4. Switch on the pressure source (i.e. compressed air supply) to operate the entire circuit.
5. Allow the compressed air to flow through the check valve.
6. Then the compressed air is allowed to operate double acting cylinder through 5/2
direction controlled valve by logic module.
7. The operation of double acting cylinder can be controlled by pneumatic pilot line.
8. Run id for checking its proper operation.
RESULT:

Thus, the double acting cylinder sequence is designed and operated for the sequence A+ B+ B- A- C+ C- by
FESTO PNEUMATIC Software.
 EXP. NO. 5 Draw and Simulate the following Circuits using Festo Hydraulic
a) Simulation of Hydraulic Double Acting Cylinder with Sequence
A+B+A- B- using Hydraulic Controls
DATE:

Aim:
To design and operate double acting cylinders using hydraulic control for the sequence A+, B+, A-,
B- by FESTO HYDRAULIC Software.

SOFTWARE USED:

FESTO HYDRAULIC

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Number Description
1 Filter
1 Pump unit (simplif ied
representation)
2 5/n Way Valv e
2 Distance rule
2 Double acting cy linder
5 3/2-way hand-lev er v alv e
9 Tank

PROCEDURE:

1) Select the above-mentioned components from the menu and hydraulic controls.

2) Assign proper position symbols for the cylinders and hydraulic switches in the
properties menu of the cylinders and the hydraulic switches.
3) Connect all apparatus as per the circuit using links of FESTO HYDRAULIC software.

4) Switch on the pressure source (i.e. pump unit) to operate the entire circuit.

5) Allow the hydraulic fluid to flow through the check valve.

6) Then the hydraulic fluid is allowed to operate double acting cylinder through 5/2
directional valve controlled by hydraulic circuit.
7) The operation of double acting cylinder can be controlled by hydraulic pilot line.
8) Run it for checking its proper operation.
 RESULT:

Thus, the double acting cylinder sequence is designed and operated for the sequence A+, B+, A-, B-
by FESTO HYDRAULIC Software.
EXP. NO. 5 b) Simulation of Electro Hydraulic Double Acting Cylinder with
Sequence A+B+A-B- using Electrical Controls
DATE:

Aim:

To design and operate double acting cylinders using Electrical controls for the
sequence A+, B+, A-, B- by FESTO HYDRAULIC Software.

SOFTWARE USED:

FESTO HYDRAULIC
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Number Description
1 3/2-way hand-lev er v alv e
1 Electrical connection 0V
1 Electrical connection 24V
1 Pump unit (simplif ied
representation)
2 5/n Way Valv e
2 Distance rule
2 Double acting cy linder
4 Make switch
4 Valv e solenoid
5 Tank

PROCEDURE:

1) Select the above-mentioned components from the menu and

HYDRAULIC controls.
2) Assign proper position symbols for the cylinders and HYDRAULIC switches in
the properties menu of the cylinders and the HYDRAULIC switches.
3) Connect all apparatus as per the circuit using links of FESTO HYDRAULIC
software.
4) Switch on the pressure source (i.e. pump unit) to operate the entire circuit.
5) Allow the hydraulic fluid to flow through the check valve.

6) Then the hydraulic fluid is allowed to operate double acting cylinder through 5/2
directional valve controlled by electrical circuit.

7) Run it for checking its proper operation.

 RESULT

Thus, the double acting cylinder sequence is designed and operated using electrical control for the
sequence A+, B+, A-, B- by FESTO HYDRAULIC Software.
 EXP. NO. 5 c) Simulation of Electro Hydraulic Double Acting Cylinder with
Sequence A+B+A-B- using Logic Module
DATE:

Aim:

To design and operate double acting cylinders using Logic Module for the sequence A+,
B+, A-, B- by FESTO HYDRAULIC Software.

SOFTWARE USED:

FESTO HYDRAULIC

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Number Description
1 3/2-way hand-lever valve
1 Electrical connection 0V
1 Electrical connection 24V
1 Filter
1 Logic module
1 Pump unit (simplif ied
representation)
2 5/n Way Valve
2 Distance rule
2 Double acting cylinder
4 Make switch
4 Valve solenoid
5 Tank

PROCEDURE:

1. Select the above-mentioned components from the menu and HYDRAULIC controls.
2. Assign proper position symbols for the cylinders and HYDRAULIC switches in the
properties menu of the cylinders and the HYDRAULIC switches.
1. Connect all apparatus as per the circuit using links of FESTO HYDRAULIC software.
2. Switch on the pressure source (i.e. pump unit) to operate the entire circuit.
3. Allow the hydraulic fluid to flow through the check valve.
4. Then the hydraulic fluid is allowed to operate double acting cylinder through 5/2
directional valve controlled by Logic Module.
5. By energizing the solenoids of the valve, the operation of double acting cylinder
can be controlled.
6. Run it for checking its proper operation.
RESULT
Thus, the double acting cylinder sequence is designed and operated for the sequence A+, B+, A-, B- using
Logic Module by FESTO HYDRAULIC Software.
 EXP. NO. 5 d) Simulation of Hydraulic Double Acting Cylinders with Sequence A+
B+ B- A- C+ C- using Hydraulic Controls (Two Group Cascade Method)
DATE:

Aim:
To design and operate double acting cylinders using Hydraulic controls for the sequence A+ B+ B- A- C+ C-
by FESTO HYDRAULIC Software.

SOFTWARE USED:

FESTO HYDRAULIC

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Number Description
3 Double acting cylinder
4 5/2 Way Valve with selection
switch
5 Compressed air supply
3 Distance rule
7 3/2-way v alv e, manually operated

PROCEDURE:

1) Select the above-mentioned components from the menu and hydraulic controls.

2) Assign proper position symbols for the cylinders and hydraulic switches in the
properties menu of the cylinders and the hydraulic switches.

3) Connect all apparatus as per the circuit using links of FESTO HYDRAULIC software.

4) Switch on the pressure source (i.e. pump unit) to operate the entire circuit.

5) Allow the hydraulic fluid to flow through the check valve.

6) Then the hydraulic fluid is allowed to operate double acting cylinder through
5/2 directional valve controlled by hydraulic circuit.

7) The operation of double acting cylinder can be controlled by hydraulic pilot line.

8) Run it for checking its proper operation.

RESULT:

Thus, the double acting cylinder sequence is designed and operated for the sequence A+ B+ B- A-
C+ C-by FESTO HYDRAULIC Software.
 EXP. NO. 5 a) Design and Testing of Basic Electro Pneumatic with PLC Reciprocation
Circuit to Control The Direction of Actuators using Single Acting
Cylinder
& AND Gate Logic
DATE:

Aim:
To design and test the basic electro pneumatic with plc reciprocation circuit to control the direction
using single acting cylinder & AND gate logic.
Components Required:
 Compressor
 FRL unit
 Single Acting Cylinder
 4mm & 8mm diameter tube
 3/2 solenoid operated direction control valve
 PLC-AND gate Logic
Procedure:
 Using 8mmdia tube, FRL unit with compressor is connected.
 According to the circuit diagram the components are arranged on the working table
 According to the circuit diagram using 4mm dia. Tubes the circuit connections are given.
 According to the Ladder diagram electrical connections are given.
 By running the program in PLC, the simulation of reciprocation was made and
simultaneously the direction of the piston is controlled.

Result:
Thus the design and test the basic pneumatic reciprocation circuit to control the direction using double
acting cylinder & AND gate logic are done.
 EXP. NO. 6 b) Design and Testing of Basic Electro Pneumatic with PLC
Reciprocation Circuit to Control The Direction of Actuators using Single
Acting Cylinder
& OR Gate Logic
DATE:

Aim:
To design and test the basic electro pneumatic with plc reciprocation circuit to control the direction
using single acting cylinder & OR gate logic.
Components Required:
 Compressor
 FRL unit
 Single Acting Cylinder
 4mm & 8mm diameter tube
 3/2 solenoid operated direction control valve
 PLC-OR gate Logic
Procedure:
 Using 8mmdia tube, FRL unit with compressor is connected.
 According to the circuit diagram the components are arranged on the working table
 According to the circuit diagram using 4mm dia. Tubes the circuit connections are given.
 According to the Ladder diagram electrical connections are given.
 By running the program in PLC, the simulation of reciprocation was made and
simultaneously the direction of the piston is controlled.

Result:
Thus the design and test the basic pneumatic reciprocation circuit to control the direction using double
acting cylinder & OR gate logic are done.
 EXP. NO. 6 c) Design and Testing of Basic Electro Pneumatic with PLC Reciprocation
Circuit to Control The Direction of Actuators using Double Acting
Cylinder & ON Delay timer
DATE:

Aim:
To design and test the basic electro pneumatic with plc reciprocation circuit to control the direction
using single acting cylinder & ON delay timer.
Components Required:
 Compressor
 FRL unit
 Single Acting Cylinder
 4mm & 8mm diameter tube
 3/2 solenoid operated direction control valve
 PLC- ON delay timer
Procedure:
 Using 8mmdia tube, FRL unit with compressor is connected.
 According to the circuit diagram the components are arranged on the working table
 According to the circuit diagram using 4mm dia. Tubes the circuit connections are given.
 According to the Ladder diagram electrical connections are given.
 By running the program in PLC, the simulation of reciprocation was made and
simultaneously the direction of the piston is controlled.

Result:
Thus the design and test the basic pneumatic reciprocation circuit to control the direction using double
acting cylinder & ON delay timer are done.
 STUDY: 7 8085- MICROPROCESSOR
DATE:

In 1976, technology advances allowed Intel to consider enhancing its 8080. The objective was
to come out with a processor set utilizing a single power supply and requiring fewer chips (the 8080
required a separate oscillator chip and system controller chip to make it usable). The new processor,
called the 8085, was constrained to be compatible with the 8080 at the machine-code level. This
meant that the only extension to the instruction set could be in the twelve unused opcodes of the
8080. The 8085 turned out to be architecturally not much more than a repackaging of the 8080. The
major differences were in such areas as an on-chip oscillator, power-on reset, vectored interrupts,
decoded control lines, a serial I/O port, and a single power supply. Two new instructions, RIM and
SIM, were added to handle the serial port and interrupt mask.
A microprocessor is a multipurpose, programmable logic device that reads binary instructions
from a storage device called memory, accepts binary data as input and processes data according to
those instructions and provide result as output. The power supply of 8085 is +5V and clock frequency
is 3MHz.

All the signals of 8085 can be classified into 6 groups:

• Address bus
• Data bus
• Control and status signals
• Power supply and frequency signals
• Externally initiated signals
• Serial I/O ports
The various operations performed are:
• Store 8-bit data
• Perform arithmetic and logical operations
• Test for conditions
• Sequence the execution of instructions
• Store data temporarily during execution in the defined R/W memory locations called the
stack
Steps involved to fetch a byte in 8085:
• The PC places the 16-bit memory address on the address bus.
• The control unit sends the control signal RD to enable the memory chip.
• The byte from the memory location is placed on the data bus.
• The byte is placed in the instruction decoder of the microprocessor and the task is carried
out according to the instruction.
• The 8085 has 5 interrupt signals, they are INTR, RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5 and TRAP.
The primary function of memory interfacing is that the microprocessor should be able to read
from and write into a given register of a memory chip. To perform these operations the
microprocessor should
• Be able to select the chip
• Identify the register
• Enable the appropriate buffer
Instruction cycle is defined as the time required to complete the execution of an instruction.
Machine cycle is defined as the time required to complete one operation of accessing memory, I/O or
acknowledging an external request. T-cycle is defined as one subdivision of the operation performed
in one clock period.

The ALE is used to latch the lower order address so that it can be available in T2 and T3 and used
for identifying the memory address. During T1 the ALE goes high, the latch is transparent ie, the
output changes according to the input data, so the output of the latch is the lower order address.
When ALE goes low, the lower order address is latched until the next ALE.
The 8085 has seven machine cycles. They are

 Opcode fetch

 Memory read

 Memory write

 I/O read

 I/O write

 Interrupt acknowledge

 Bus idle

HOLD indicates that a peripheral such as DMA controller is requesting the use of address bus, data
bus and control bus. READY is used to delay the microprocessor read or write cycles until a slow
responding peripheral is ready to send or accept data. SID is used to accept serial data bit by bit.

The instructions of 8085 can be divided into the following five categories: Data transfer MOV Rd,
Rs STA 16-bit
 Arithmetic ADD R DCR M

 Logical XRI 8-bit RAR

 Branching JNZ CALL 16-bit

 Machine control HLT NOP

The instruction set is grouped into the following formats: One byte instruction MOV C,A
 Two byte instruction MVI A,39H

 Three byte instruction JMP 2345H

The various formats of specifying the operands are called addressing modes, it is used to
access the operands or data. The different types are as follows:
 Immediate addressing

 Register addressing

 Direct addressing

 Indirect addressing

 Implicit addressing
Instructions can be categorized according to their method of addressing the hardware registers
and/or memory.

Microcontroller is a device that includes microprocessor, memory and I/O lines on a single
chip, fabricated using VLSI technology. Microcomputer is a computer that is designed using
microprocessor as its CPU. It includes microprocessor, memory and I/O.
The PSW or flags are used to reflect the data conditions in the accumulator. The 8085 flags are S-
Sign flag, Z-Zero flag, AC-Auxillary carry flag, P-Parity flag, and CY-Carry flag.
 Pin Diagram of 8085 microprocessor

8085 Architecture Diagram

A8-A15 (Output) - These are address bus and used for the most significant bits of memory address.

AD0-AD7 (Input/Output) - These are time multiplexed address data bus. These are used for the
least significant 8 bits of the memory address during first clock cycle and then for data during
second and third clock cycle.
ALE (Address Latch Enable) - It goes high during the 1st clock cycle of a machine. It enables the
lower 8 bits of address to be latched either in the memory or external latch.

IO/M - It is status signal, when it goes high; the address on address bus is for I/O device, otherwise
for memory.

S0, S1 - These are status signals to distinguish various types of operation

RD (output) - It is used to control read operation.

WR (output) - It is used to control write operation

HOLD (input) - It is used to indicate that another device is requesting the use of address & data bus.

HLDA (output) - It is acknowledgement signal used to indicate HOLD request has been received.

INTR (input) - When it goes high, microprocessor suspends its normal sequence of operations.

INTA (output) - It is interrupt acknowledgement signal sent by microprocessor after INTR is received.

RST 5.5, 6.5, 7.5 and TRAP - These are various interrupt signals. Among them TRAP is having
highest priority.

RESET IN (input) - It resets the PC to zero.

RESET OUT (output) - It indicates that CPU is being reset.

X1, X2 (input) - This circuitry is required to produce a suitable clock for the operation of
microprocessor.

Clk (output) - It is clock output for user. Its frequency is same at which processor operates.

SID (input) - It is used for data line for serial input.

SOD (output) - It is used for data line for serial output.

Vcc - +5 volts supply.

Vss - Ground reference.

General procedure
Program code (given in table below)
 Switch ON power supply
 Press ctrl key + C
 ANSHUMAN will be display on display
 C=
board
 Press enter key  Press A key
 Go to command mode (press =)  Display will show message “ save code at
 Press E DSTN? Y/N

 EXPAND =  Press Y (yes)

 C=
 PRESS A

 2 PASS ASSEMBLER?  Press ESC two times

 Press ENTER key 3 times  COMMAND = (GO TO COMMAND
 File EXIST? MODE)
 Press N (NO)  Execution of program PRESS G
 Are you sure?  Go to?
 Press ENTER KEY  Press ENTER key 2 times
 C=  BURST ADDR
 PRESS W  GIVE 6000H

 Press ENTER key

 COMMAND=
 PRESS S
 SUBSTUT?

 PRESS ENTER KEY

 MEMORY

 PRESS ANY KEY 2 times (other than

“enter key”)
 IO REGISTER

 PRESS ENTER KEY

 NAME
 A=55(RESULT)
 PRESS E
 EXP. NO. 7 a) Addition of Two 8-Bit Numbers

DATE:

Aim:
Write a program using 8085 & verify for: Addition of Two 8-Bit Numbers.

Apparatus Required: 8085 Microprocessor Kit, Keyboard, 5 V Power Supply.

Program:
# ORG 7000H
LXI H,7501 // Get address of 1st no. in HL pair
MOV A,M // Move no. into accumulator
INX H // HL points the address 7502 H
ADD M // Add the 2nd no.
INX H // HL points 7503 H
MOV M,A // Store result in 7503 H
RST 1 // Terminate
// Store input at the address
// Get two 8 bit no. in successive
location # ORG 7501H
# DB 12H, 13H

Address Label Mnemonics Hex Code Command

Opcode Operand
7000 LXI H 7501 21 Get address of 1st no. in HL pair

7001 01

7002 75

7003 MOV A,M 7E Move no. into accumulator

7004 INX H 23 HL points the address 7502 H

7005 ADD M 86 Add the 2nd no.

7006 INX H 23 HL points 7503 H

7007 MOV M,A 77 Store result in 7503 H

7008 RST 1 CF Terminate

 Memory Address Input Memory Address Output
7501 12H
7503 25H
7502 13H

Circuit Diagram / Block Diagram:

Result:
Thus, the addition of Two 8-bit Numbers is executed and results are verified in 8085 Microprocessor Kit.
 EXP. NO. 7 b) Subtraction of Two 8-Bit Numbers

DATE:

Aim:
Write a program using 8085 & verify for: Subtraction of Two 8-Bit Numbers.

Apparatus Required: 8085 Microprocessor Kit, Keyboard, 5 V Power Supply.

Program:
# ORG 7000H
LXI H,7501 // Get address of 1st no. in HL
pair MOV A,M // Move no. into accumulator
INX H // HL points 7502 H.
SBB M // Subtract 2nd no. from 1st no.
INX H // HL points 7503 H.
MOV M,A // Move contents of acc. to
memory RST 1 // Terminate
// Store no. at address
// Get the two 8 bit no. at successive location
# ORG 7501H
# DB 20,10

Address Label Mnemonics Hex Code Command

Opcode Operand
7000 LXI H 7501 21 Get address of 1st no. in HL pair

7001 01

7002 75

7003 MOV A,M 7E Move no. into accumulator

7004 INX H 23 HL points the address 7502 H

7005 SBB M 9E Subtract 2nd no. from 1st no.

7006 INX H 23 HL points 7503 H

7007 MOV M,A 77 Store result in 7503 H

7008 RST 1 CF Terminate

 Memory Address Input Memory Address Output
7501 20H
7503 10H
7502 10H

Circuit Diagram / Block Diagram:

Result:
Thus, the Subtraction of Two 8-bit Numbers is executed and results are verified in 8085 Microprocessor Kit.
 EXP. NO. 7 c) Multiplication of Two 8-Bit Numbers by Bit Rotation Method.

DATE:

Aim:
Write a program using 8085 & verify for: Multiplication of Two 8-Bit Numbers by Bit Rotation Method.

Apparatus Required: 8085 Microprocessor Kit, Keyboard, 5 V Power Supply.

Program:
# ORG 7000H
LHLD 7501 // Get Multiplicand in H-L pair.
XCHG // Exchange HL pair with DE
pair LDA 7503 // Get 2nd no. in acc.
LXI H, 0000 // Initial product in
HL=00 MVI C, 08 // Count=08 in
reg .C
UP: DAD H // Shift partial product left by 1 bit
RAL // Rotate multi. by 1 bit. Is multiplier =
1? JNC DOWN // No, go to ahead
DAD D // Product=Product +
Multiplicand DOWN: DCR C // Decrement Count
JNZ UP // Jump until C=0
SHLD 7504 // Store result
RST 1 // Terminate
// Store inputs at the address
// Get the numbers from successive locations
# ORG 7501H
# DB 25,00,05

Address Label Mnemonics Hex Code Command

Opcode Operand
7000 LHLD 7501 2A Get Multiplicand in H-L pair

7001 01

7002 75

7003 XCHG EB Exchange HL pair with DE pair

7004 LDA 7503 3A Get 2nd no. in acc.

7005 03

7006 75

7007 LXI H 0000 21 Initial product in HL=00

7008 00

7009 00

700A MVI C 08 0E Count=08 in reg .C

700B 08

700C UP DAD H 29 Shift partial product left by 1 bit

 700D RAL 17 Rotate multi. by 1 bit. Is multiplier = 1?

700E JNC DOWN D2 No, go to ahead

700F 12

7010 70

7011 DAD D 19 Product=Product + Multiplicand

7012 DOWN DCR C 0D Decrement Count

7013 JNZ UP C2 Jump until C=0

7014 0C

7015 70

7016 SHLD 7504 22 Store result

7017 04

7018 75

7019 RST 1 CF Terminate

Memory Address Input Memory Address Output

7501 25H
7503 B9H
7502 05H

Bit Rotation Method:

Bit Rotation: A rotation (or circular shift) is an operation similar to shift except that the bits that fall off
at one end are put back to the other end.

In left rotation, the bits that fall off at left end are put back at right end.

In right rotation, the bits that fall off at right end are put back at left end.

Example:
Let n is stored using 8 bits. Left rotation of n = 11100101 by 3 makes n = 00101111 (Left shifted by 3 and
first 3 bits are put back in last). If n is stored using 16 bits or 32 bits then left rotation of n (000…
11100101) becomes 00..0011100101000.
Right rotation of n = 11100101 by 3 makes n = 10111100 (Right shifted by 3 and last 3 bits are put back in
first) if n is stored using 8 bits. If n is stored using 16 bits or 32 bits then right rotation of n (000…11100101)
by 3 becomes 101000..0011100.
Circuit Diagram / Block Diagram:

Result:
Thus, the Multiplication of Two 8-bit Numbers by Bit Rotation Method is executed and results are
verified in 8085 Microprocessor Kit.
 EXP. NO. 7 d) Division of Two 8-Bit Numbers by Repeated Subtraction Method

DATE:

Aim:
Write a program using 8085 & verify for: Division of Two 8-Bit Numbers by Repeated Subtraction Method.

Apparatus Required: 8085 Microprocessor Kit, Keyboard, 5 V Power Supply.

Program:
# ORG 7000H
LDA 7501 // [7501]=>A (Divisor)
MOV B,A // Take divisor in reg,B
LDA 7502 // Take dividend in
reg,A MVI C,00 // Quotient=00
CMP B // Compare A to
B JC DOWN // Jump if carry
UP: SUB B // Dividend-
divisor=>A INR C // C=C+1
CMP B // Is dividend < divisor
JNC UP // If not,go back
DOWN: STA 7503 // Store
Remainder
MOV A,C // C=>A
STA 7504 // Store Quotient
RST 1 // Terminate
// Store the inputs at the address
// Get the numbers from successive loc.
# ORG 7501H
# DB 06,26

Address Label Mnemonics Hex Code Command

Opcode Operand
7000 LDA 7501 3A [7501] =>A (Divisor)

7001 01

7002 75

7003 MOV B,A 47 Take divisor in reg, B

7004 LDA 7502 3A Take dividend in reg, A

7005 02

7006 75

7007 MVI C 00 0E Quotient=00

7008 00

7009 CMP B B8 Compare A to B

700A JC DOWN DA Jump if carry

700B 13
 700C 70

700D UP SUB B 90 Dividend-divisor=>A

700E INR C 0C C=C+1

700F CMP B B8 Is dividend < divisor

7010 JNC UP D2 If not, go back

7011 0D

7012 70

7013 DOWN STA 7503 32 Store Remainder

7014 03

7015 75

7016 MOV A,C 79 C=>A

7017 STA 7504 32 Store Quotient

7018 04

7019 75

701A RST 1 CF Terminate

Memory Address Input Memory Address Output

7501 06H 7503 (Remainder) 02H
7502 26H 7504 (Quotient) 06H

Repeated Subtraction Method:

Given a pair of positive numbers x and y. We repeatedly subtract the smaller of the two integers from
greater one until one of the integers becomes 0. The task is to count number of steps to before we stop
(one of the numbers become 0).
Circuit Diagram / Block Diagram:

Result: Thus, the Division of Two 8-bit Numbers by Repeated Subtraction Method is executed and
results are verified in 8085 Microprocessor Kit.
 STUDY: 8 8031/8051 Microcontroller with Stepper Motor Interfacing
Introduction to Stepper Motor
DATE:

Aim: To study the working of Stepper Motor.

Stepper Motor:
A motor in which the rotor is able to assume only discrete stationary angular position is a stepper
motor. The rotary motion occurs in a stepwise manner from one equilibrium position to the next.
Stepper motor control is a very popular application of microprocessor in control area. They are
widely used in (simple position control systems in the open and closed loop mode) a variety of
applications such as computer peripherals (printers, disk driver etc.) and in the areas of process
control machine tools, medicine, numerically controlled machines and Robotics.

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES:
A Stepper motor could be either of the reluctance type or of the permanent magnet type (PM). A PM
stepper motor consists of multi- phase stator and two part permanent magnet rotor. The VR stepper
motor has un magnetised rotor. PM stepper motor is the most commonly used type. The basic two phase
stepper motor consists of two pairs of stator poles. Each of the four poles has its own winding. The
excitation of any one winding generates a north pole (N), a south pole (S) gets induced at the
diametrically opposite side.

Stepper Motor Cross-sectional view

As shown in the figure the four-pole structure is continuous with the stator frame and the magnetic
field passes through the cylindrical stator annular ring. The rotor magnetic system has two end
faces. The left face is permanently magnetised as South Pole and the right face as North Pole. The
South Pole structure and the North Pole structure possess similar pole faces. The North Pole
structure is twisted with respect to the South Pole structure so that South Pole comes precisely
between two north poles. The North Pole structure is offset with respect to the South Pole structure
by one pole pitch. The cross-sectional view is shown in second figure. In an arrangement where
there are four stator poles and three pairs of rotor poles, there exists 12 possible stable
positions in which a south pole of the rotor can lock with a north pole of the stator. From this it can
be noted that the step size is,

Where,
Ns is the No. of stator poles.
Nr is the No. of pairs of rotor poles.
 Typical Stepper Motor Rotor
Generally, step size of the stepper motor depends upon NR. These stable positions can be attained
by simply energising the winding on any one of the stator poles with a DC. There are three different
schemes available for "stepping" a stepper motor. These are:
(a) Wave scheme
(b) 2-phase scheme and
(c) Half stepping or mixed scheme.
These three schemes are described in detail in the following sections
Wave Scheme (Unipolar Operation):
The stepper motor windings A1, B1, A2 and B2 can be cyclically excited with a DC current to run
the motor in the clockwise direction. By reversing the phase sequence as A1, B2, A2, B1, we can
obtain anticlockwise stepping.
 Simple Wave Scheme for Stepper Motor
Stepping Diagram:
Consider the four possible rotor positions and the corresponding stator excitations. In step (a), it is seen
that the rotor pole S1 locks with the stator pole A1(N) and the rotor pole N1 locks with the stator pole
A2(S'). Under these conditions, it is obvious that the winding A1 must have been energised. A2 (S') is an
induced south pole.
Next, A1 is de-energised and B1 is turned on. The nearest rotor pole S2 locks with B1 (N) and the
corresponding rotor pole N2 locks with the induced pole B2(S'). This is illustrated in step (b).
When A2 alone is energised next, the nearest rotor pole S3 locks with A2 (N) (step (c). B2 alone is
energised next and the nearest rotor pole S1 locks with B2 (N). Totally 12 such steps cause a
displacement of 360°. The step angle is 30° (mechanical). The switching sequence for the wave mode of
excitation is given in Table.

Anticlockwise Clockwise
Step A1 A2 B1 B2 Step A1 A2 B1 B2
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 0
3 0 1 0 0 3 0 1 0 0
4 0 0 1 0 4 0 0 0 1
 EXP. NO. 8 a) To Run a Stepper Motor at Different Speed

DATE:

Aim:
To run a Stepper Motor at Different Speed.

Apparatus Required: (Common for 8(b) & 8 (c))

1. Stepper Motor 2. Interface board 3. 8051 Microcontroller

Procedure: (Common for 8(b) & 8 (c))

1. Switch 'ON' the micro controller.
2. Initialize the starting address. (SP 4500)
3. Enter the mnemonics code in the microcontroller.
4. Reset the microcontroller.
5. Execute the program. (GO 4100)
Program:
4100 ORG 4100H
4100 90 45 00 START:MOV DPTR, #4500H
4103 78 04 MOV R0, #04
4105 E0 JO: MOVX A, @DPTR
4106 C0 83 PUSH DPH
4108 C0 82 PUSH DPL
410A 90 FF C0 MOV DPTR, #FFC0H
410D 7A 04 MOV R2, #04H
410F 79 0F MOV R1, #0FH
4111 7B 0F DLY1: MOV R3, #0FH
4113 DB FE DLY: DJNZ R3, DLY
4115 D9 FA DJNZ R1, DLY1
4117 DA F8 DJNZ R2, DLY1
4119 F0 MOVX @DPTR, A
411A D0 82 POP DPL
411C D0 83 POP DPH
411E A3 INC DPTR
411F D8 E4 DJNZ R0, JO
4121 80 DD SJMP START
4123 END

4500 09, 05, 06, 0A TABLE: DB 09,05,06,0A

For Varying the Speed of Stepper Motor changing the value of Address 410E from 02 (Max) to 41(Min)

Result:
Thus, the program to run the stepper motor at different speeds was written using 8051 assembly language
and executed.
 EXP. NO. 8 b) To Run a Steppe Motor for Required Angle Within 360°, Which is
Equivalent to 256 Steps

DATE:

Aim:
To Run a Steppe Motor for Required Angle within 360°, which is Equivalent to 256 Steps.

Apparatus Required: (Common for 8(b) & 8 (c))

1. Stepper Motor 2. Interface board 3. 8051 Microcontroller

Procedure: (Common for 8(b) & 8 (c))

1. Switch 'ON' the micro controller.
2. Initialize the starting address. (SP 4500)
3. Enter the mnemonics code in the microcontroller.
4. Reset the microcontroller.
5. Execute the program. (GO 4100)
Program:
4100 ORG 4100H
4100 7C 05 MOV R4, #FF ;Hexdata for 360°
4102 START:
4102 90 41 14 MOV DPTR, #LOOKUP
4105 78 04 MOV R0, #04
4107 JO:
4107 E0 MOVX A, @DPTR
4108 C0 83 PUSH DPH
410A C0 82 PUSH DPL
410C 90 FF C0 MOV DPTR, #FFC0H
410F F0 MOVX @DPTR, A
4110 DC 06 DJNZ R4, CALL
4112 HLT:
4112 80 FE SJMP HLT
4114 LOOKUP:
4114 09 05 06 0A DB 09H, 05H, 06H, 0AH
4118 CALL:
4118 7A 03 MOV R2, #03
411A DLY2:
411A 79 FF MOV R1, #FFH
411C DLY1:
411C 7B FF MOV R3, #FFH
411E DLY:
411E DB FE DJNZ R3, DLY
4120 D9 FA DJNZ R1, DLY1
4122 DA F6 DJNZ R2, DLY2
4124 D0 82 POP DPL
4126 D0 83 POP DPH
4128 A3 INC DPTR
4129 D8 DC DJNZ R0, JO
412B 80 D5 SJMP START
412D END

Result:
Thus, the program to run the stepper motor for Required Angle Within 360°, Which is Equivalent to 256
Steps was written using 8051 assembly language and executed.
 EXP. NO. 9 8031/8051 Microcontroller with Traffic Light Controller Interfacing Program
for Micro controller-based Traffic light system

DATE:

Aim:
To control a traffic light system by using 8051 Microcontroller.

Apparatus required:
1. Traffic light control system 2. Interface board 3. 8051 Microcontroller

Procedure:
1. Switch 'ON' the micro controller.
2. Initialize the starting address. (SP 4500)
3. Enter the mnemonics code in the microcontroller.
4. Reset the microcontroller.
5. Execute the program. (GO 4100)

Set-up (clockwise):
Component Layout:

D1 – D8 – Least Significant Bit (Port - A)

D17 – D20 – Most Significant Bit (Port - B)
D9 – D16 – (Port - C)

Program:
4100 ORG 4100H
CONTRL EQU 0FF0FH
PORTA EQU 0FF0CH
PORTB EQU 0FF0DH
PORTC EQU 0FF0EH
4100 74 80 MOV A,#80H
4102 90 FF 0F MOV DPTR,#CONTRL
4105 F0 MOVX @DPTR,A
4106 7C 04 START:MOV R4,#04H
4108 90 41 9B MOV DPTR,#LOOK1
410B AA 83 MOV R2,DPH
410D AB 82 MOV R3,DPL
410F 90 41 8F MOV DPTR,#LOOK
4112 A8 83 MOV R0,DPH
4114 A9 82 MOV R1,DPL
4116 GO:
4116 E0 MOVX A,@DPTR
 4117 A8 83 MOV R0,DPH
4119 A9 82 MOV R1,DPL
411B 90 FF 0C MOV DPTR,#PORTA
411E F0 MOVX @DPTR,A
411F 09 INC R1
4120 88 83 MOV DPH,R0
4122 89 82 MOV DPL,R1
4124 E0 MOVX A,@DPTR
4125 A8 83 MOV R0,DPH
4127 A9 82 MOV R1,DPL
4129 90 FF 0D MOV DPTR,#PORTB
412C F0 MOVX @DPTR,A
412D 09 INC R1
412E 88 83 MOV DPH,R0
4130 89 82 MOV DPL,R1
4132 E0 MOVX A,@DPTR
4133 A8 83 MOV R0,DPH
4135 A9 82 MOV R1,DPL
4137 90 FF 0E MOV DPTR,#PORTC
413A F0 MOVX @DPTR,A
413B 09 INC R1
413C 12 41 75 LCALLDELAY
413F 8A 83 MOV DPH,R2
4141 8B 82 MOV DPL,R3
4143 E0 MOVX A,@DPTR
4144 AA 83 MOV R2,DPH
4146 AB 82 MOV R3,DPL
4148 90 FF 0C MOV DPTR,#PORTA
414B F0 MOVX @DPTR,A
414C 0B INC R3
414D 8A 83 MOV DPH,R2
414F 8B 82 MOV DPL,R3
4151 E0 MOVX A,@DPTR
4152 AA 83 MOV R2,DPH
4154 AB 82 MOV R3,DPL
4156 90 FF 0D MOV DPTR,#PORTB
4159 F0 MOVX @DPTR,A
415A 0B INC R3
415B 8A 83 MOV DPH,R2
415D 8B 82 MOV DPL,R3
415F E0 MOVX A,@DPTR
4160 AA 83 MOV R2,DPH
4162 AB 82 MOV R3,DPL
4164 90 FF 0E MOV DPTR,#PORTC
4167 F0 MOVX @DPTR,A
4168 0B INC R3
4169 12 41 82 LCALLDELAY1
416C 88 83 MOV DPH,R0
416E 89 82 MOV DPL,R1
4170 DC A4 DJNZ R4,GO
4172 12 41 06 LCALLSTART
4175 7D 12 DELAY:MOV R5,#12H
4177 7E FF L3: MOV R6,#0ffH
4179 7F FF L2: MOV R7,#0ffH
417B DF FE L1: DJNZ R7,L1
417D DE FA DJNZ R6,L2
417F DD F6 DJNZ R5,L3
4181 22 RET
4182 7D 12 DELAY1:MOVR5,#12H
4184 7E FF L6: MOV R6,#0ffH
4186 7F FF L5: MOV R7,#0ffH
4188 DF FE L4: DJNZ R7,L4
418A DE FA DJNZ R6,L5
418C DD F6 DJNZ R5,L6
418E 22 RET
418F 44 27 12 LOOK:DB 44H,27H,12H
4192 92 2B 1 DB 92H,2BH,10H
4195 84 9D 10 DB 84H,9DH,10H
4198 84 2E 48 DB 84H,2EH,48H
419B 48 27 12 LOOK1: DB 48H,27H,12H
419E 92 4B 10 DB 92H,4BH,10H
41A1 84 9D 20 DB 84H,9DH,20H
41A4 04 2E 49 DB 04H,2EH,49H
END

For Varying the Delay time: Vary the Values from the Addresses 4176 & 4183 – Value Ranges from 12 to 30

Result:
Thus, the program to control traffic light control system was written using 8051 assembly language and
executed.
 Study. 10 STUDY OF VARIOUS TYPES OF TRANSDUCERS.

DATE:

Aim:
To study the characteristics of various Transducers.

Transducers:

A Transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another by the principle of Transduction.
Usually, a signal in one form of energy is converted to a signal in another form by a Transducer.
Consider the following setup of a measuring system. In this block diagram of a simple measuring system, there
are three basic elements:
 Sensor
 Signal Conditioning Unit
 Data Representing Device

Sensor:

A Sensor is a device that is used to detect changes in any physical quantity like Temperature,
Speed, Flow, Level, Pressure, etc. Any changes in the input quantity will be detected by a Sensor and
reflected as changes in output quantity.

Signal Conditioning Unit:

The non-electrical output quantity of the Sensor makes it inconvenient to further process it. Hence,
the Signal Conditioning Unit is used to convert the physical output (or non-electrical output) of the
sensor to an electrical quantity.
Some of the best known Signal conditioning units are:
 Analog to Digital Converters
 Amplifiers
 Filters
 Rectifiers
 Modulators
Data Representation Device:

A Data representation device is used to present the measured output to the observer. This can be anything like

 A Scale
 An LCD Display
 A Signal Recorder
Different Types of Transducers:

Basically, the two different types of Transducers are Mechanical Transducers and Electrical
Transducers. Mechanical Transducers are those which responds to changes in physical quantities or
condition with mechanical quantity. If the physical quantity is converted to an electrical quantity, then
the transducers are Electrical Transducers.

Mechanical Transducers:

As mentioned earlier, mechanical transducers are a set of primary sensing elements that respond to changes
in a physical quantity with a mechanical output. As an example, a Bimetallic Strip is a mechanical
Transducer, which reacts to changes in temperature and responds with mechanical displacement. The
mechanical transducers are differentiated from electrical transducers as their output signals are mechanical.

The output mechanical quantity can be anything like displacement, force (or torque), pressure and strain. For
any measuring quantity, there can be both mechanical and electrical transducers.

For example, we have seen Bimetallic Strip, which is a mechanical transducer and is used to react to changes
in temperature. In contrast, a Resistance Thermometer, also reacts to changes in temperature, but the response
is a change in resistance of the element. Hence, it is an electrical transducer.
The following table shows a small list of mechanical transducers for measuring different quantities and
responds with mechanical signal.

Quantity to be Measured Mechanical Transducer Type of Output Signal

(Mechanical)
Bimetallic Strip Displacement and Force
Temperature Fluid Expansion Displacement and Force
Ring Balance Manometer Displacement
Metallic Diaphragms Displacement and Strain
Pressure Capsules and Bellows Displacement
Membranes Displacement
Spring Balance Displacement and Strain
Force Hydraulic Load Cell Pressure
Column Load Cell Displacement and Strain
Dynamometer Force and Strain
Torque Gyroscope Displacement
Spiral Springs Displacement
Torsion Bar Displacement and Strain
Flow Obstruction Element Strain and Pressure
Flow Rate Pitot Tube Pressure
Manometer Displacement
Liquid Level
Float Elements Displacement, Force and Strain
Electrical Transducers:

As mentioned earlier, electrical transducers are those that respond to changes in physical quantities with
electrical outputs. Electrical Transducers are further divided into Passive Electrical Transducers and
Active Electrical Transducers.
Resistance Thermometers
Resistive Displacement Transducers
Resistive Transducers Resistive Strain Transducers
Resistive Pressure Transducers
Resistive Moisture Transducers
Passive Electrical Transducers Capacitive Moisture Transducers
Capacitive Transducers Capacitive Displacement Transducers
Capacitive Thickness Transducers
Inductive Thickness Transducers
Inductive Transducers Eddy-Current Inductive Transducers
Moving core Inductive Transducers

Photoconductive Transducers
 Photoemissive Transducers
Photoelectric Transducers Photovoltaic Force Transducers
Piezoelectric Strain Transducers
Piezoelectric Acceleration Transducers
Piezoelectric Transducers Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers
Piezoelectric Torque Transducers
Piezoelectric Force Transducers
Magnetostrictive Acceleration Transducers
Magnetostrictive Transducers Magnetostrictive Force Transducers
Magnetostrictive Torsion Transducers
Tachometers
Electrodynamic Pressure Transducers
Active Electrical Transducers Electromechanical Transducers Electrodynamic Vibration Transducers
Electromagnetic Flowmeter
Ionization Vacuum Gauge
Ionization Displacement Transducers
Nuclear Radiation Transducers
Ionization Transducers Radioactive Vacuum Gauge
Radioactive Level Gauge
Radioactive Thickness Gauge
Electrochemical Transducers
Hall-Effect Transducers
Thermoelectric Transducers

Result:
Thus, various Analogue and Digital Sensors used for measuring various control parameters are studied.
Study. 11 STUDY OF IMAGE PROCESSING TECHNIQUE.

DATE:

Aim:
To study the process of Image Processing Technique in an Industrial Automation.

About:

Generally, image processing consists of several stages: image import, analysis, manipulation
and image output. There are two methods of image processing: digital and analogue. In particular, digital
image processing and its techniques is what this article is about.
Computer algorithms play a crucial role in digital image processing. Developers use multiple
algorithms to solve different tasks, including digital image detection, analysis, reconstruction,
restoration, image data compression, image enhancement, image estimation and image spectral
estimation.

Major techniques of digital image processing are as follows:

 Image Editing, which basically means altering digital images by means of graphic software tools.

 Image Restoration, which refers to the estimation of a clean original image out of the corrupt
image taken in order to get back the information lost.

 Independent Component Analysis, which separates a multivariate signal computationally into

additive subcomponents.

 Anisotropic Diffusion, which is often known as Perona-Malik Diffusion, makes it possible to

reduce image noise without having to remove important parts of the image.

 Linear Filtering. It’s another digital image processing technique, which refers to processing
time- varying input signals and producing output signals that are subject to the constraint of
linearity.

 Neural Networks, which are computational models widely used in machine learning for solving
various tasks.

 Pixelation, which often refers to turning printed images into digitized ones (such as GIF).

 Principal Components Analysis, a digital image processing technique that can be used for
feature extraction.

 Partial Differential Equations, which also is dealing with effectively de-noising images.

 Hidden Markov Models, a technique used for image analysis in two dimensions.

 Wavelets, which stands for a mathematical function that’s used in image compression.

 Self-organizing Maps, a digital image processing technique for classifying images into a
number of classes.
Result:
Thus, the Image Processing system were studied to implement Machine Vision.