Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

NOTES

SUBJECT :
Computer Networks
CLASS :
BSCS 3rd Semester
WRITTEN BY :
Hamza Zahoor

Computer Networks - BS 3rd Semester Notes

Week 1: Introduction to Data Communication and Networks

1. Introduction of the Course and Outline

 Definition: This section typically covers the scope of the "Computer

Networks" course, its objectives, and the learning outcomes. It
introduces students to what they will learn over the semester,
including fundamental concepts, network models, protocols, and
various networking technologies.

 Examples:

o Course Objectives: To understand the principles of data

communication, to learn about different network models (OSI,
TCP/IP), to study various network protocols and their
functionalities, to explore different networking devices and
technologies, and to gain practical knowledge of network design
and troubleshooting.
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o Course Outline: A chronological list of topics to be covered

throughout the semester, often broken down by week, similar to
the list you provided.

 Key Takeaway: Sets the stage for the entire course, providing a
roadmap of the learning journey.

2. Data Communication

 Definition: Data communication refers to the exchange of data

between two devices via some form of transmission medium. This
exchange can occur between a sender and a receiver, with the data
being in various forms such as text, images, audio, or video. The
primary goal is reliable and efficient transfer of information.

 Key Concepts:

o Effectiveness of Data Communication: Depends on four

fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and
jitter.

o Applications:

 Business: Sharing resources (printers, files), customer

relationship management (CRM), supply chain
management (SCM), e-commerce.

 Home: Internet access, online gaming, home automation,

streaming media.

 Mobile: GPS, mobile banking, social media, real-time

communication.

 Examples:

o Sending an email from your laptop to a friend's smartphone.

o Downloading a file from a web server.

o Making a video call using an application like Zoom or Google

Meet.

o Streaming a movie on Netflix.

 Types (Implicit in flow, discussed later): Simplex, Half-Duplex, Full-

Duplex.

3. Fundamental Characteristics of Data Communication

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 Definition: For data communication to be effective and efficient, it must

possess certain fundamental characteristics. These ensure that the
data arrives at the correct destination, is free from errors, arrives
promptly, and has a consistent arrival time.

 Characteristics:

1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct

destination. Data must be received by the intended device or
user and only by that device or1 user.

 Example: When you send a message to a specific contact

on WhatsApp, it should only be received by that contact.

2. Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately. Data

alteration in transmission and delivery often makes the data
unusable.

 Example: If you send a financial transaction amount of

$100, the receiver should get exactly $100, not $10 or
$1000. Error detection and correction mechanisms are
crucial here.

3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner.

Data delivered late is useless. This is particularly important for
real-time transmissions such as video and audio.

 Example: In a live video conference, delays can lead to

choppy video and audio, making the conversation difficult
or impossible to understand.

4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in packet arrival time. It is the

uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets.

 Example: If packets of a video stream arrive with

significant variations in their inter-arrival times, the video
playback will appear choppy or stuttering, even if all
packets eventually arrive. Minimizing jitter is essential for
smooth multimedia experiences.

4. Components of Data Communication

 Definition: A data communication system is composed of five key

components that work together to facilitate the transfer of data.

 Components:
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1. Message: The information or data to be communicated. This can

be text, numbers, pictures, audio, video, or any combination of
these.

 Example: An email, a downloaded image, a voice message.

2. Sender (Source): The device that sends the data message. It can
be a computer, a workstation, a telephone, a video camera, etc.

 Example: Your smartphone when you send a text message;

your computer when you upload a file.

3. Receiver (Sink/Destination): The device that receives the data

message. It can be a computer, a workstation, a telephone, a
television, etc.

 Example: Your friend's phone receiving your text message;

a server receiving your uploaded file.

4. Transmission Medium (Channel): The physical path by which a

message travels from sender to receiver. It can be wired (e.g.,
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable) or wireless
(e.g., radio waves, microwaves, infrared).

 Example: The Ethernet cable connecting your computer to

a router; the Wi-Fi signals in your home.

5. Protocol: A set of rules that governs data communication. It

represents an agreement between the communicating devices
on how data should be transmitted and received. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but unable to
communicate.

 Example: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) for web

Browse; TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) for reliable
data transfer; IP (Internet Protocol) for addressing and
routing.

5. Data Representation

 Definition: Data needs to be represented in a format that can be

understood and processed by computers and transmitted over
networks. Computers internally work with binary data (0s and 1s).

 Methods of Representation:
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1. Text: Represented using encoding schemes.

 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information

Interchange): Uses 7 bits to represent 128 characters
(English alphabet, numbers, punctuation).

 EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange

Code): IBM's 8-bit character encoding.

 Unicode: A universal character encoding standard that

supports almost all scripts and symbols in the world. It
uses variable bits (e.g., UTF-8, UTF-16, UTF-32). UTF-8 is
widely used on the internet.

 Example: The letter 'A' in ASCII is represented as

01000001.

2. Numbers: Represented as binary numbers. For example, decimal

10 is binary 1010.

3. Images: Composed of pixels (picture elements). Each pixel is a

tiny dot that has a specific color and intensity.

 Representations:

 Bitmap (Raster Graphics): Stores individual pixel

values. Examples: JPEG, GIF, PNG.

 Vector Graphics: Stores mathematical descriptions of

lines and shapes. Examples: SVG, AI.

 Example: A black and white image might represent black

as 0 and white as 1 for each pixel. Color images use
multiple bits per pixel (e.g., 24-bit for True Color,
representing millions of colors).

4. Audio: Analog sound waves are converted into digital signals by

sampling and quantization.

 Sampling: Taking measurements of the analog signal at

regular intervals.

 Quantization: Assigning a discrete numerical value to each

sampled measurement.
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 Example: WAV, MP3. A song played on a computer is stored

as a sequence of binary digits that represent the sampled
and quantized audio waveform.

5. Video: Essentially a series of images (frames) displayed rapidly

to create the illusion of motion, combined with synchronized
audio.

 Example: MPEG, AVI. A video file contains a sequence of

still images (frames) along with their corresponding audio,
all encoded digitally.

6. Data Flow (Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex)

 Definition: Data flow refers to the direction in which data can move
between two devices in a communication system. This characteristic
defines the capability of the communication channel.

 Types of Data Flow:

1. Simplex:

 Definition: Communication is unidirectional. Data flows in

only one direction from sender to receiver. The receiver
cannot send data back to the sender.

 Analogy: A one-way street.

 Example:

 Traditional television broadcasting: The broadcast

station sends signals to your TV, but your TV cannot
send signals back to the station.

 Radio broadcasting: Radio stations transmit to your

receiver, but your receiver doesn't transmit back.

 Keyboard to computer: A keyboard sends input to the

computer, but the computer doesn't send data back
to the keyboard in the same communication channel.

2. Half-Duplex:

 Definition: Communication is bidirectional, but not

simultaneously. Data can flow in both directions, but only
one device can transmit at a time. When one device is
sending, the other can only receive, and vice-versa.
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 Analogy: A walkie-talkie conversation.

 Example:

 Walkie-talkies: Users press a button to talk and

release it to listen. Only one person can talk at a
time.

 CB (Citizens Band) radio.

 Older hub-based Ethernet networks: While

technically the medium supports both directions, due
to collision domains, only one device transmits at a
time.

3. Full-Duplex:

 Definition: Communication is bidirectional and

simultaneous. Data can flow in both directions at the same
time.

 Analogy: A two-way street or a telephone conversation.

 Example:

 Telephone conversations: Both parties can speak and

hear each other simultaneously.

 Modern Ethernet networks (using switches): Devices

can send and receive data at the same time.

 Internet Browse: Your computer can send requests

(upload data) while simultaneously receiving web
pages (download data).

Computer Networks - BS 3rd Semester Notes (Continued)

Week 2: Network Fundamentals and Topologies

1. What Is Network?

 Definition: A network (specifically, a computer network) is a collection

of interconnected autonomous computers and devices that are able to
exchange data and share resources. The connection can be established
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through physical links (cables) or wireless means (radio waves). The

fundamental purpose of a network is to enable communication and
resource sharing among geographically dispersed devices.

 Key Concepts:

o Interconnected Devices: Not just computers, but also printers,

servers, smartphones, IoT devices, etc.

o Autonomous: Each device on the network can operate

independently, but also cooperates for communication.

o Resource Sharing: Sharing hardware (printers, scanners),

software (applications, databases), and data (files, information).

o Communication: Enabling email, instant messaging, video calls,

web Browse, etc.

 Examples:

o Local Area Network (LAN): Computers in an office building

connected to share a printer and internet access.

o Wide Area Network (WAN): The Internet, connecting millions of

computers globally.

o Home Network: Your Wi-Fi router connecting your laptop,

smartphone, smart TV, and printer.

 Benefits of Networking:

o Resource Sharing: Cost-effective sharing of expensive

peripherals (printers, scanners) and software.

o Communication: Facilitates rapid and efficient communication

(email, instant messaging, video conferencing).

o Data Sharing: Centralized storage and easy access to shared files

and databases.

o Increased Productivity: Enables collaboration and efficient

workflow.

o Entertainment: Online gaming, streaming services.

o Reliability: Data can be replicated on multiple machines,

providing redundancy.
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2. Network Criterion

 Definition: When evaluating the performance and suitability of a

network, several key criteria are considered. These criteria help in
designing, selecting, and managing networks effectively.

 Criteria:

1. Performance:

 Definition: Measured in terms of throughput, delay, and

reliability. It indicates how well the network performs its
intended functions.

 Metrics:

 Throughput (Bandwidth): How much data can be

transmitted over a given period (e.g., bits per second
- bps, Mbps, Gbps). Higher throughput generally
means better performance.

 Delay (Latency): How long it takes for data to travel

from source to destination. Lower delay is desirable,
especially for real-time applications.

 Jitter: Variation in packet arrival time.

 Utilization: The percentage of time the network is

busy transmitting data.

 Factors Affecting Performance: Number of users, type of

transmission medium, capabilities of connected hardware,
and the efficiency of software protocols.

2. Reliability:

 Definition: A measure of how often a network component

or the entire network fails, and how well it recovers from
failures. It also refers to the accuracy of data delivery.

 Metrics:

 Error Rate: The frequency of errors in data

transmission.

 Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF): Average time a

system works without failure.
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 Robustness: The ability of the network to function

even if some components fail.

 Factors Contributing to Reliability: Redundant paths, error

detection and correction mechanisms, fault-tolerant
hardware, and robust protocols.

3. Security:

 Definition: Protecting data from unauthorized access,

modification, or destruction. It involves maintaining
confidentiality, integrity, and availability of network
resources and data.

 Aspects:

 Confidentiality: Preventing unauthorized disclosure of

information.

 Integrity: Ensuring data has not been altered during

transmission or storage.

 Availability: Ensuring legitimate users can access the

network and its resources when needed.

 Measures: Firewalls, encryption, authentication (passwords,

biometrics), access control lists, intrusion detection
systems.

4. Scalability:

 Definition: The ability of a network to expand and

accommodate more users, devices, and applications
without significant degradation in performance.

 Considerations: Can the network easily add more nodes,

extend its geographical reach, or support new services?

 Example: A network designed for 100 users should be able

to scale up to 1000 users by adding more hardware and
reconfiguring existing resources, rather than requiring a
complete overhaul.

5. Manageability/Maintainability:

 Definition: How easy it is to configure, monitor,

troubleshoot, and upgrade the network.
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 Considerations: Availability of network management tools,

ease of troubleshooting, documentation, and the
complexity of configuration.

 Example: A well-designed network is easy for

administrators to diagnose problems, perform updates, and
implement changes without causing significant downtime.

3. Types of Connection (Point-to-Point, Multipoint)

 Definition: The way devices are connected to each other in a network

defines the type of connection, impacting how data is transmitted and
shared.

 Types:

1. Point-to-Point Connection:

 Definition: A dedicated link or channel is established

between two specific devices (nodes). The entire capacity
of the link is reserved for transmission between these two
devices.

 Characteristics:

 Exclusive use of the medium.

 No sharing of the link with other devices.

 Typically more expensive for wide-area connections

due to dedicated lines.

 Simpler control and less contention for the medium.

 Analogy: A direct phone call between two people.

 Example:

 A computer directly connected to a printer via a USB

cable.

 A traditional leased line connecting two branch

offices of a company.

 Fiber optic links connecting two major data centers.

2. Multipoint (Multidrop) Connection:

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 Definition: More than two specific devices share a single

link or channel. The capacity of the link is shared, either
spatially (different devices use different segments of the
cable) or temporally (devices take turns using the whole
capacity).

 Characteristics:

 Shared medium, leading to potential contention.

 Requires some form of access control mechanism

(e.g., token passing, polling) to manage simultaneous
transmissions.

 Cost-effective for connecting multiple devices in a

local area.

 Analogy: A conference call where multiple people are on

the same line, but only one can speak at a time.

 Example:

 An old bus topology network where multiple

computers are connected to a single coaxial cable.

 A wireless access point (WAP) connecting multiple

Wi-Fi devices.

 Shared Ethernet segments (though less common with

modern switches).

4. Physical Topologies (Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring, Hybrid)

 Definition: Network topology refers to the physical or logical

arrangement of connections (nodes and links) in a network. Physical
topology refers to the actual layout of cables and devices, while logical
topology refers to how data flows through the network. This section
focuses on physical topologies.

 Types of Physical Topologies:

1. Mesh Topology:

 Definition: Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link

to every other device in the network.

 Advantages:
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 High Reliability/Fault Tolerance: If one link fails,

communication can still occur via alternative paths.

 Security/Privacy: Dedicated links mean no shared

channel for eavesdropping.

 Robustness: Failure of one link does not disable the

entire network.

 Easy Fault Identification: Problems can be easily

isolated.

 Disadvantages:

 Expensive: Requires a large number of cables and I/O

ports. For n devices, it requires n(n-1)/2 links.

 Complex Installation: Wiring is complex and time-

consuming.

 Scalability Issues: Adding new devices requires many

new connections.

 Example: Often used in backbone networks or critical

systems (e.g., telephone exchange networks) where
reliability is paramount. Not practical for most LANs.

2. Star Topology:

 Definition: All devices are connected to a central controller,

typically a hub or a switch. Each device has a dedicated
point-to-point link to the central device.

 Advantages:

 Easy Installation and Configuration: Simple to set up.

 Less Cabling (compared to mesh): Each device only

needs one link.

 Easy Fault Isolation: If a link fails, only that device is

affected; the rest of the network remains operational.

 Scalability: Easy to add new devices by connecting

them to the central hub/switch.

 Disadvantages:
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 Single Point of Failure: If the central hub/switch fails,

the entire network goes down.

 Dependent on Central Device: Performance is heavily

reliant on the central device's capacity.

 Cost of Central Device: The central hub/switch can be

a significant cost.

 Example: Most modern wired LANs in homes and offices

use a star topology with a central Ethernet switch.

3. Bus Topology:

 Definition: All devices are connected to a single common

backbone cable (a "bus"). Data is transmitted along this
backbone, and all devices receive it, but only the intended
recipient processes it. Terminators are used at both ends of
the bus to prevent signal reflection.

 Advantages:

 Easy Installation: Simple to set up for small networks.

 Less Cabling: Requires less cable than mesh or star

for a small number of devices.

 Cost-Effective: Inexpensive for small networks.

 Disadvantages:

 Single Point of Failure: If the backbone cable breaks,

the entire network segment goes down.

 Difficult Fault Isolation: Troubleshooting can be

challenging as a problem anywhere on the bus can
affect the whole network.

 Limited Scalability: Performance degrades

significantly with more devices due to collisions.

 Reconfiguration Difficult: Adding new devices may

require temporarily shutting down the network.

 Example: Older Ethernet networks (10Base2, 10Base5)

used bus topology. Rarely used in new installations due to
its limitations.
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4. Ring Topology:

 Definition: Each device is connected to exactly two other

devices, forming a single continuous loop or ring. Data
travels in one direction around the ring, passing through
each device until it reaches its destination. 1

 Advantages:

 No Central Hub Needed: Distributes control among

devices.

 Orderly Communication: Data access is controlled,

avoiding collisions.

 Good for Fiber Optics: Suitable for fiber optic cabling,

often used in WANs.

 Disadvantages:

 Single Point of Failure: A single cable break or device

failure can disrupt the entire network.

 Difficult Troubleshooting: Isolating a fault can be

challenging.

 Adding/Removing Devices: Requires breaking the

ring, which can temporarily disrupt the entire
network.

 Cost: More expensive than bus due to point-to-point

links.

 Example: Token Ring networks (historically significant, but

largely obsolete). Still found in some specialized high-
speed networks or SONET rings in telecommunications.

5. Hybrid Topology:

 Definition: A combination of two or more basic topologies.

This approach leverages the advantages of different
topologies while mitigating their disadvantages.

 Characteristics: Often chosen for large, complex networks

to meet specific requirements.

 Advantages:
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 Flexibility: Can be designed to optimize performance

and reliability for specific needs.

 Scalability: Easier to expand than single topologies.

 Reliability: Can incorporate redundancy from different

topologies.

 Disadvantages:

 Complex Design and Implementation: More

challenging to set up and manage.

 Expensive: Involves integrating different types of

hardware and cabling.

 Examples:

 Star-Bus Hybrid: Several star networks (e.g.,

individual departments in an office) are connected
together via a bus backbone. This is very common in
large office buildings.

 Star-Ring Hybrid: Star networks connected to a ring

backbone.

5. Categories of Networks (LAN, MAN, WAN)

 Definition: Networks are often categorized based on their geographical

span, which influences their design, technology, and applications.

 Categories:

1. LAN (Local Area Network):

 Definition: Connects devices in a limited geographical area,

such as a home, office building, or a campus. They are
typically owned by a single organization or individual.

 Characteristics:

 Geographical Scope: Small (a few meters to a few

kilometers).

 Data Rate: High (typically 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps, or

even higher for enterprise LANs).
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 Transmission Media: Twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable,

fiber optic cable, Wi-Fi.

 Error Rate: Low.

 Ownership: Private.

 Example:

 A home Wi-Fi network connecting laptops,

smartphones, and a smart TV.

 An office network connecting all computers and

printers within a single building.

 A university campus network connecting various

departments.

 Technologies: Ethernet, Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11).

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

 Definition: Spans a city or a large campus, typically

connecting multiple LANs together within that metropolitan
area. It is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.

 Characteristics:

 Geographical Scope: City-wide (tens of kilometers).

 Data Rate: Moderate to high (usually higher than

WANs, but lower than LANs).

 Transmission Media: Fiber optic cable, sometimes

high-speed copper.

 Ownership: Can be private or public (e.g., by a

telecom provider).

 Example:

 A cable TV network providing internet and TV

services across a city.

 A city-wide network connecting different government

buildings or university campuses.

 Fibre-optic backbone connecting multiple offices of a

large corporation within a city.
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 Technologies: Often uses technologies like FDDI (Fiber

Distributed Data Interface), ATM (Asynchronous Transfer
Mode), or modern Ethernet derivatives (e.g., Metro
Ethernet).

3. WAN (Wide Area Network):

 Definition: Connects devices across a large geographical

area, such as states, countries, or even continents. WANs
typically involve combining multiple LANs and MANs. The
Internet is the prime example of a global WAN.

 Characteristics:

 Geographical Scope: Large (hundreds to thousands

of kilometers).

 Data Rate: Generally lower than LANs, but improving

rapidly (from Kbps to Gbps).

 Transmission Media: Fiber optic cable (often undersea

cables), satellite links, microwave links, telephone
lines.

 Error Rate: Higher than LANs, due to longer distances

and multiple intermediate devices.

 Ownership: Typically owned and operated by

telecommunication companies (ISPs) or large
organizations.

 Example:

 The Internet.

 A multinational corporation connecting its offices in

different countries.

 A public telephone network spanning an entire

country.

 Technologies: MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching), Frame

Relay, X.25, PPP, cellular technologies (3G, 4G, 5G).

6. Protocols and Standards

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 Definition: For devices to communicate effectively in a network, they

must "speak the same language." This is where protocols and
standards come in.

o Protocol: A set of rules that governs data communication. It

defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and
when it is communicated.2 Protocols are essential for the
interoperability of heterogeneous devices.

o Standard: A formally accepted set of rules or specifications

developed by an authorized body. Standards ensure that
products from different manufacturers can work together.

 Key Concepts (Protocols):

o Syntax: The format of data (e.g., bit order, field format).

o Semantics: The meaning of each section of bits (e.g., what a

specific value in a field signifies).

o Timing: When data should be sent, how fast it can be sent, and
the sequence of events.

 Examples (Protocols):

o HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Governs how web browsers

and web servers communicate.

o FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Rules for transferring files between

computers.

o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable, ordered,

and error-checked delivery of data.

o IP (Internet Protocol): Handles addressing and routing of data

packets across networks.

o SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending emails.

 Key Concepts (Standards):

o De Facto Standards: Standards that have been adopted through

widespread use, even without formal endorsement by a
standards body (e.g., HTTP initially).

o De Jure Standards: Standards that have been legalized or

mandated by an official body (e.g., IEEE 802.3 for Ethernet).
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 Standards Organizations (Examples):

o ISO (International Organization for Standardization): Develops

international standards for various industries, including the OSI
model.

o IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers): Develops

standards, especially for local area networks (e.g., 802.3 for
Ethernet, 802.11 for Wi-Fi).

o ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union -

Telecommunication Standardization Sector): Focuses on
telecommunications standards.

o ANSI (American National Standards Institute): Coordinates and

accredits U.S. standards.

o EIA (Electronic Industries Alliance): Develops standards for

electronics, including physical layer interfaces (e.g., RS-232).

o IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force): Develops and promotes

Internet standards, particularly the TCP/IP protocol suite (RFCs -
Request for Comments).

Computer Networks - BS 3rd Semester Notes (Continued)

Week 3: Layered Architecture and Network Models

1. Layered Architecture

 Definition: A layered architecture in networking divides the complex

task of communication into smaller, more manageable sub-tasks or
layers. Each layer performs a specific set of functions and interacts
with the layers directly above and below it. This modular approach
simplifies design, implementation, and troubleshooting of network
protocols.

 Why Layered Architecture?

o Modularity: Breaking down a complex system into independent

layers makes design and development easier. Each layer can be
developed and optimized independently.
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o Interoperability: Different vendors can develop hardware and

software for specific layers, ensuring compatibility as long as
they adhere to the interface specifications.

o Flexibility: Changes in one layer don't necessarily affect other

layers, allowing for easier upgrades and modifications (e.g.,
changing the physical transmission medium doesn't require
redesigning the application layer).

o Troubleshooting: Problems can be isolated to a specific layer,

simplifying fault detection and resolution.

o Standardization: Promotes the development of standardized

protocols for each layer.

 How it Works:

o Services: Each layer provides services to the layer above it and

requests services from the layer below it.

o Peers: When a message is sent from source to destination, each

layer at the source performs functions related to its role, then
passes the data down. At the destination, the process is
reversed; each layer receives data from the layer below,
performs its functions, and passes it up. Communication logically
happens between "peer" layers on the source and destination.

o Encapsulation: As data moves down the layers at the sender,

each layer adds its own header (and sometimes a trailer) to the
data received from the layer above. This process is called
encapsulation. The header contains control information relevant
to that specific layer's protocol.

o Decapsulation: At the receiver, as data moves up the layers,

each layer removes and processes its corresponding header (and
trailer) before passing the remaining data to the layer above.

2. Network Models

 Definition: Network models are conceptual frameworks that describe

the functions of a network. They standardize the way communication
tasks are broken down into layers, enabling different systems to
communicate effectively. The two most prominent network models are
the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

3. The OSI Model

 Definition: The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a

conceptual framework created by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984. It describes how network protocols
should interact to enable communication between different systems.
It's a seven-layer model, primarily used as a teaching tool and a
reference for understanding network functionality, though the TCP/IP
model is more widely implemented.

 Purpose: To define a set of standards that allows different computer

systems to communicate, regardless of their underlying hardware and
software platforms.

 Key Principles:

o Each layer should perform a well-defined function.

o Each layer should select functions that facilitate international

standardization.

o The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize information

flow across interfaces.

o The number of layers should be large enough not to group

distinct functions, but small enough to avoid unnecessary
complexity.

4. Layers in the OSI Model (Brief Introduction)

 The OSI model consists of seven distinct layers, stacked one on top of
the other, each responsible for a specific part of the communication
process.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):

 Function: Deals with the physical transmission of raw bit

streams over a physical medium. It defines hardware
specifications, cabling, voltages, data rates, and physical
connectors.

 PDU (Protocol Data Unit): Bits

 Examples: Cables (Ethernet, fiber optic), connectors (RJ-

45), network interface cards (NICs), hubs, repeaters.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Function: Provides reliable node-to-node data transfer. It

handles physical addressing (MAC addresses), error
detection and correction, and flow control to manage data
rate. It's often divided into two sub-layers: Logical Link
Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC).

 PDU: Frames

 Examples: Ethernet, PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol),

switches, bridges.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3):

 Function: Responsible for logical addressing (IP

addresses) and routing of packets across different
networks (inter-networking). It determines the best path for
data to travel from source to destination.

 PDU: Packets

 Examples: IP (Internet Protocol), routers, ICMP (Internet

Control Message Protocol).

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):

 Function: Provides end-to-end communication between

processes on different hosts. It ensures reliable and orderly
delivery of data segments, including segmentation,
reassembly, error recovery, and flow control. It can be
connection-oriented (TCP) or connectionless (UDP).

 PDU: Segments (for TCP) or Datagrams (for UDP)

 Examples: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User

Datagram Protocol).

5. Session Layer (Layer 5):

 Function: Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions

between applications. It provides dialogue control (who
sends when) and synchronization (checkpoints for long
transfers).

 PDU: Data
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Examples: NetBIOS, RPC (Remote Procedure Call). While

theoretically important, its functions are often integrated
into application or transport layers in practice.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

 Function: Translates data into a format that the

Application layer can understand. It handles data
encryption/decryption, compression/decompression, and
data formatting (e.g., ASCII to EBCDIC conversion).

 PDU: Data

 Examples: JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC, SSL/TLS (though

SSL/TLS often operates across multiple layers, including
transport and presentation).

7. Application Layer (Layer 7):

 Function: Provides network services directly to end-user

applications. It allows users to interact with the network.

 PDU: Data

 Examples: HTTP (web Browse), FTP (file transfer), SMTP

(email), DNS (domain name resolution), Telnet.

5. TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Definition: The TCP/IP protocol suite is the foundational set of

protocols that govern the Internet. It was developed by the U.S.
Department of Defense (DoD) for ARPANET (the precursor to the
Internet). Unlike the conceptual OSI model, TCP/IP is a pragmatic,
implemented standard. It's often described as a four-layer or five-layer
model.

 Key Characteristics:

o Practical & Widely Used: It's the de facto standard for

internetworking.

o Robustness & Flexibility: Designed to be resilient to network

failures and to work across diverse hardware.

o Connectionless Network Layer: IP is connectionless, making it

highly adaptable.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o End-to-End Reliability: Achieved by the transport layer (TCP),

not by lower layers.

 TCP/IP Layers (Five-Layer Version):

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):

 OSI Equivalent: Physical Layer.

 Function: Same as OSI Physical layer. Deals with the

actual transmission of bits.

 Examples: Ethernet, Wi-Fi.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

 OSI Equivalent: Data Link Layer.

 Function: Same as OSI Data Link layer. Handles framing,

physical addressing (MAC), and error control within a local
network.

 Examples: Ethernet, PPP.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3) / Internet Layer:

 OSI Equivalent: Network Layer.

 Function: Responsible for logical addressing (IP

addresses) and routing of datagrams across different
networks. It's the core of internetworking.

 PDU: Datagrams (or packets).

 Protocols: IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP, ARP (Address Resolution

Protocol), RARP (Reverse ARP).

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) / Host-to-Host Layer:

 OSI Equivalent: Transport Layer.

 Function: Provides communication between applications

on different hosts. It handles segmentation/reassembly,
multiplexing/demultiplexing, and (for TCP) reliable, ordered
delivery and flow control.

 PDU: Segments (TCP) or User Datagrams (UDP).

 Protocols:
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

Connection-oriented, reliable, flow control,
congestion control.

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Connectionless,

unreliable, minimal overhead, faster.

5. Application Layer (Layer 5) / Process Layer:

 OSI Equivalent: Session, Presentation, and Application

Layers combined.

 Function: Provides high-level services directly to user

applications. It encapsulates the functions of the upper
three OSI layers.

 PDU: Data.

 Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, SSH, Telnet, SNMP.

 Comparison: OSI vs. TCP/IP

Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Layers 7 Layers 4 or 5 Layers (depending on

interpretation)

Origin Theoretical/Conceptual Practical/Implemented

Approach Top-down design, then Protocols developed, then

protocols model described

Reliability Can be provided at multiple Primarily at Transport Layer

layers (TCP)

Strictness More rigid in defining layer More flexible and adaptable

services

Network Connection-oriented and Primarily connectionless (IP)

Layer connectionless

Application Separate Combines

Layer Presentation/Session layers Presentation/Session into
Application

Usage Reference model, teaching Dominant model for the

tool Internet
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

Export to Sheets

6. Circuit Switching

 Definition: Circuit switching is a type of network switching in which a

dedicated communication path (circuit) is established between two
communicating nodes for the entire duration of their communication.
Once the circuit is established, all data flows along this dedicated path
until the connection is terminated.

 Phases of Circuit Switching:

1. Circuit Establishment: Before communication can begin, a

dedicated circuit must be established. This involves sending
setup signals through the network to reserve resources
(bandwidth, switches) along a path from source to destination.
This process takes time.

2. Data Transfer: Once the circuit is established, data can flow

between the two devices. The circuit provides a dedicated, fixed
bandwidth, guaranteeing consistent quality of service (QoS).
Data transmission is uninterrupted, and there's no waiting or
contention for the medium.

3. Circuit Disconnection: After data transfer is complete, the

circuit is terminated, and the reserved resources are released
back into the network for use by other connections.

 Characteristics:

o Dedicated Path: A continuous physical or logical path is

established.

o Guaranteed Bandwidth: Resources are reserved, ensuring a

fixed bandwidth.

o Fixed Delay: Once the circuit is established, propagation delay

is consistent.

o No Congestion during Transfer: Since resources are reserved,

no queuing or contention occurs during data transfer.

o Inefficient Resource Utilization: Bandwidth is reserved even if

no data is being sent (e.g., during silences in a phone call). This
can lead to wasted bandwidth.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Connection Setup Delay: A setup time is required before

actual data transfer can begin.

 Examples:

o Traditional Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN):

When you make a traditional phone call, a circuit is established
between your phone and the recipient's phone for the duration of
the call.

o ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network): A set of

communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission
of voice, video, data, and other network services over the
traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network.

 When to Use: Ideal for applications that require constant data flow
and minimal delay variations, such as real-time voice and video
communication, where consistent quality is more important than
efficient bandwidth utilization.

Computer Networks - BS 3rd Semester Notes (Continued)

Week 4: Applications, Multiplexing, and Switching

1. Applications

 Definition: In the context of computer networks, "applications" refer

to software programs that utilize network services to perform specific
tasks or enable user interaction over a network. These applications
operate at the Application Layer (Layer 7 in OSI, or the combined
Application Layer in TCP/IP) and rely on the underlying network
infrastructure and protocols to function.

 Key Role: Applications are the primary interface through which end-
users interact with the network. They provide the actual utility and
value of a network.

 Examples:

o Email (SMTP, POP3, IMAP): Allows users to send and receive

electronic messages globally.

o Web Browse (HTTP/HTTPS): Enables access to information

and resources on the World Wide Web.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o File Transfer (FTP, SFTP, SCP): Facilitates the transfer of files

between computers.

o Remote Login (Telnet, SSH): Allows a user to log into a

remote computer and execute commands.

o Voice over IP (VoIP): Enables real-time voice communication

over the Internet (e.g., Skype, Zoom calls).

o Video Conferencing: Real-time video and audio communication

between multiple participants.

o Online Gaming: Multiplayer games that connect players across

the Internet.

o Streaming Media (e.g., Netflix, YouTube): Delivering audio

and video content over the network for real-time playback.

o Domain Name System (DNS): Translates human-readable

domain names (e.g., https://www.google.com/search?
q=google.com) into IP addresses.

o Network Management (SNMP): Tools for monitoring and

managing network devices.

 Relationship with Protocols: Each network application typically

relies on specific application-layer protocols (and underlying
transport/network layer protocols) to perform its functions. For
instance, a web browser uses HTTP to communicate with a web server,
which in turn relies on TCP/IP for reliable data transfer.

2. Statistical Multiplexing

 Definition: Statistical Multiplexing (also known as Asynchronous

Time-Division Multiplexing - ATDM) is a multiplexing technique where
the shared bandwidth is allocated dynamically based on the demand of
each input stream. Unlike traditional TDM, which assigns fixed time
slots, statistical multiplexing only assigns time slots to channels that
actually have data to send.

 Mechanism:

o A multiplexer at the sender's end collects data from multiple

input lines.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o It identifies which input lines have data to send.

o It then creates frames (or packets) that contain data from only
the active lines, along with control information to identify the
source of each data block.

o The frames are transmitted over the shared high-speed link.

o At the receiver's end, a demultiplexer reads the control

information in the frames and directs the data to the appropriate
output lines.

 Key Characteristics:

o Dynamic Bandwidth Allocation: Bandwidth is assigned on

demand, leading to more efficient utilization.

o No Fixed Time Slots: Time slots are not pre-assigned; they are
given to active users.

o Overbooking Possible: The sum of peak input rates can

exceed the capacity of the shared link because it's assumed not
all sources will transmit at their peak simultaneously. This is
where the "statistical" aspect comes from, relying on statistical
averages of traffic.

o Buffering: If the sum of instantaneous input rates temporarily

exceeds the link capacity, data is buffered. This can introduce
variable delays.

o Statistical Gain: Achieves higher efficiency than TDM,

especially for bursty data traffic (e.g., computer data where
transmission is intermittent).

 Advantages:

o Higher Efficiency: Better utilization of bandwidth for bursty

data.

o Cost-Effective: Can support more users over a given link

capacity.

 Disadvantages:

o Variable Delay: Data can experience queuing delays if there's

contention for the link.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Complexity: More complex to implement than TDM or FDM due

to buffering and addressing requirements.

o Overhead: Requires additional overhead in frames to identify

the source of data.

 Example:

o Packet-switched networks (like the Internet): Data is

broken into packets, and multiple packets from different sources
share a common communication link. A router (a form of
statistical multiplexer) forwards packets based on their
destination, using the link's bandwidth dynamically.

o Broadband Internet access: Your ISP statistically multiplexes

your data with that of many other users over a shared
infrastructure.

o Voice and Data Integration: Used in technologies that carry

voice and data traffic together, like VoIP.

3. Packet Switching

 Definition: Packet switching is a network communication method in

which data is divided into small, independent units called packets
before transmission. Each packet contains a portion of the data along
with control information, including source and destination addresses.
These packets are then transmitted independently across the network,
potentially taking different routes, and are reassembled at the
destination.

 Mechanism:

1. Segmentation: The sender breaks down the message into

fixed-size or variable-size packets.

2. Addressing: Each packet is given a header containing the

source address, destination address, sequence number (for
reassembly), and other control information.

3. Routing: Packets are sent into the network and routed

independently by network devices (routers) based on their
destination address and the current network conditions. Routers
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

temporarily store packets in buffers and forward them to the next

hop.

4. Reassembly: At the destination, the packets arrive (possibly out

of order) and are reassembled into the original message using
their sequence numbers. Missing or erroneous packets can be
retransmitted.

 Key Characteristics:

o No Dedicated Path: No fixed path is established; packets

choose paths dynamically.

o Shared Bandwidth: Network resources are shared among all

users.

o Store-and-Forward: Routers temporarily store packets before

forwarding them, leading to variable delays.

o Efficiency: Highly efficient for bursty data traffic.

o Robustness: If one path or router fails, packets can be rerouted

via alternative paths.

o Congestion Possible: Can experience congestion and packet

loss if network traffic exceeds capacity.

 Advantages:

o Efficient Bandwidth Utilization: Resources are not reserved;

they are used only when needed.

o Fault Tolerance/Robustness: Rerouting capability makes the

network resilient to failures.

o Cost-Effective: More economical than circuit switching for many

applications.

o Flexibility: Supports various data rates and types of services.

 Disadvantages:

o Variable Delay: Packets can experience queuing delays, leading

to jitter.

o Overhead: Each packet carries a header, adding overhead.

o Complexity: Routers and protocols are more complex.

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Out-of-Order Delivery: Packets may arrive out of sequence,

requiring reordering at the destination.

 Types of Packet Switching:

o Datagram Packet Switching (Connectionless): Each packet

is treated independently, like a postcard. The network layer does
not maintain any connection state. This is how the Internet (IP)
works.

o Virtual Circuit Packet Switching (Connection-oriented): A

logical path (virtual circuit) is established before data transfer. All
packets for a given communication follow this pre-established
path, though the underlying physical links are still shared. This is
more like a phone call over a packet network. Examples include
Frame Relay and X.25.

 Example: The Internet, which is built on the IP protocol. When you

send an email, stream a video, or browse a website, your data is
broken into IP packets and sent across the Internet.

4. Message Switching

 Definition: Message switching is a network communication method

where the entire message is treated as a single unit and sent from
source to destination. Each intermediate node (switch) in the network
receives the entire message, stores it (if necessary), inspects its
header, and then forwards it to the next hop. This is often referred to
as "store-and-forward" at the message level.

 Mechanism:

1. Store-and-Forward: An entire message is sent to an

intermediate node, stored in its entirety, and then forwarded
when the next link is available.

2. No Packetization: The message is not broken into smaller

packets.

3. Variable Length Messages: Messages can be of arbitrary

length.

 Key Characteristics:
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o No Dedicated Path: Similar to packet switching, no dedicated

path is established.

o Full Message Storage: Each intermediate node must have

enough storage to hold the entire message.

o Variable Delay: Delays can be significant, especially for long

messages, due to the store-and-forward nature.

o No Simultaneous Transmission: Only one message can

occupy a link at a time.

 Advantages:

o Efficient Bandwidth for Bursty Traffic: Resources are used

only when needed.

o Reduced Congestion (potentially): If a link is busy, the

message is stored, preventing the link from being overloaded.

o Traffic Prioritization: Can implement message prioritization.

 Disadvantages:

o Long Delays: Storing entire messages at each hop can lead to

very long end-to-end delays.

o Requires Large Storage: Intermediate nodes need substantial

buffer space, especially for large messages.

o Not Suitable for Real-time Applications: The variable and

potentially long delays make it unsuitable for voice or video.

o Inefficient for Small Messages: Overhead for routing an entire

small message is disproportionately high.

 Example: Historically, telegraph networks used message switching.

More modern examples are email systems (SMTP servers store and
forward entire emails) or voice mail systems (voice messages are
stored on a server and then forwarded). It's rarely used for general
data communication due to the advent of packet switching.

5. Message Switching versus Packet Switching

Feature Message Switching Packet Switching

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

Data Unit Entire message Fixed or variable-sized

packets

Storage at Entire message must be Only current packet needs

Node stored before forwarding to be stored (buffer)

Delay Potentially very long and Variable, but generally

variable (store-and-forward of much lower and more
full message) predictable

Real-time Poor (not suitable for real- Good (suitable for real-time
Support time) due to smaller units)

Overhead Header per message Header per packet (more

overall overhead for small
segments)

Resource Can be inefficient for large Highly efficient for bursty

Usage messages traffic

Robustnes Less robust if a node fails More robust (packets can

s (entire message lost) be rerouted)

Primary Legacy systems, specific Modern data networks, the

Use applications like email, Internet, VoIP
voicemail

Export to Sheets

6. Packet Switching versus Circuit Switching

Feature Packet Switching Circuit Switching

Path No dedicated path (connectionless) Dedicated, physical

Establishmen or virtual circuit established path established for
t (connection-oriented) duration

Bandwidth Dynamic; shared among all users Fixed; dedicated to

Allocation the connection

Resource No reservation; resources used on Resources

Reservation demand (bandwidth,
switches) are
reserved
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

Efficiency Highly efficient for bursty traffic Inefficient for bursty

traffic (idle time
wastes bandwidth)

Delay Variable delay (queuing, Fixed, predictable

processing) delay after setup

Real-time Good, but requires QoS Excellent

Support mechanisms to handle jitter (guaranteed
bandwidth and fixed
delay)

Robustness Very robust; rerouting possible on Less robust; circuit

failure failure breaks
connection

Setup Time Minimal per-packet processing; no Significant setup

connection setup time (datagram) time required to
or small setup for virtual circuit establish circuit

Cost Generally more cost-effective More expensive due

to dedicated
resources

Primary Use Internet, data networks, VoIP, video Traditional telephone

streaming networks, dedicated
leased lines

Export to Sheets

7. How do Loss and Delay occur?

 Definition: In packet-switched networks, the reality of shared

resources and finite capacities leads to two primary performance
impairments: packet loss and delay. Understanding their causes is
crucial for network design and troubleshooting.

 Causes of Packet Loss:

1. Buffer Overflow (Congestion): This is the most common

reason. When packets arrive at a router or switch faster than it
can process or forward them, and its internal buffer (queue)
becomes full, newly arriving packets are dropped. This happens
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

during periods of high network traffic or insufficient buffer

capacity.

2. Corrupted Packets: If a packet gets corrupted during

transmission (e.g., due to noise on the link), its checksum might
not match. The receiving device (e.g., a router or the end host)
will detect the error and discard the packet.

3. Link Failure: A physical cable break or a malfunctioning

network interface can cause packets to be dropped because they
cannot reach the next hop.

4. Hardware/Software Failure: Malfunctioning routers, switches,

or software bugs can lead to incorrect packet handling and drops.

5. TTL Expiration: Every IP packet has a Time-to-Live (TTL) field.

Each router decrements the TTL. If TTL reaches zero before the
packet reaches its destination, the router discards the packet to
prevent it from looping indefinitely in the network.

6. Security Measures: Firewalls or intrusion detection systems

might intentionally drop packets deemed malicious or violating
security policies.

 Causes of Delay (Latency):

1. Processing Delay (Nodal Processing Delay):

 Definition: The time it takes for a router or switch to

process an incoming packet. This includes checking for bit
errors, determining the output link, and performing header
parsing.

 Factors: Router's processing power, software efficiency.

 Typical Value: Usually on the order of microseconds.

2. Queuing Delay:

 Definition: The time a packet spends waiting in a router's

output queue (buffer) before it can be transmitted onto the
outgoing link. This is the most variable and significant
component of delay in congested networks.

 Factors: Level of network congestion, traffic intensity,

buffer size, queuing discipline (e.g., FIFO, priority queuing).
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Example: Imagine a busy toll booth. Cars (packets) wait in

a line (queue) until the toll collector (router) is free.

3. Transmission Delay (Transmission Time):

 Definition: The time required to push all of the packet's

bits onto the transmission medium. It depends on the
packet's size and the link's bandwidth (data rate).

 Formula: Transmission Delay = Packet Size (bits) /

Bandwidth (bits/second)

 Example: A 1000-byte packet on a 1 Mbps link: (1000 * 8

bits) / (1 * 10^6 bits/sec) = 0.008 seconds = 8
milliseconds.

4. Propagation Delay:

 Definition: The time it takes for a bit to travel from the

beginning of the link to the end of the link. It depends on
the distance between the two devices and the propagation
speed of the signal in the medium.

 Formula: Propagation Delay = Distance / Propagation

Speed (speed of light in the medium, typically 2/3 speed of
light in vacuum for copper/fiber).

 Factors: Physical distance, type of transmission medium.

 Example: Signal travelling across a continent or via

satellite. Even at light speed, a signal takes time to cross
vast distances.

8. Delay in Packet-Switched Networks

 Definition: The total end-to-end delay in a packet-switched network is

the sum of the processing, queuing, transmission, and propagation
delays experienced by a packet as it travels from source to destination,
across all the links and through all the intermediate routers.

 Total Delay Formula (for a path with N routers): Total Delay = (N

+ 1) * Propagation Delay (per link) + N * Processing Delay (per router)
+ N * Transmission Delay (per link) + Sum of Queuing Delays (at each
router)
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Note: The number of links is usually (N+1) if N is the number of

routers (assuming source and destination are also nodes).
Transmission delay often applies to each link segment.

 Variability of Delay:

o Queuing delay is the most variable component. In uncongested

networks, it might be negligible. In congested networks, it can
become very large, leading to significant fluctuations in end-to-
end delay (jitter).

o Processing, transmission, and propagation delays are

generally fixed (or less variable) for a given path and packet size.

 Implications of Delay and Jitter:

o Real-time applications (VoIP, video conferencing, online

gaming): Highly sensitive to both absolute delay and jitter. High
delay causes noticeable lag, while high jitter causes choppy
audio/video and game stuttering.

o Non-real-time applications (file transfer, email): More

tolerant to delay and jitter, as long as data eventually arrives
reliably.

 Mitigation Strategies:

o Increased Bandwidth: Reduces transmission delay and

queuing delay.

o Quality of Service (QoS): Prioritizes certain types of traffic

(e.g., VoIP packets) over others to reduce their queuing delay.

o Traffic Shaping/Policing: Controls the rate at which traffic is

sent to prevent congestion.

o Larger Buffers (with limits): Can absorb bursts of traffic but

increase potential maximum queuing delay.

o Faster Processors in Routers: Reduces processing delay.

Computer Networks - BS 3rd Semester Notes (Continued)

Week 5: Signals, Impairment, and Performance

1. Analog and Digital Signals

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Definition: Signals are the means by which data is transmitted. Data

can be represented in either analog or digital form, and signals can be
analog or digital.

o Analog Data: Continuous, infinite range of values (e.g., human

voice, video).

o Digital Data: Discrete states or values (e.g., text, integers).

o Analog Signal: A continuous wave that changes smoothly over

time. It has infinite possible values in a range.

o Digital Signal: A discrete signal that has a finite number of

defined values, typically represented by a sequence of voltage
pulses. It changes in discrete steps.

 Relationship between Data and Signals:

o Analog data can be represented by an analog signal (e.g.,

microphone converts sound waves into an electrical analog
signal).

o Analog data can be represented by a digital signal (e.g., a

modem converts analog voice into a digital stream).

o Digital data can be represented by an analog signal (e.g., a

modem converts digital computer data into an analog signal for
transmission over a phone line).

o Digital data can be represented by a digital signal (e.g., a

computer transmits binary data as electrical pulses over an
Ethernet cable).

2. Periodic Analog Signals

 Definition: A periodic analog signal is one that completes a pattern

within a measurable time frame, called a period (T), and repeats that
pattern over subsequent identical periods.

 Characteristics of Periodic Analog Signals:

1. Period (T) and Frequency (f):

 Period: The time in seconds required for one full cycle.

Measured in seconds (s).
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Frequency: The number of periods or cycles per second.

Measured in Hertz (Hz).

 Relationship: f=1/T or T=1/f.

 Example: If a signal completes 10 cycles in 1 second, its

frequency is 10 Hz, and its period is 0.1 seconds.

2. Amplitude: The maximum displacement or intensity of the

signal from its average value. It measures the signal's energy or
strength. Measured in volts, amps, or watts.

3. Phase: Describes the position of the waveform relative to time

zero. It's measured in degrees or radians. A phase shift indicates
how much the waveform is shifted horizontally.

o Sine Wave: The most fundamental form of a periodic analog

signal. It's characterized by its peak amplitude, frequency, and
phase. Any composite analog signal can be decomposed into a
series of simple sine waves (Fourier analysis).

o Composite Periodic Signal: An analog signal composed of

multiple sine waves. According to Fourier analysis, any
composite signal can be represented as a sum of simple sine
waves with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.

 Bandwidth of an Analog Signal: The difference between

the highest and lowest frequencies contained within the
signal's composite form.

3. Digital Signals

 Definition: A digital signal is a sequence of discrete voltage pulses.

Unlike analog signals, digital signals have a finite number of defined
states (typically two: high voltage for '1' and low voltage for '0').

 Characteristics of Digital Signals:

1. Bit Rate (Data Rate): The number of bits transmitted per

second. Measured in bits per second (bps). Higher bit rates mean
more data can be transmitted in a given time.

2. Bit Length: The distance a single bit occupies on the

transmission medium. Related to propagation speed and bit
duration.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

3. Levels: The number of distinct voltage levels used to represent

bits. A two-level signal can represent 1 bit per symbol (0 or 1). A
multi-level signal can represent more bits per symbol (e.g., 4
levels can represent 2 bits per symbol: 00, 01, 10, 11).

o Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal: Even a digital

signal can be seen as a composite analog signal with an infinite
number of simple sine waves. The more square the digital signal
(i.e., faster transitions), the more high-frequency components it
contains.

o Bandwidth of a Digital Signal: Theoretically infinite, but

practically, the effective bandwidth is determined by the highest
significant frequency component.

4. Transmission Impairment

 Definition: When a signal travels through a medium, it encounters

imperfections that can degrade its quality. This degradation is known
as transmission impairment. Impairment can lead to distortion of
the signal, causing errors in the received data.

 Types of Transmission Impairment:

1. Attenuation:

 Definition: The loss of energy (strength) of a signal as it

travels through the medium. The longer the distance, the
more energy is lost.

 Cause: Resistance of the medium, absorption by the

medium.

 Effect: The receiver might not be able to detect or

interpret the signal correctly if it becomes too weak.

 Mitigation: Amplifiers (for analog signals) or repeaters

(for digital signals) are used to boost the signal strength
periodically. Attenuation is often measured in decibels (dB).

2. Distortion:

 Definition: The signal changes its form or shape due to

different components of a composite signal having
different propagation speeds or delays through the
medium, or different amplification/attenuation rates.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Cause: Different frequencies in a composite signal travel

at different speeds (differential delay), or different
frequency components are attenuated differently.

 Effect: The signal's original shape is altered, making it

harder for the receiver to interpret.

 Mitigation: Equalizers are used to compensate for the

different delays or attenuation across frequencies.

3. Noise:

 Definition: Unwanted energy that is added to the signal,

interfering with its interpretation. Noise can be introduced
by external sources or internal to the electronic
components.

 Types of Noise:

 Thermal Noise (White Noise): Random motion of

electrons in a conductor, creating an unwanted
signal. Present in all electronic devices and
transmission media.

 Intermodulation Noise: Occurs when signals at

different frequencies share the same medium, and
their frequencies combine to create unwanted new
frequencies that interfere with the original signal.

 Crosstalk: The effect of one signal interfering with

another (e.g., hearing another conversation on your
phone line). Occurs when wires are too close
together.

 Impulse Noise: A sudden, short-lived burst of high-

energy noise (e.g., from lightning, power surges, or
switching equipment). Very destructive to digital data
as it can corrupt many bits.

 Effect: Corrupts the original signal, leading to bit errors.

 Mitigation: Shielding cables, using proper grounding,

error detection and correction codes, filters, and line
conditioners.

4. Jitter (Revisit):
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Definition: Variations in the delay of packets arriving at

the destination, leading to uneven playback for real-time
streams like audio and video. While discussed as a delay
type in Week 4, it's also a significant impairment of timely
signal delivery.

 Cause: Variable queuing delays in routers, network

congestion, processing load variations.

 Effect: Choppy video, stuttering audio, degraded user

experience.

 Mitigation: Jitter buffers at the receiver, Quality of Service

(QoS) mechanisms.

5. Data Rate Limits

 Definition: The capacity of a communication channel, or the

maximum rate at which data can be reliably transmitted over a given
medium, is limited by factors like bandwidth and noise. Several
theorems and formulas quantify these limits.

 Key Concepts and Formulas:

1. Nyquist Bit Rate (for Noiseless Channels):

 Formula: C=2×B×log2L

 C: Channel capacity (max bit rate in bps)

 B: Bandwidth of the channel (in Hz)

 L: Number of signal levels used to represent data

(e.g., 2 levels for binary, 4 levels for 2 bits/symbol)

 Explanation: This theorem states that for a noiseless

channel, the maximum bit rate is directly proportional to
the bandwidth and the number of signal levels. Increasing
the number of levels allows more bits per symbol, thus
increasing the bit rate. However, increasing levels also
makes signals more susceptible to noise.

 Example: A noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000

Hz using 2 signal levels can achieve a maximum bit rate of
2×3000×log22=6000×1=6000 bps. If 4 levels are used,
it's 2×3000×log24=6000×2=12000 bps.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

2. Shannon Capacity (for Noisy Channels):

 Formula: C=B×log2(1+S/N)

 C: Channel capacity (max bit rate in bps)

 B: Bandwidth of the channel (in Hz)

 S/N: Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), which is the ratio of

signal power (S) to noise power (N). It's often
expressed in decibels (SNRdB) and then converted to
a linear ratio: S/N=10(SNRdB/10).

 Explanation: This theorem provides the theoretical

maximum data rate for a noisy channel. It shows that
increasing bandwidth or improving the signal-to-noise ratio
increases capacity. This limit is independent of the number
of signal levels; it tells you the absolute theoretical
maximum capacity. You can't exceed this even with ideal
encoding.

 Example: A channel with 3000 Hz bandwidth and an

SNRdB of 30 dB. First, convert SNRdB to S/N:
S/N=10(30/10)=103=1000. Then, C=3000×log2
(1+1000)≈3000×log2(1001)≈3000×9.96≈29880 bps.

o Practical Implications:

 The Shannon capacity sets an upper bound; actual

achievable data rates are always lower due to practical
limitations.

 The Nyquist formula is used to determine how many bits

per symbol are needed for a desired bit rate, given a
certain bandwidth in a noiseless scenario.

 Together, they guide engineers in designing

communication systems that maximize data rates within
given bandwidth and noise constraints.

6. Performance

 Definition: Network performance refers to the efficiency and

effectiveness of a network in delivering data. It is a critical aspect of
network design and management, and various metrics are used to
quantify it.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Key Performance Metrics (Revisited and Expanded):

1. Bandwidth (Throughput):

 Definition: The maximum rate at which data can be

transmitted over a communication channel. It's often
referred to as the capacity of the link. Measured in bits per
second (bps), Kbps, Mbps, Gbps.

 Throughput (Actual): The actual rate at which data is

transferred successfully over a period. It's often less than
the theoretical bandwidth due to network congestion,
overhead, errors, etc.

 Example: Your internet plan might advertise "100 Mbps

bandwidth," but your actual download speed (throughput)
might be 80 Mbps due to Wi-Fi interference or server load.

2. Latency (Delay):

 Definition: The total time taken for data to travel from the
source to the destination. As discussed in Week 4, it
comprises processing delay, queuing delay, transmission
delay, and propagation delay.

 Importance: Crucial for real-time applications where

responsiveness is key. Lower latency is better.

 Example: High latency (ping) in online games leads to

noticeable lag.

3. Jitter:

 Definition: The variation in the delay of received packets.

It's the fluctuation in latency.

 Importance: Extremely important for real-time audio and

video streams. Low jitter is better.

 Example: High jitter makes voice calls sound choppy and

video streams freeze or stutter.

4. Packet Loss Rate:

 Definition: The percentage of packets that fail to reach

their destination.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Importance: High packet loss significantly degrades

performance, requiring retransmissions and impacting user
experience. Lower loss is better.

 Example: Lost packets in a video call can lead to missing

frames or distorted audio.

5. Reliability:

 Definition: The ability of the network to deliver data

without errors and to remain operational even in the event
of component failures.

 Metrics: Error rate, uptime percentage, Mean Time

Between Failures (MTBF).

 Importance: Essential for critical applications where data

integrity and continuous service are paramount.

6. Utilization:

 Definition: The percentage of time a network resource

(e.g., a link or a router) is busy transmitting data.

 Importance: While high utilization might seem good,

overly high utilization (e.g., consistently above 70-80%)
can lead to increased queuing delays and packet loss due
to congestion.

o Trade-offs in Performance:

 Often, there are trade-offs between different performance

metrics. For example, increasing buffer sizes to reduce
packet loss can increase latency.

 Network design aims to optimize these metrics based on

the specific application requirements. For instance, VoIP
prioritizes low latency and jitter over high bandwidth, while
file transfer prioritizes high throughput and low loss.

Computer Networks - BS 3rd Semester Notes (Continued)

Week 6: Signal Conversion and Transmission Modes

1. Digital to Digital Conversion (Line Coding)

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Definition: The process of converting digital data (sequences of bits)

into digital signals. This is done to prepare data for transmission over a
digital medium (like a twisted-pair cable or fiber optic).

 Purpose/Goals of Line Coding:

1. Reduce DC Component: Avoid direct current (DC) components

in the signal, which can interfere with electrical components and
prevent long-distance transmission over certain media.

2. Self-Synchronization: Include timing information within the

signal itself, allowing the receiver to synchronize its clock with
the sender's. This prevents bit errors due to timing drift.

3. Error Detection: Some codes can detect errors in the received

bit stream.

4. Noise Immunity: Design signals to be less susceptible to noise.

5. Bandwidth Efficiency: Use the available bandwidth effectively

to transmit more bits per second.

6. Low Complexity/Cost: Simple to implement.

 Common Line Coding Schemes (Types):

o Unipolar (NRZ):

 NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero): A positive voltage

represents '1', and zero voltage represents '0' (or vice-
versa).

 Characteristics: Simple, uses bandwidth efficiently.

 Problem: Significant DC component, lacks self-

synchronization for long strings of 0s or 1s.

 Example: NRZ-L (level), NRZ-I (invert on 1).

o Polar: Uses two voltage levels (positive and negative).

 NRZ: (e.g., NRZ-L: positive for '1', negative for '0'; NRZ-I:
invert on '1', no change on '0'). Still has synchronization
issues.

 RZ (Return-to-Zero): Signal returns to zero voltage in the

middle of each bit interval.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Characteristics: Improves synchronization slightly (more

transitions than NRZ), but uses twice the bandwidth of NRZ
and has a DC component.

 Biphase (Manchester and Differential Manchester):

 Manchester: Transition in the middle of each bit

interval (low-to-high for '0', high-to-low for '1').

 Differential Manchester: Transition in the middle

for clock, and transition at the beginning of the bit
interval based on the bit value (no transition for '1',
transition for '0').

 Characteristics: Excellent self-synchronization

(always a transition), no DC component.

 Disadvantage: Requires twice the bandwidth of

NRZ due to more transitions. Widely used in
Ethernet.

o Bipolar (AMI, Pseudoternary): Uses three voltage levels:

positive, negative, and zero.

 AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion): '0' is represented by

zero voltage. '1's alternate between positive and negative
voltages.

 Characteristics: No DC component, some error detection

(if two consecutive '1's have same polarity).

 Problem: Long strings of '0's still cause synchronization

issues.

 Pseudoternary: Opposite of AMI. '1' is zero voltage, '0's

alternate between positive and negative.

o Multilevel schemes (e.g., 2B1Q, 8B6T, 4D-PAM5): Encode

multiple bits into a single signal element.

 Purpose: Increase bit rate for a given bandwidth (higher

efficiency).

 Example: 2B1Q (2 Binary 1 Quaternary) encodes 2 bits

into 1 quaternary (4-level) signal element. Used in DSL.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Block Coding (e.g., 4B/5B, 8B/10B): Converts a block of

digital data bits into a longer block of code bits.

 Purpose: Introduce enough transitions for synchronization,

provide error detection, or minimize DC component.

 Mechanism: Adds redundancy. For instance, 4B/5B maps

every 4 data bits to a 5-bit code word, ensuring sufficient
transitions.

2. Analog to Digital Conversion (Digitization)

 Definition: The process of converting an analog signal (like voice or

video) into a digital signal. This is essential for transmitting analog
data over digital networks and for digital processing.

 Technique: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is the most common

method.

 Steps in PCM:

1. Sampling:

 Definition: Taking discrete amplitude measurements of

the analog signal at regular intervals.

 Nyquist Theorem: To accurately reconstruct the original

analog signal, the sampling rate must be at least twice the
highest frequency present in the analog signal (fs≥2×fmax
).

 Example: For voice with a highest frequency of 4000 Hz,

the sampling rate should be at least 8000 samples/second.

2. Quantization:

 Definition: Assigning a discrete numerical value (from a

finite set of values) to each sampled amplitude. This
involves rounding the continuous analog sample to the
nearest predefined level.

 Effect: Introduces quantization error (noise), as the

original sample might not perfectly match a predefined
level.

 Resolution: The number of bits used to represent each

sample (e.g., 8 bits for 256 levels, 16 bits for 65,536
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

levels). More bits lead to finer resolution and less

quantization error.

3. Encoding (Digital Encoding):

 Definition: Converting the quantized values into a binary

code (a sequence of 0s and 1s).

 Example: If 8 bits are used per sample, each sample is

represented by an 8-bit binary code.

 Output: A continuous stream of binary digits representing the original

analog signal.

 Bit Rate of PCM: BitRate=SamplingRate×Numberofbitspersample.

o Example (Voice): 8000 samples/sec×8 bits/sample=64 kbps

(This is the standard for uncompressed digital voice).

3. Transmission Modes

 Definition: How bits are organized for transmission over a data link,
particularly concerning the timing and order of bits.

 Types:

1. Parallel Transmission:

 Definition: Multiple bits are sent simultaneously over

multiple parallel wires (or channels).

 Characteristics:

 Requires N separate wires to send N bits at a time.

 Faster for short distances (e.g., within a computer

system or over very short external cables).

 Problem: Skew (bits arriving at slightly different

times on different wires) becomes significant over
longer distances, making it impractical for long-haul
data communication.

 Example: Printer cables (LPT ports), internal computer

buses.

2. Serial Transmission:
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Definition: Bits are sent one after another, sequentially,

over a single communication channel.

 Characteristics:

 Requires only one communication channel.

 Slower per clock cycle than parallel but can achieve

high speeds over long distances due to lack of skew
issues.

 Dominant mode for data communication over

networks.

 Example: USB, Ethernet, Fibre Optics, Wi-Fi.

 Types of Serial Transmission (Synchronization):

1. Asynchronous Transmission:

 Definition: Data is sent character by character (or byte by

byte). Each character is framed with start and stop bits to
mark its beginning and end.

 Characteristics:

 No common clock signal between sender and

receiver.

 Start bit (0) alerts the receiver to the arrival of a new

character.

 Stop bit(s) (1) indicates the end of the character and

prepares for the next.

 Idle time between characters is possible.

 Overhead: Adds extra bits (start/stop) to each

character, reducing efficiency.

 Advantages: Simple, inexpensive, flexible (idle time

allows variable character intervals).

 Disadvantages: Inefficient for large data blocks due to

overhead, slower than synchronous.

 Example: Traditional modems, older serial ports (RS-232).

2. Synchronous Transmission:
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Definition: Data is sent in continuous blocks (frames)

without start/stop bits. The sender and receiver must be
perfectly synchronized using a shared clock signal or by
embedding timing information within the data stream.

 Characteristics:

 Bits are streamed continuously.

 Clocking: Provided by a separate clock line or by

encoding the clock within the data (e.g., Manchester
encoding).

 Framing: Special bit patterns (flags) mark the

beginning and end of frames.

 Efficiency: Very efficient for large data blocks as

there is less overhead per bit.

 Advantages: High speed, highly efficient for large data

transfers.

 Disadvantages: More complex, requires precise

synchronization, retransmission of entire frame if error
occurs.

 Example: Ethernet, SDH/SONET, ISDN, High-Level Data

Link Control (HDLC).

4. Digital-to-Analog Conversion (Modulation)

 Definition: The process of converting digital data into an analog

signal. This is necessary when digital data needs to be transmitted
over an analog medium (e.g., telephone lines, radio waves). The device
performing this conversion is a Modem (Modulator-Demodulator).

 Techniques (Types of Modulation):

1. ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying):

 Concept: The amplitude (strength) of a carrier analog

signal is varied to represent digital bits. Frequency and
phase remain constant.

 Example: High amplitude for '1', low (or zero) amplitude

for '0'.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Use Case: Often used for optical fiber communication or

short-range radio frequency (RF) links.

2. FSK (Frequency Shift Keying):

 Concept: The frequency of a carrier analog signal is varied

to represent digital bits. Amplitude and phase remain
constant.

 Example: One frequency for '1', another frequency for '0'.

 Use Case: Used in early modems, half-duplex voiceband

modems, and some wireless applications.

3. PSK (Phase Shift Keying):

 Concept: The phase of a carrier analog signal is varied to

represent digital bits. Amplitude and frequency remain
constant.

 Example: Phase change of 0 degrees for '0', 180 degrees

for '1' (BPSK - Binary PSK). Can use multiple phase shifts
(e.g., QPSK for 4 phases, representing 2 bits per symbol).

 Use Case: Widely used in wireless communication (Wi-Fi,

cellular), satellite communication, and DSL.

4. QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation):

 Concept: Combines amplitude and phase shifting to

represent multiple bits per symbol, achieving higher data
rates.

 Example: 16-QAM uses 16 different combinations of

amplitude and phase, representing 4 bits per symbol.

 Use Case: Very common in high-speed modems (cable,

DSL), Wi-Fi (newer standards), and cellular networks, where
spectral efficiency is critical.

5. Analog-to-Analog Conversion (Analog Modulation)

 Definition: The process of converting one analog signal (e.g., voice,

music) into another analog signal, typically by modulating a high-
frequency carrier wave. This is done to shift the signal to a different
frequency range for efficient transmission (e.g., over radio waves) or to
allow multiple signals to share a medium using FDM.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Purpose:

o Frequency Translation: Shift the baseband signal to a higher

frequency band suitable for transmission over a particular
medium (e.g., radio frequency for broadcasting).

o Multiplexing: Allow multiple analog signals to share a single

transmission medium using Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM).

o Overcoming Medium Limitations: Adjust the signal

characteristics to better suit the propagation properties of the
medium.

 Techniques (Types of Analog Modulation):

1. AM (Amplitude Modulation):

 Concept: The amplitude of a high-frequency carrier wave

is varied in proportion to the amplitude of the analog
message signal.

 Characteristics: Simple to implement, but susceptible to

noise.

 Use Case: Traditional AM radio broadcasting.

2. FM (Frequency Modulation):

 Concept: The frequency of a high-frequency carrier wave

is varied in proportion to the amplitude of the analog
message signal. The amplitude of the carrier remains
constant.

 Characteristics: More immune to noise than AM, higher

fidelity.

 Use Case: FM radio broadcasting, television sound.

3. PM (Phase Modulation):

 Concept: The phase of a high-frequency carrier wave is

varied in proportion to the amplitude of the analog
message signal.

 Characteristics: Similar to FM, often used in combination

with FM for digital communication.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Use Case: Primarily used for digital modulation (e.g., PSK),

but also has analog applications.

Computer Networks - BS 3rd Semester Notes (Continued)

Week 7: Transmission Media and Data Link Layer Introduction

1. Transmission Media

 Definition: Transmission media are the physical pathways or channels

through which data travels from a sender to a receiver. They can be
broadly classified into two categories: guided (wired) and unguided
(wireless).

 Role: Essential component of the Physical Layer (Layer 1) of network

models, providing the physical link for signal propagation.

2. Guided Media

 Definition: Guided media (also known as wired or bounded media)

use a physical conductor to transmit signals. The signals are confined
to a specific path within the medium.

 Types:

1. Twisted-Pair Cable:

 Description: Consists of two insulated copper wires

twisted together. Twisting reduces crosstalk and
electromagnetic interference.

 Types:

 UTP (Unshielded Twisted-Pair): Most common

type, no metallic shield, less expensive, prone to
noise.

 STP (Shielded Twisted-Pair): Has a metallic braid

or foil shield to reduce noise, more expensive,
thicker.

 Categories (UTP): Cat 3 (old telephone), Cat 5/5e (100

Mbps, 1 Gbps), Cat 6/6a (1 Gbps, 10 Gbps), Cat 7/7a (10
Gbps and beyond).

 Connectors: RJ-45 (for Ethernet), RJ-11 (for telephone).

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Advantages: Inexpensive (UTP), easy to install, widely

available.

 Disadvantages: Susceptible to noise (UTP), limited

bandwidth/distance for higher speeds.

 Applications: LANs (Ethernet), telephone networks.

2. Coaxial Cable:

 Description: Consists of a central copper conductor

surrounded by an insulating layer, a metallic shield (braid
or foil), and an outer insulating jacket.

 Characteristics: Better shielding than UTP, higher

bandwidth than twisted-pair over longer distances.

 Types:

 RG-59: For cable TV.

 RG-58: For thin Ethernet (10Base2).

 RG-11: For thick Ethernet (10Base5).

 Advantages: Higher bandwidth than twisted-pair, good

noise immunity.

 Disadvantages: More expensive and difficult to install

than UTP, less common in modern LANs.

 Applications: Cable TV, older Ethernet LANs (bus

topology), some short-haul telephone trunks.

3. Fiber-Optic Cable:

 Description: Transmits data as pulses of light through thin

strands of glass or plastic (optical fibers).

 Components: Core (light path), Cladding (reflects light

back into core), Jacket (protection).

 Types:

 Multi-mode Fiber (MMF): Larger core, multiple

light paths, cheaper transceivers, good for shorter
distances (e.g., within a building).
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Single-mode Fiber (SMF): Smaller core, single

light path, expensive transceivers, good for very long
distances and high bandwidth (e.g., inter-city,
undersea cables).

 Advantages:

 Extremely High Bandwidth: Supports very high

data rates (Gbps to Tbps).

 Long Distances: Can transmit signals over tens or

hundreds of kilometers without repeaters.

 Immunity to EMI: Not affected by electromagnetic

interference or noise.

 Security: Very difficult to tap without detection.

 Low Attenuation: Less signal loss than copper

cables.

 Disadvantages: More expensive to install, requires

specialized equipment and expertise for termination,
fragile (glass core).

 Applications: Backbone networks, high-speed LANs,

WANs, Internet backbone, Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH).

3. Unguided Media: Wireless

 Definition: Unguided media (also known as wireless or unbounded

media) transmit electromagnetic waves through open space without a
physical conductor.

 Characteristics: Broadcast nature, susceptible to interference, signal

strength degrades with distance.

 Types (based on frequency range/application):

1. Radio Waves:

 Description: Electromagnetic waves in the frequency

range of 3 KHz to 1 GHz.

 Characteristics: Omnidirectional (signals broadcast in all

directions), can penetrate walls.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Applications: AM/FM radio, cordless phones, older

wireless LANs, Bluetooth.

2. Microwaves:

 Description: Electromagnetic waves in the frequency

range of 1 GHz to 300 GHz.

 Characteristics: Unidirectional (require line-of-sight

communication), higher frequencies mean more
bandwidth.

 Types:

 Terrestrial Microwave: Parabolic antennas on

towers, line-of-sight. Used for long-distance
telephone, cellular backhaul.

 Satellite Microwave: Communication via satellites

in orbit. Used for broadcasting, global communication
(data, TV, voice).

 Advantages: Suitable for long-distance, no cabling

required, high bandwidth.

 Disadvantages: Requires line-of-sight (terrestrial),

susceptible to weather conditions (rain fade), security
concerns (eavesdropping).

3. Infrared:

 Description: Electromagnetic waves with frequencies

from 300 GHz to 400 THz.

 Characteristics: Short-range, line-of-sight (or diffuse),

cannot penetrate walls, good for security within a room.

 Applications: TV remote controls, short-range wireless

keyboards/mice, IrDA ports on older devices.

 Advantages: Secure (within a room), no interference

between rooms.

 Disadvantages: Limited range, blocked by obstacles.

4. Data Link Layer (Introduction)

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Definition: The Data Link Layer (Layer 2) in the OSI model (and
often integrated into the "Network Access Layer" in TCP/IP) is
responsible for reliable node-to-node data transfer across a physical
link. It ensures that data packets (which it calls "frames") are
transmitted and received accurately between two directly connected
devices.

 Main Responsibilities/Functions:

1. Framing: Divides the stream of bits from the Network layer into
manageable units called frames. Adds a header and trailer to
each frame (containing control information like
source/destination physical addresses, frame delimiters, error
detection codes).

2. Physical Addressing (MAC Addressing): Adds the physical

address (MAC address) of the sender and receiver to the frame
header. This address is unique to each network interface card
(NIC).

3. Flow Control: Regulates the rate of data transmission to

prevent a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver.
Ensures the receiver's buffer doesn't overflow.

4. Error Control: Detects and/or corrects errors that may occur

during transmission over the physical medium. This includes
mechanisms for error detection (e.g., CRC) and retransmission of
damaged or lost frames.

5. Media Access Control (MAC): For shared media (like bus

topologies or wireless networks), it determines which device has
the right to transmit at any given time to avoid collisions. This is
handled by the MAC sublayer.

 Sublayers (IEEE 802 Standards):

o Logical Link Control (LLC) Sublayer: Handles flow control,

error control, and defines SAPs (Service Access Points) to
communicate with the Network layer. (IEEE 802.2)

o Media Access Control (MAC) Sublayer: Manages access to

the shared physical medium (e.g., CSMA/CD for Ethernet,
CSMA/CA for Wi-Fi). It includes the physical addressing. (IEEE
802.3, 802.11)
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Devices: Switches, Bridges.

 Protocols: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol), HDLC

(High-Level Data Link Control).

5. Block Coding

 Definition: A line coding technique where a block of 'k' data bits is

mapped into a longer block of 'n' code bits (where n > k). This is
represented as an (n, k) block code. The added (n-k) bits are
redundant and are used to achieve desired properties like
synchronization or error detection.

 Purpose:

o Synchronization: Ensure sufficient signal transitions for the

receiver's clock to synchronize, especially with long strings of 0s
or 1s (which can cause synchronization loss in NRZ).

o Error Detection: The redundancy allows the detection of

certain types of errors.

o DC Component Reduction: Design codes to minimize or

eliminate the DC component.

 Mechanism:

o The sender divides the outgoing bit stream into blocks of 'k' bits.

o Each 'k'-bit block is transformed into an 'n'-bit codeword using a

predefined mapping table.

o These 'n'-bit codewords are then transmitted using a suitable line

coding scheme (e.g., NRZ-I).

 Redundancy: The added (n-k) bits do not carry new information but
provide the desired line characteristics.

 Example:

o 4B/5B Encoding: A widely used block coding scheme where

every 4 data bits are encoded into a 5-bit codeword.

 There are 24=16 possible 4-bit data words.

 There are 25=32 possible 5-bit codewords.

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 16 of these 5-bit codewords are chosen for data encoding.

The remaining 16 are either unused or used for control
signals (e.g., idle, start of frame, end of frame).

 Benefit: The 5-bit codewords are specifically chosen to

avoid long sequences of zeros, thereby guaranteeing at
least two 1s in every 5-bit sequence (e.g., 0000 is mapped
to 11100, not 00000), which ensures sufficient transitions
for synchronization when using NRZ-I.

 Application: Used in conjunction with NRZ-I in 100BASE-

TX Ethernet (Fast Ethernet) and FDDI.

o 8B/10B Encoding: Every 8 data bits are encoded into a 10-bit

codeword. Provides even better synchronization and DC balance.
Used in Gigabit Ethernet and Fibre Channel.

6. Linear Block Codes

 Definition: A category of block codes used for error detection and/or

correction, where the encoding process involves linear operations
(addition modulo 2) on the data bits. This means that the XOR sum of
any two valid codewords in the code is also a valid codeword.

 Key Concept: The encoder uses a generator matrix (G) to transform

'k' data bits into 'n' codeword bits. The redundant bits (parity bits) are
generated based on the data bits.

 Minimum Distance (Hamming Distance): The minimum number of

bit positions in which any two valid codewords differ. This is crucial for
error detection and correction capabilities:

o Error Detection: To detect up to 's' errors, the minimum

distance must be at least s+1.

o Error Correction: To correct up to 't' errors, the minimum

distance must be at least 2t+1.

 Types/Examples:

o Parity Check Code: The simplest linear block code. Adds a

single parity bit to a block of data bits.

 Even Parity: The parity bit is set so that the total number
of '1's in the codeword (data + parity) is even.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Odd Parity: The parity bit is set so that the total number
of '1's in the codeword is odd.

 Detection: Can detect any single bit error. Cannot correct

errors and cannot detect an even number of errors.

o Hamming Codes: More powerful linear block codes that can

detect multiple errors and correct single-bit errors. They are
constructed based on specific rules for placing parity bits.

o CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check): While often considered a

separate category, CRC is also a type of linear block code
(specifically, a cyclic code). Its properties make it highly effective
for detecting burst errors.

7. Cyclic Codes

 Definition: A special subclass of linear block codes that have an

additional property: if a codeword is a valid codeword, then a cyclic
shift (circular shift) of that codeword is also a valid codeword. This
mathematical property allows for efficient implementation using shift
registers.

 Key Concept: Based on polynomial arithmetic (binary numbers

represented as polynomials). Both the sender and receiver agree on a
generator polynomial (G(x)).

 Mechanism (Simplified):

1. Sender:

 Appends 'n-k' zeros to the 'k' data bits.

 Divides the resulting polynomial by the generator

polynomial G(x) using modulo-2 division.

 The remainder (of length n-k) is the Frame Check

Sequence (FCS) or CRC checksum.

 The FCS is appended to the original data bits to form the

'n'-bit codeword.

2. Receiver:

 Divides the received 'n'-bit codeword by the same

generator polynomial G(x).
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 If the remainder is zero, the frame is assumed to be error-

free.

 If the remainder is non-zero, errors are detected.

 Advantages:

o Excellent Error Detection: Extremely good at detecting burst

errors (multiple consecutive bit errors).

o Efficient Implementation: Can be implemented easily in

hardware using shift registers and XOR gates.

 Disadvantages: Primarily for error detection; error correction

capabilities are limited (though some specialized cyclic codes exist for
correction).

 Applications: Widely used in almost all digital communication

networks: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, USB, Token Ring, ATM, and many others.

 Common CRC Polynomials:

o CRC-8, CRC-16 (e.g., CRC-CCITT), CRC-32 (most common,

used in Ethernet). The longer the CRC, the better its error
detection capability.

8. Checksum

 Definition: A simple error detection method where a value

(checksum) is calculated based on the content of a data block and
appended to it. The receiver performs the same calculation; if the
calculated checksum matches the received checksum, the data is
assumed to be correct.

 Mechanism:

1. Sender:

 The data is divided into equal-sized segments (e.g., 16-bit

words).

 All segments are added together using one's complement

arithmetic.

 The sum is then complemented (all 0s become 1s, and all

1s become 0s) to produce the checksum.

 The checksum is appended to the data and sent.

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

2. Receiver:

 The received data segments (including the checksum) are

added together using one's complement arithmetic.

 If the result is all 1s (or zero if not complemented), the

data is considered error-free. If not, an error is detected.

 Advantages:

o Simple to Implement: Computationally less intensive than

CRC.

 Disadvantages:

o Less Robust: Not as powerful as CRC in detecting complex

errors, especially burst errors. It cannot detect all errors. For
example, if two bits are swapped (one 0 to 1 and another 1 to 0),
the sum might remain the same.

 Applications: Primarily used in higher layers, especially in the

Transport Layer (TCP, UDP) and Network Layer (IP header
checksum), for detecting errors in headers and data segments. It's
less common for error detection over the physical link due to its lower
robustness compared to CRC.

Week 8: Flow, Error, Multiple Access, and LANs

1. Flow and Error Control

 Definition: Essential mechanisms implemented primarily at the Data

Link Layer and Transport Layer to ensure reliable and efficient data
transfer.

o Flow Control: Manages the rate of data transmission between a

sender and receiver to prevent a fast sender from overwhelming
a slower receiver's buffer.

o Error Control: Deals with detecting and, in some cases,

correcting errors that occur during data transmission. This
ensures data integrity.

 Why are they needed?

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Flow Control: Receivers have finite buffer space. Without flow

control, a sender could transmit data faster than the receiver can
process or store it, leading to buffer overflow and packet/frame
loss.

o Error Control: Transmission media are noisy. Errors (bit flips)

can occur, corrupting data. Error control ensures that the
received data is identical to the sent data, or that errors are at
least detected.

 Relationship: Often implemented together, as retransmissions (part

of error control) affect the flow of data.

 Flow Control Mechanisms:

1. Stop-and-Wait ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request):

 Mechanism: The sender sends one frame at a time and

then waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver.
If an ACK is received, the next frame is sent. If a timeout
occurs or a Negative ACK (NAK) is received, the frame is
retransmitted.

 Advantages: Simple to implement.

 Disadvantages: Inefficient, especially for long-distance

links with high propagation delays, due to idle time while
waiting for ACKs.

2. Sliding Window Protocol (Go-Back-N ARQ and Selective

Repeat ARQ):

 Mechanism: Allows the sender to transmit multiple

frames before waiting for an ACK. Both sender and receiver
maintain a "window" of acceptable sequence numbers.

 Go-Back-N ARQ:

 Concept: Sender can transmit up to 'N' frames

without waiting for ACKs. If an error is detected
(timeout, NAK received for a frame), the sender
retransmits that frame and all subsequent frames
that were already sent.

 Advantages: More efficient than Stop-and-Wait,

simpler receiver logic than Selective Repeat.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Disadvantages: Inefficient retransmissions if many

frames are lost or damaged (retransmitting already
correctly received frames).

 Selective Repeat ARQ:

 Concept: Sender transmits multiple frames. If an

error is detected, only the specific damaged or lost
frame is retransmitted. The receiver stores correctly
received out-of-order frames.

 Advantages: Most efficient in terms of

retransmissions, maximizes throughput.

 Disadvantages: More complex receiver logic (needs

larger buffers to store out-of-order frames and
reassemble).

 Error Control Mechanisms:

1. Error Detection:

 Parity Check: Simplest, detects single-bit errors.

 Checksum: Used in IP, TCP, UDP for detecting errors in

headers/segments. Less robust than CRC.

 CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check): Most common and

robust for detecting burst errors in data link layer. (Covered
in Week 7).

2. Error Correction:

 Forward Error Correction (FEC): Sender adds enough

redundant information (e.g., using Hamming codes, Reed-
Solomon codes) so that the receiver can detect and correct
a certain number of errors without retransmission.

 Advantages: No retransmission delay, good for real-

time applications or high-latency links.

 Disadvantages: Adds significant overhead,

increases bandwidth usage.

 ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request): (Already covered in

Flow Control) Relies on detection of errors and then
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

requests retransmission of the affected data. This is the

most common method in data networks.

2. Noiseless Channels

 Definition: Theoretical channels that are assumed to be free from any

form of noise or interference. In such channels, signals are not
impaired, and data can be transmitted without errors.

 Key Concept: The Nyquist Bit Rate formula applies to noiseless

channels, determining the maximum achievable data rate based solely
on bandwidth and the number of signal levels.

 Formula: C=2×B×log2L

o C: Capacity (bits per second)

o B: Bandwidth (Hz)

o L: Number of signal levels

 Relevance: While purely noiseless channels don't exist in practice,

this concept helps in understanding the theoretical limits of a
medium's capacity and in comparing different modulation schemes'
efficiency without the complexity of noise.

3. Noisy Channels

 Definition: Real-world communication channels that are subject to

various forms of noise and interference (thermal noise, impulse noise,
crosstalk, etc.). Signals transmitted over noisy channels are impaired,
leading to potential bit errors.

 Key Concept: The Shannon Capacity formula applies to noisy

channels, determining the theoretical maximum achievable data rate
given the bandwidth and the signal-to-noise ratio.

 Formula: C=B×log2(1+S/N)

o C: Capacity (bits per second)

o B: Bandwidth (Hz)

o S/N: Signal-to-Noise Ratio (power ratio, not dB)

 Implications:
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Noise inherently limits the maximum achievable data rate and

necessitates error control mechanisms.

o For a given bandwidth, higher SNR allows for higher data rates.

o Even with infinite signal power, a finite bandwidth limits the

capacity.

o Even with infinite bandwidth, noise prevents infinite capacity if

the signal power is finite.

 Relevance: Guides the design of real-world communication systems,

indicating the fundamental trade-offs between bandwidth, signal
power, noise, and achievable data rates.

4. Multiple Access

 Definition: In a network where multiple devices share a single

common transmission medium (e.g., a wireless channel, an older bus
Ethernet cable), a Multiple Access Protocol (MAC protocol) is
needed to determine which device can transmit at any given time. This
prevents collisions (when two or more devices transmit simultaneously,
causing data corruption) and ensures fair access to the shared
medium.

 Goal: Efficiently share the single broadcast channel among multiple

competing nodes.

 Categories of Multiple Access Protocols:

1. Random Access Protocols (Contention-based):

 Concept: Nodes transmit whenever they have data. If a

collision occurs, they retransmit after a random delay.

 Examples:

 ALOHA: Simplest, transmits frames whenever ready.

If ACK not received, assumes collision and
retransmits.

 CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access): "Listen

before talk." A station first "senses" the channel. If
busy, it waits. If idle, it transmits.

 CSMA/CD (Collision Detection): Used in

wired Ethernet. Stations listen while
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

transmitting. If a collision is detected (signal

corruption), all transmitting stations stop, send
a jamming signal, and then wait a random
back-off time before retransmitting.

 CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance): Used in

Wireless LANs (Wi-Fi). Due to "hidden
terminal" problem and inability to detect
collisions while transmitting (half-duplex nature
of wireless transceivers), stations try to avoid
collisions. Mechanisms include:

 RTS/CTS (Request To Send/Clear To

Send): Optional handshake to reserve
the channel.

 Network Allocation Vector (NAV):

Stations update their internal timer to
defer access when they hear RTS/CTS or
data frames.

 ACKs: Positive ACKs confirm reception of

data. No ACK implies collision/loss.

 Interframe Space (IFS): Different

waiting times before transmitting, giving
priority to certain frames.

2. Controlled Access Protocols:

 Concept: Stations consult with each other or a central

controller to determine who has the right to transmit. No
collisions.

 Examples:

 Reservation: Stations reserve slots for future

transmission.

 Polling: A primary station "polls" secondary stations

one by one to grant them permission to transmit.

 Token Passing: A special packet called a "token"

circulates among stations. Only the station holding
the token can transmit. After transmitting, it passes
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

the token to the next station. Used in Token Ring and

Token Bus.

3. Channelization Protocols:

 Concept: Divides the single channel into multiple smaller

channels, which are then allocated to different users.

 Examples:

 FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access):

Divides the bandwidth into distinct frequency bands.
Each user gets a unique frequency band.

 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access): Divides

time into time slots. Each user gets a unique time
slot on a shared frequency.

 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): Assigns a

unique code to each user. Users transmit
simultaneously on the same frequency, but their data
is spread using their unique code, allowing receivers
to separate the signals using the same code.

5. Connecting Devices

 Definition: Hardware devices used to interconnect network segments,

extend network reach, or manage traffic flow at different layers of the
OSI model.

 Types (by OSI Layer):

1. Physical Layer Devices (Layer 1):

 Hub (Multiport Repeater):

 Function: Connects multiple devices in a star

topology. Receives a signal on one port and
broadcasts it to all other ports.

 Characteristics: Acts as a shared medium (creates

a single collision domain and single broadcast
domain). No intelligence for traffic management.

 Disadvantage: Can lead to network congestion and

collisions. Obsolete for modern LANs.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Repeater:

 Function: Regenerates (re-amplifies and reshapes) a

weak signal to extend its range.

 Characteristics: Operates purely on the bit level; no

intelligence. Does not segment network.

 Use: Extends cable lengths beyond maximum

specifications.

2. Data Link Layer Devices (Layer 2):

 Bridge:

 Function: Connects two or more LAN segments.

Learns MAC addresses and forwards frames
selectively based on destination MAC address.

 Characteristics: Divides a single collision domain

into multiple collision domains. Creates a single
broadcast domain. Filters traffic.

 Advantage: Reduces collisions, improves

performance compared to hubs.

 Disadvantage: Limited number of ports, does not

filter broadcast traffic. Mostly replaced by switches.

 Switch (Multiport Bridge):

 Function: Essentially a high-speed, multi-port

bridge. Learns MAC addresses of connected devices
and builds a MAC address table. Forwards frames
only to the intended destination port.

 Characteristics: Each port creates its own collision

domain. Creates a single broadcast domain (by
default).

 Advantages: Significantly improves network

performance, reduces collisions, allows full-duplex
communication on each port.

 Applications: Dominant device in modern LANs.

3. Network Layer Devices (Layer 3):

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Router:

 Function: Connects different networks (LANs, WANs)

together. Uses logical (IP) addresses to determine the
best path for forwarding packets between networks.

 Characteristics: Operates at the Network Layer.

Divides broadcast domains (each interface creates a
new broadcast domain). Filters traffic based on IP
addresses.

 Advantages: Enables internetworking, provides

network segmentation, supports complex routing
decisions, security features (firewalls).

 Applications: Connects local networks to the

Internet, connects different subnets within an
organization.

4. Higher Layer Devices:

 Gateway:

 Function: Generally refers to any device that

connects two disparate networks that use different
protocols. Often operates at the Application Layer.

 Example: A router connecting a LAN to the Internet

acts as a gateway. An email gateway translates
between different email protocols.

 Firewall:

 Function: A network security system that monitors

and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic
based on predefined security rules. Can operate at
various layers (packet filtering at Network, proxy at
Application).

6. Wired LAN (Ethernet)

 Definition: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3 standard) is the most dominant wired

Local Area Network (LAN) technology. It defines the physical and data
link layer specifications for wired networks.

 History & Evolution:

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Early Ethernet (10Base5, 10Base2): Used bus topology,

coaxial cable, 10 Mbps speed. Shared medium, used CSMA/CD.

o Modern Ethernet (10Base-T, 100Base-TX, 1000Base-T,

10GbE, 40GbE, 100GbE):

 Topology: Primarily uses Star topology with switches as

central devices.

 Medium: Twisted-pair (UTP) and Fiber Optic cables.

 Speed: Has evolved from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps (Fast

Ethernet), 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet), 10 Gbps (10 Gigabit
Ethernet), and beyond.

 Access Method: Still uses CSMA/CD in half-duplex mode

(e.g., if a hub is used, but hubs are rare). In modern
switched Ethernet, full-duplex communication is dominant,
and CSMA/CD is largely bypassed because collisions are
eliminated at the switch port.

 Key Characteristics:

o Frame Format: Defines a standard frame format for

encapsulating data (Preamble, Start Frame Delimiter, Destination
MAC, Source MAC, Length/Type, Data, Pad, Frame Check
Sequence (CRC)).

o MAC Addressing: Uses 48-bit (6-byte) physical addresses (MAC

addresses) for unique identification of network interfaces.

o Reliability: Ethernet itself is inherently unreliable at the data

link layer (connectionless, best-effort delivery of frames).
Reliability (error recovery, flow control) is primarily handled by
higher layers (e.g., TCP at the Transport Layer).

o Full-Duplex Operation: Modern switches allow simultaneous

sending and receiving, eliminating collisions on individual links.

 Types (common examples):

o 10Base-T: 10 Mbps over UTP (Cat 3 or higher), max 100m.

o 100Base-TX (Fast Ethernet): 100 Mbps over UTP (Cat 5 or

higher), max 100m. Uses 4B/5B encoding.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o 1000Base-T (Gigabit Ethernet): 1 Gbps over UTP (Cat 5e or

higher), max 100m. Uses advanced encoding (PAM-5).

o 1000Base-LX/SX (Gigabit Fiber): 1 Gbps over fiber optic (LX

for long-wavelength/SMF, SX for short-wavelength/MMF).

o 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10GbE): Over fiber or specialized copper,

widely used in data centers and backbone.

7. Wireless LAN (Wi-Fi)

 Definition: Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN), commonly known as

Wi-Fi, is a technology that allows devices to connect to a network and
the Internet using radio waves. It is defined by the IEEE 802.11
family of standards.

 Components:

o Wireless Access Point (WAP/AP): A central device that

connects wireless devices to a wired network. Acts as a bridge.

o Wireless NICs: Adapters in client devices (laptops,

smartphones) that enable wireless communication.

 Key Characteristics:

o Medium: Radio waves (unguided media).

o Topology: Typically a Star topology, with the AP as the central

hub.

o Access Method: CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access

with Collision Avoidance). Due to the "hidden terminal"
problem and difficulty of detecting collisions in wireless, Wi-Fi
avoids collisions rather than detecting them.

 RTS/CTS (Request to Send/Clear to Send): Optional

mechanism to reserve the channel, especially for hidden
terminals.

 ACKs: All data frames require an ACK to confirm successful

reception. If no ACK, assume loss and retransmit.

 Interframe Space (IFS): Used to prioritize access to the

medium.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Half-Duplex: Most Wi-Fi transceivers are half-duplex (cannot

transmit and receive simultaneously on the same frequency).

o Mobility: Allows users to roam within the coverage area while

maintaining connectivity.

 IEEE 802.11 Standards (Evolution):

o 802.11b (1999): 11 Mbps, 2.4 GHz band.

o 802.11a (1999): 54 Mbps, 5 GHz band.

o 802.11g (2003): 54 Mbps, 2.4 GHz band (backward compatible

with 802.11b).

o 802.11n (Wi-Fi 4, 2009): Up to 600 Mbps, 2.4/5 GHz bands.

Introduced MIMO (Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output) for spatial
multiplexing.

o 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5, 2013): Up to Gbps speeds, 5 GHz band.

Enhanced MIMO, wider channels.

o 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6, 2019): Up to 9.6 Gbps, 2.4/5 GHz bands.

Introduced OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access) for multi-user efficiency, TWT (Target Wake Time) for
power saving.

o 802.11be (Wi-Fi 7, upcoming): Even higher speeds, use of 6

GHz band, further enhancements.

 Security: WEP (obsolete), WPA, WPA2 (most common), WPA3.

Encryption and authentication are critical due to the broadcast nature
of wireless.

Week 9: Network Layer: Logical Addressing and Internetworking

1. Network Layer: Logical Addressing

 Definition: The Network Layer (Layer 3) in the OSI model (and the
Internet Layer in TCP/IP) is primarily responsible for logical addressing
and routing packets from a source host to a destination host across
possibly multiple different networks. It handles the end-to-end delivery
of packets.

 Logical Addressing:
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Concept: To enable communication across diverse networks, a

universal addressing scheme independent of the underlying
physical network technology is required. This is called logical
addressing.

o IP Address (Internet Protocol Address): The primary logical

address used in the Internet. Unlike physical (MAC) addresses
which are flat and assigned by manufacturers, IP addresses are
hierarchical and assigned by network administrators (or ISPs).

o Hierarchy: An IP address typically consists of two parts: a

network ID and a host ID. The network ID identifies the specific
network segment, and the host ID identifies a particular device
within that segment. This hierarchy is crucial for efficient routing.

o Role in Routing: Routers use the network ID portion of an IP

address to determine which network segment a packet is
destined for, and then forward the packet accordingly.

2. IPv4 Addressing

 Definition: Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the current

dominant version of the Internet Protocol. It uses a 32-bit logical
address.

 Address Format:

o A 32-bit binary number, usually represented in dotted-decimal

notation (four decimal numbers, each from 0-255, separated by
dots).

o Example: 192.168.1.10

 Address Classes (Classful Addressing - Historical but important

for understanding):

o Originally, IPv4 addresses were divided into classes (A, B, C, D, E)

based on the first few bits of the address, which determined the
default network and host portions.

o Class A: First bit 0. Network ID = first 8 bits. Large networks.

(e.g., 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255)

o Class B: First two bits 10. Network ID = first 16 bits. Medium

networks. (e.g., 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255)
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Class C: First three bits 110. Network ID = first 24 bits. Small

networks. (e.g., 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255)

o Class D: Multicast addresses.

o Class E: Experimental.

o Limitations of Classful Addressing: Inefficient use of address

space (e.g., a Class B network uses 65,534 addresses even if
only 200 hosts are needed), led to exhaustion of IPv4 addresses.

 Classless Addressing (CIDR - Classless Inter-Domain Routing):

o Definition: The modern approach to IPv4 addressing, which has

largely replaced classful addressing. It uses a subnet mask to
explicitly define the network and host portion of an IP address,
rather than relying on inherent class boundaries.

o CIDR Notation: An IP address followed by a slash and a number

(e.g., 192.168.1.0/24). The number after the slash indicates the
number of bits in the network prefix (or subnet mask).

o Subnet Mask: A 32-bit number that identifies the network

portion of an IP address. It has 1s for the network bits and 0s for
the host bits.

 Example: For 192.168.1.0/24, the subnet mask is

255.255.255.0 (which is
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 in binary).

o Advantages: More efficient use of IP address space, supports

flexible network sizing, enables hierarchical routing.

 Special IPv4 Addresses:

o Network Address: All host bits are 0. Identifies the network

itself. (e.g., 192.168.1.0/24)

o Broadcast Address: All host bits are 1. Used to send data to all
hosts on a specific network. (e.g., 192.168.1.255/24)

o Loopback Address: 127.0.0.1 (or 127.0.0.0/8). Used for testing

network stack on a local machine.

o Private IP Addresses (RFC 1918):

 Ranges: 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, 192.168.0.0/16.

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Purpose: Reserved for use within private networks (LANs).

They are not routable on the public Internet.

 NAT (Network Address Translation): Used to translate

private IP addresses to public IP addresses when devices in
a private network need to access the Internet.

 IPv4 Address Exhaustion: The primary reason for the development

of IPv6, as the 32-bit address space was insufficient for the growing
number of internet-connected devices.

3. IPv6 Addressing

 Definition: Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the next

generation of the Internet Protocol, designed to replace IPv4. Its
primary motivation was to address the IPv4 address exhaustion
problem.

 Address Format:

o A 128-bit logical address.

o Represented in hexadecimal notation, grouped into eight 16-

bit segments, separated by colons.

o Example: 2001:0DB8:85A3:0000:0000:8A2E:0370:7334

o Simplification Rules:

 Leading zeros in any 16-bit segment can be omitted (e.g.,

0000 becomes 0).

 A single contiguous sequence of all-zero segments can be

replaced by a double colon :: (can only be used once in an
address).

 Example (simplified): 2001:DB8:85A3::8A2E:370:7334

 Advantages over IPv4:

o Vastly Larger Address Space: 2128 addresses provides an

essentially unlimited number of addresses for the foreseeable
future.

o Simplified Header: More efficient processing by routers due to

a streamlined header with fewer fields.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Improved Security: IPSec (IP Security) is built-in and

mandatory (though often selectively applied) for IPv6, providing
authentication and encryption.

o Auto-configuration: Supports stateless auto-configuration

(SLAAC), allowing devices to automatically generate their own IP
addresses.

o Better Support for Mobility: Designed with mobility in mind.

o No Broadcasts: Replaced by multicast (to groups) and anycast

(to closest of a group), reducing network overhead.

 Types of IPv6 Addresses:

o Unicast Address: Identifies a single network interface.

 Global Unicast: Globally unique, routable on the Internet

(like public IPv4). Starts with 2000::/3.

 Link-Local: Used for communication only within a single

local network segment (like APIPA for IPv4). Starts with
FE80::/10. Not routable.

 Unique Local: Routable within a private network, not

routable on the global Internet (like private IPv4). Starts
with FC00::/7.

o Multicast Address: Identifies a group of interfaces. Packets

sent to a multicast address are delivered to all interfaces in the
group. Starts with FF00::/8.

o Anycast Address: Identifies a group of interfaces, but packets

sent to an anycast address are delivered to the closest interface
in the group (based on routing protocols).

o Loopback Address: ::1

o Unspecified Address: :: (all zeros), used as a source address

when a device doesn't have an IP address yet.

 Transition from IPv4 to IPv6:

o Dual Stack: Devices run both IPv4 and IPv6 protocol stacks
simultaneously.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Tunneling: IPv6 packets are encapsulated within IPv4 packets to

traverse IPv4-only networks.

o Translation (NAT64): Translates between IPv6 and IPv4

addresses.

4. Internetworking and Subnetting

 Internetworking:

o Definition: The process of connecting disparate networks (LANs,

WANs) to create a larger, unified network. The Internet is the
quintessential example of internetworking.

o Role of IP: The Internet Protocol (IP) is the key protocol that
enables internetworking by providing a universal logical
addressing scheme and routing capabilities across different
physical network technologies.

o Role of Routers: Routers are the primary devices that perform

internetworking by forwarding packets between different
networks based on their IP addresses.

 Subnetting:

o Definition: The practice of dividing a single large network (a

single IP address range) into smaller, logical subnetworks
(subnets). Each subnet has its own unique network ID.

o Purpose:

1. Efficient IP Address Utilization: Allows for better

allocation of IP addresses, preventing waste of addresses
from large classful blocks.

2. Reduced Network Congestion: Breaking a large network

into smaller subnets reduces the size of broadcast
domains. Broadcasts are contained within their subnet,
leading to less unnecessary traffic on other segments.

3. Improved Network Performance: Smaller broadcast

domains and reduced traffic lead to better overall
performance.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

4. Enhanced Security: Subnets can be isolated and

protected by firewalls, providing more granular security
control.

5. Easier Network Management: Simplifies

troubleshooting and administration by segmenting the
network into logical units.

o How it Works:

 Instead of using the default classful subnet mask, the

network administrator "borrows" bits from the host portion
of the IP address to create additional network bits.

 The subnet mask is then used to differentiate between

the network part, the subnet part, and the host part of the
IP address.

 Example: A Class C network 192.168.1.0/24 (default

255.255.255.0) can be subnetted. If you borrow 3 bits from
the host portion, the new subnet mask is 255.255.255.224
(/27). This creates 8 subnets, each capable of supporting
30 hosts.

 Number of subnets = 2number of borrowed bits

 Number of usable hosts per subnet =

2number of host bits−2 (subtracting network and
broadcast addresses)

o VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Masking):

 Definition: An extension of subnetting that allows using

different subnet mask lengths within the same major
network address.

 Purpose: Provides even greater flexibility and efficiency in

IP address allocation by allowing network administrators to
create subnets of varying sizes to match the specific needs
of different network segments.

 Advantage: Minimizes IP address waste, especially critical

in public IP address allocation.

Computer Networks - BS 3rd Semester Notes (Continued)

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

Week 10: Address Mapping and Routing Protocols

1. Address Mapping

 Definition: Address mapping is the process of translating one type of

address into another. In networking, it primarily involves converting a
logical address (IP address) to a physical address (MAC
address), and vice versa. This translation is crucial because the
Network Layer uses logical addresses for routing, while the Data Link
Layer uses physical addresses for frame delivery on a local network
segment.

 Why it's needed:

o IP addresses are used for end-to-end communication across the

internet.

o MAC addresses are used for hop-by-hop delivery within a local

network segment (LAN).

o When an IP packet needs to be sent to a device on the same

local network, the sender needs to know the destination's MAC
address to put into the Ethernet frame.

o When a router forwards a packet to the next hop on its routing

path, it needs to find the MAC address of that next hop (either
another router or the final destination host if it's on the directly
connected network).

 Key Protocols for Address Mapping:

1. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):

 Function: Maps an IPv4 address to a MAC address. It's

used by a host to find the MAC address of another host or a
router on the same local network, given its IP address.

 How it works:

1. A source host needs to send an IP packet to a

destination IP address (DIP) on the same LAN, but it
only knows the DIP.

2. The source broadcasts an ARP Request onto the

local network. The request contains the DIP and asks,
"Who has this IP address? Tell me your MAC."
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

3. The host with the matching IP address replies with an

ARP Reply, containing its MAC address.

4. The source host receives the ARP Reply and caches

the IP-to-MAC mapping in its ARP table for future
use.

 Dynamic Resolution: ARP provides dynamic resolution,

meaning mappings are learned on demand and are
temporary.

2. RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol):

 Function: Maps a MAC address to an IPv4 address. It's

used by diskless workstations or devices that don't have
their IP address pre-configured.

 How it works: A diskless station broadcasts an RARP

Request containing its MAC address, asking an RARP server
for its IP address. The RARP server responds with the
corresponding IP address.

 Status: RARP is largely obsolete, replaced by more flexible

protocols like BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol) and DHCP
(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) for dynamic IP
address assignment.

3. DNS (Domain Name System):

 While not directly mapping IP to MAC, DNS is a crucial

mapping service in networking.

 Function: Maps human-readable domain names (e.g.,

https://www.google.com/search?q=google.com) to IP
addresses (e.g., 142.250.190.46).

 Why it's needed: Users remember names more easily

than numbers. Before a computer can connect to a
website, it must resolve the domain name to an IP address.

2. ICMP Protocol

 Definition: The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a

network-layer protocol used by network devices, including routers, to
send error messages and operational information indicating, for
example, that a requested service is not available or that a host or
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

router could not be reached. It's often considered an integral part of IP,
not a separate protocol running on top of IP.

 Purpose:

o Error Reporting: Informs the source host about problems

encountered in delivering an IP datagram.

o Network Diagnostics: Used for troubleshooting and testing

network connectivity.

 Key Characteristics:

o Unreliable: ICMP messages are sent as IP datagrams and are

therefore unreliable (no guarantee of delivery).

o Not for Applications: ICMP is typically not used directly by user

applications. Instead, it informs the Network layer of issues.

 Common ICMP Message Types (Examples):

1. Destination Unreachable:

 Purpose: Sent by a router when it cannot deliver a

datagram to its destination.

 Codes: Indicate specific reasons (e.g., "network

unreachable," "host unreachable," "port unreachable,"
"fragmentation needed and DF bit set").

 Example: If you try to connect to a server that is offline,

your router might send you an ICMP Destination
Unreachable message.

2. Time Exceeded (TTL Exceeded):

 Purpose: Sent by a router when the Time-to-Live (TTL)

field of an IP datagram reaches zero. This prevents packets
from looping indefinitely in the network.

 Example: The traceroute (or tracert) command uses ICMP

Time Exceeded messages to map the path a packet takes
to a destination.

3. Redirect:
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Purpose: Sent by a router to a host on its directly

connected network, informing the host about a better
(shorter) route to a specific destination.

 Example: If a host sends packets to Router A, but Router A

knows Router B is a more direct path to the destination,
Router A can send an ICMP Redirect to the host.

4. Echo Request/Reply (Ping):

 Purpose: Used to test connectivity and measure round-

trip time between two hosts.

 ping command: Sends an ICMP Echo Request; if the

destination is reachable, it sends an ICMP Echo Reply. This
is one of the most common network diagnostic tools.

5. Source Quench (Deprecated):

 Historically used to tell a sender to slow down its

transmission rate due to congestion. Largely replaced by
TCP's congestion control mechanisms.

3. Routing Protocol

 Definition: Routing protocols are sets of rules and algorithms that

routers use to exchange routing information with each other. This
information allows routers to build and maintain routing tables, which
contain the paths (routes) to various network destinations and
determine the best path for forwarding IP packets.

 Purpose: To enable routers to learn about network topologies,

available paths, and the "cost" (metric) associated with those paths, so
they can make informed decisions about where to send packets to
reach their ultimate destination efficiently.

 Key Concepts:

o Routing Table: A database on a router that stores information

about known network destinations and the next-hop router (or
directly connected interface) to reach those destinations.

o Metric: A value used by routing protocols to determine the

"best" path to a destination. Lower metrics typically indicate
better paths. Common metrics include hop count, bandwidth,
delay, load, cost, or a combination.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Convergence: The state where all routers in a network have

consistent and up-to-date routing tables. Faster convergence
means faster network adaptation to changes.

o Autonomous System (AS): A collection of IP networks and

routers under the control of one or more network operators that
presents a common, clearly defined routing policy to the
Internet.

 Categories of Routing Protocols:

1. Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs):

 Purpose: Used for routing within an Autonomous System

(AS). They focus on finding the best paths within a single
administrative domain.

 Examples:

 RIP (Routing Information Protocol): Distance-

Vector protocol, uses hop count as metric, simpler,
scales poorly for large networks.

 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): Link-State

protocol, uses cost based on bandwidth, scales well,
faster convergence, more complex.

 EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing

Protocol): Cisco proprietary, hybrid protocol, fast
convergence, complex metrics.

2. Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs):

 Purpose: Used for routing between different Autonomous

Systems (ASs). They exchange routing information
(reachability information for entire networks/ASs) and
enforce routing policies across different administrative
domains.

 Example:

 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): The only EGP

used on the Internet. It's a Path-Vector protocol. BGP
routers exchange reachability information and policy
rules rather than just metrics. It's highly complex and
crucial for the Internet's global routing.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

Week 11: Unicast Routing, Transport Layer (UDP, TCP)

1. Unicast Routing Protocol

 Definition: Unicast routing protocols are specific types of routing

protocols (both IGPs and EGPs) that are designed to find paths for
unicast traffic. Unicast communication involves sending data from a
single source to a single destination.

 Goal: To determine the single best path for a packet to travel from a
source host to a single destination host across the network.

 How they work:

o Routers running unicast routing protocols exchange information

about network prefixes (IP address ranges) and the metrics to
reach them.

o They use algorithms (e.g., Distance-Vector, Link-State) to

calculate the shortest or most preferred path to each destination.

o This information is then populated into the router's IP routing

table.

 Types of Unicast Routing Protocols (Revisiting from Week 10

with more detail):

1. Distance-Vector Routing Protocols:

 Concept: Each router periodically exchanges its entire

routing table with its directly connected neighbors. Routers
then update their own tables based on the information
received, always choosing the path with the lowest
"distance" (metric).

 "Routing by rumor": Routers learn routes from their

neighbors' advertisements.

 Metric: Typically hop count (number of routers to reach

destination).

 Advantages: Simple to configure and manage, low

processing overhead.

 Disadvantages:
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Slow Convergence: Takes longer for changes (e.g.,

link failures) to propagate through the network.

 Routing Loops: Prone to routing loops (packets

endlessly circling) if updates are slow or
inconsistencies occur.

 Count-to-Infinity Problem: A serious issue where a

route failure can lead to infinite loops in metrics.

 Example: RIP (Routing Information Protocol)

 Uses hop count (max 15 hops, 16 is unreachable).

 Periodic updates (e.g., every 30 seconds).

 Small networks only.

2. Link-State Routing Protocols:

 Concept: Each router builds a complete "map" or topology

of the entire network. It does this by:

1. Discovering Neighbors: Sends Hello packets to

identify directly connected routers.

2. Exchanging Link-State Advertisements (LSAs):

Each router originates LSAs containing information
about its directly connected links (status, cost) and
sends them to all other routers in the AS (flooding).

3. Building Link-State Database (LSDB): Each

router compiles all received LSAs to form a complete
network topology database.

4. Running SPF (Shortest Path First) Algorithm

(Dijkstra's Algorithm): Each router independently
runs this algorithm on its LSDB to calculate the
shortest path to all other destinations.

5. Populating Routing Table: The calculated best

paths are inserted into the routing table.

 "Routing by map": Each router has a comprehensive

view of the network.

 Metric: Usually cost based on bandwidth.

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Advantages:

 Fast Convergence: Rapidly adapts to network

changes.

 Loop-Free Paths: Algorithm guarantees loop-free

paths.

 Better Scaling: More suitable for large and complex

networks.

 More Robust: Less prone to errors.

 Disadvantages: More complex to configure and manage,

higher processing and memory requirements for routers.

 Example: OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

 Supports hierarchical routing (areas).

 Uses Dijkstra's algorithm.

 Widely used in large enterprise networks.

3. Path-Vector Routing Protocols:

 Concept: Each router sends updates that include the

destination network prefix and the entire path (sequence of
ASs) that packets must traverse to reach that destination.
Routers make routing decisions based on these paths,
policies, and metrics.

 Metric: Not based on simple hop count or link cost, but on

AS paths and policy decisions.

 Advantages: Highly scalable, provides granular policy

control over routing, prevents routing loops at the AS level
by detecting own AS in path.

 Disadvantages: Very complex to configure and manage,

higher overhead than IGPs.

 Example: BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)

 The routing protocol of the Internet.

 Focuses on inter-AS routing and policy enforcement.

2. Transport Layer: UDP and TCP

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Definition: The Transport Layer (Layer 4) in the OSI model (and the
"Transport Layer" or "Host-to-Host Layer" in TCP/IP) provides end-to-
end communication between processes (applications) running on
different hosts. It handles multiplexing, demultiplexing, and ensures
reliable or unreliable data transfer.

 Key Functions:

1. Process-to-Process Delivery (Port Addressing): Extends

host-to-host delivery (provided by Network Layer) to application-
to-application delivery using port numbers.

2. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: Allows multiple

applications to share a single network connection.

 Multiplexing: Combining data from multiple application

processes into a single stream for transmission.

 Demultiplexing: Delivering incoming data segments to

the correct application process based on port numbers.

3. Error Control (for TCP): Ensures that all data segments arrive
at the destination correctly and in order.

4. Flow Control (for TCP): Prevents the sender from

overwhelming the receiver.

5. Congestion Control (for TCP): Prevents the network from

becoming overloaded.

 Two Main Transport Layer Protocols:

1. UDP (User Datagram Protocol):

 Type: Connectionless and unreliable protocol.

 "Best-effort" delivery: It sends data without establishing

a connection, acknowledgment, flow control, or error
recovery (beyond basic checksum).

 Segment Header: Minimal overhead (Source Port,

Destination Port, Length, Checksum).

 Advantages:

 Fast: No connection setup, no acknowledgments,

minimal overhead.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Low Latency: Suitable for real-time applications

where speed is more critical than perfect reliability.

 Simple: Less complex to implement.

 Disadvantages:

 Unreliable: No guaranteed delivery, no order

guarantee, no duplicate protection.

 No Flow Control: Sender can overwhelm receiver.

 No Congestion Control: Can contribute to network

congestion.

 Applications:

 VoIP (Voice over IP), Video Conferencing: Small

data loss is acceptable for perceived continuity.

 Online Gaming: Real-time updates are more

important than guaranteed delivery.

 DNS (Domain Name System): Quick, small queries

and responses.

 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol):

Network management.

2. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

 Type: Connection-oriented and reliable protocol.

 Guaranteed delivery: Provides full-duplex, reliable,

ordered, and error-checked delivery of data segments.

 Three-way Handshake: Establishes a connection before

data transfer (SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK).

 Flow Control: Uses a sliding window mechanism to

prevent receiver overflow.

 Congestion Control: Dynamically adjusts transmission

rate to prevent network congestion.

 Error Control: Uses sequence numbers,

acknowledgments (ACKs), and retransmissions (ARQ) to
ensure all segments arrive correctly and in order.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Segment Header: Much larger header than UDP,

containing sequence numbers, ACK numbers, window size,
flags (SYN, ACK, FIN, RST, PSH, URG), etc.

 Advantages:

 Reliable Data Transfer: Guarantees delivery and

order.

 Flow Control: Prevents receiver buffer overflow.

 Congestion Control: Adapts to network conditions.

 Disadvantages:

 Higher Overhead: Connection setup,

acknowledgments, and larger header add overhead.

 Slower: Due to reliability mechanisms.

 Applications:

 HTTP/HTTPS (Web Browse): Ensures web pages

load completely.

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Guarantees file

integrity.

 SMTP (Email): Ensures emails are delivered

correctly.

 SSH (Secure Shell): Reliable remote access.

3. Process-to-Process Delivery

 Definition: Refers to the Transport Layer's ability to deliver a message

from a specific application process on the source host to a specific
application process on the destination host. The Network Layer (IP)
handles host-to-host delivery, but it doesn't know which application on
a host should receive the data.

 Role of Port Numbers:

o Concept: The Transport Layer uses port numbers (16-bit

integers) to identify specific application processes running on a
host.

o Client/Server Model:
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Server Processes: Typically use well-known port

numbers (0-1023) assigned by IANA (Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority). E.g., HTTP (port 80), HTTPS (port 443),
FTP (port 21/20), SMTP (port 25), DNS (port 53).

 Client Processes: Typically use ephemeral

(dynamic/private) port numbers (1024-65535)
assigned randomly by the operating system for the
duration of the communication.

o Socket Address: A combination of an IP address and a port

number (e.g., 192.168.1.10:80). This uniquely identifies a
specific process on a specific host for communication.

 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing (Revisit):

o Multiplexing (at Sender): The Transport Layer takes data from

multiple application processes (identified by their source port
numbers) and combines them into segments, adding the
appropriate source and destination port numbers to the segment
header.

o Demultiplexing (at Receiver): The Transport Layer at the

destination host receives segments, reads the destination port
number in the header, and delivers the segment's data payload
to the correct application process listening on that port.

4. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

 Definition: Already covered above as one of the two main Transport

Layer protocols.

 Key points for notes:

o Connectionless: No setup, no teardown.

o Unreliable: No guarantees of delivery, order, or duplication.

o Minimal Overhead: Small header (8 bytes).

o Checksum: Optional checksum for error detection, but no

recovery mechanism.

o No Flow Control, No Congestion Control: Sender sends data

as fast as it can.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Suitable for: Applications where speed and low overhead are

more important than reliability, and where occasional data loss is
acceptable or handled by the application layer.

5. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

 Definition: Already covered above as one of the two main Transport

Layer protocols.

 Key points for notes:

o Connection-Oriented: Establishes, maintains, and terminates

connections using a three-way handshake.

o Reliable: Guarantees delivery of all segments.

 Sequence Numbers: Orders segments and detects

missing/duplicate segments.

 Acknowledgments (ACKs): Confirms receipt of data.

 Retransmission: Resends unacknowledged segments.

o Full-Duplex: Allows simultaneous bidirectional data transfer.

o Stream-Oriented: Presents data to the application as a

continuous stream of bytes, hiding segmentation details.

o Flow Control (Sliding Window): Prevents receiver buffer

overflow.

o Congestion Control: Prevents network congestion (slow start,

congestion avoidance, fast retransmit, fast recovery).

o Error Control: Through checksums and ARQ.

o Higher Overhead: Due to connection management and

reliability mechanisms.

o Suitable for: Applications requiring high reliability and ordered

data delivery, where some delay is acceptable.

Week 12: Congestion and Flow Control

1. Congestion
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Definition: Network congestion occurs when the demand for network

resources (such as bandwidth, router buffer space, or CPU processing
power) exceeds the available capacity. This leads to degraded network
performance.

 Symptoms of Congestion:

1. Increased Delay (Latency): Packets spend more time waiting

in router queues (queuing delay).

2. Increased Packet Loss: Router buffers overflow, causing

routers to drop incoming packets.

3. Reduced Throughput: The effective data rate through the

network decreases, even though the sending rate might be high.

4. Retransmissions: Packet loss triggers retransmissions, which

further adds to the traffic and exacerbates congestion (a positive
feedback loop).

5. Jitter: Variability in delay increases.

 Causes of Congestion:

1. Insufficient Bandwidth: The capacity of a link is too low for the

aggregate traffic.

2. Limited Buffer Space: Routers have finite memory to buffer

packets.

3. Slow Processing Routers: Routers cannot process packets fast

enough, leading to queue buildup.

4. Excessive Traffic: Too many senders trying to transmit data

simultaneously.

5. Hot Spots: A specific router or link becomes a bottleneck due to

concentrated traffic.

6. Incorrect Routing: Packets might be routed suboptimally,

leading to certain links being overloaded.

 Congestion Collapse: A severe state of network congestion where

network throughput drops to nearly zero due to an endless cycle of
retransmissions filling the network. This was a significant problem in
the early Internet before robust congestion control mechanisms were
developed.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

2. Congestion Control

 Definition: Congestion control refers to the mechanisms and

algorithms used to prevent or reduce network congestion and ensure
network stability. Its goal is to allow the network to operate efficiently
at high load and to recover gracefully from periods of overload. It is
primarily implemented at the Transport Layer (TCP) and also
involves network layer components.

 Distinction from Flow Control:

o Flow Control: Prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a

slow receiver (point-to-point, end-to-end between two hosts).

o Congestion Control: Prevents a fast sender from

overwhelming the network (many-to-one, from sender to
network).

 Approaches to Congestion Control:

1. Open-Loop Congestion Control (Prevention):

 Concept: Policies are applied to prevent congestion from

occurring in the first place, without relying on feedback
from the network about current congestion levels.

 Methods:

 Retransmission Policies: Design retransmission

timers carefully.

 Window Policies: Use appropriate window sizes

(e.g., in TCP).

 Admission Control: Refuse new connections if the

network is likely to become congested.

 Routing Algorithms: Choose routes that avoid

congested areas.

 Scheduling: Prioritize packets at routers (e.g., QoS).

 Layer: Can be implemented at various layers.

2. Closed-Loop Congestion Control (Remedy):

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Concept: Network elements (routers or receivers) detect

congestion and provide feedback to the senders, which
then reduce their transmission rate.

 Methods:

 Backpressure: A congested node informs the

previous node to slow down. (Not typically used in IP
networks).

 Choke Packet: A router experiencing congestion

sends a "choke packet" (e.g., ICMP Source Quench,
though deprecated) back to the source to tell it to
reduce its rate.

 Implicit Signaling (TCP Congestion Control):

TCP senders infer congestion from network events
(e.g., packet loss or increased RTT) and adjust their
sending rate. This is the dominant method for the
Internet.

 TCP Congestion Control Mechanisms (Key Algorithms): TCP

implements several intertwined algorithms to manage congestion:

1. Slow Start:

 Concept: When a TCP connection begins (or after a

prolonged idle period/timeout), the sender starts with a
very small congestion window (cwnd) (e.g., 1 or 2
segments). It increases cwnd exponentially (by 1 segment
for each ACK received) until a threshold (ssthresh) is
reached or loss occurs.

 Purpose: To quickly determine the network's capacity

without overwhelming it immediately.

2. Congestion Avoidance:

 Concept: Once cwnd reaches ssthresh, TCP switches to a

linear increase strategy. cwnd is increased by one segment
for each Round-Trip Time (RTT) (or every time all
segments in the current window are acknowledged).

 Purpose: To probe for additional bandwidth cautiously and

avoid creating new congestion.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

3. Fast Retransmit:

 Concept: If a receiver gets three duplicate ACKs for a

segment, it indicates that the next expected segment was
likely lost (rather than waiting for a timeout). The sender
immediately retransmits the missing segment without
waiting for a timeout.

 Purpose: To recover from single packet losses quickly

without invoking Slow Start.

4. Fast Recovery:

 Concept: After a Fast Retransmit, TCP enters Fast

Recovery (bypassing Slow Start) and reduces its cwnd by
half, then resumes congestion avoidance.

 Purpose: To continue data transmission quickly after a

minor loss event. <!-- end list -->

o Timeout: If a retransmission timeout occurs (indicating severe

congestion), TCP resets cwnd to 1 and restarts Slow Start.

3. Flow Control

 Definition: Flow control is a mechanism that prevents a sender from

transmitting data at a rate faster than the receiver can process and
absorb it. It ensures that the receiver's buffer does not overflow,
leading to data loss. Flow control is primarily a point-to-point (or
end-to-end between two hosts) mechanism.

 Distinction from Congestion Control:

o Flow Control: Deals with the capacity of the receiver's buffer.

o Congestion Control: Deals with the capacity of the network

path between sender and receiver.

 Mechanism (TCP Flow Control - Sliding Window):

o TCP uses a sliding window protocol to implement flow control.

o Receiver Window (rwnd): The receiver advertises its available

buffer space (its "receiver window") to the sender in TCP ACK
segments.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Sender's Window: The sender's effective window size is the

minimum of its congestion window (cwnd) (from congestion
control) and the receiver window (rwnd) (from flow control).
This ensures the sender doesn't overload either the network or
the receiver.

o How it works:

1. The receiver tells the sender how many bytes it can

currently receive (the rwnd value).

2. The sender will not send more data than allowed by the
rwnd.

3. As the receiver processes data from its buffer, its rwnd

increases, and it advertises the new, larger window size to
the sender, allowing the sender to transmit more data.

o Zero Window: If the receiver's buffer becomes full, it advertises

a rwnd of zero. The sender then stops sending data until the
receiver advertises a non-zero window. This prevents buffer
overflow at the receiver.

 Advantages:

o Prevents receiver buffer overflow.

o Ensures reliable data transfer by managing the rate between two

communicating endpoints.

 Disadvantages: Can lead to reduced throughput if the receiver is

consistently slow or if its advertised window is too small.

Computer Networks - BS 3rd Semester Notes (Continued)

Week 13: Application Layer Protocols - Web & Email

1. Application Layer (Revisited)

 Definition: The Application Layer (Layer 7) is the topmost layer in

the OSI model (and the combined Application Layer in TCP/IP). It
provides network services directly to end-user applications. It's the
layer users interact with, enabling various network applications to
function.

 Role:
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Provides user interfaces and services to access network

resources.

o Handles data formatting, encryption, and compression (often

relying on Presentation Layer functions, which are often
integrated into the Application Layer in TCP/IP).

o Interacts with the Transport Layer (TCP/UDP) to send and receive

data.

 Examples of Protocols: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SMTP, POP3, IMAP, DNS,

SSH, Telnet, SNMP.

2. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

 Definition: The foundation of data communication for the World Wide

Web. It's an Application Layer protocol for transmitting hypermedia
documents, such as HTML.

 Characteristics:

o Client-Server Model: A web browser (client) sends requests to

a web server, and the server sends responses back.

o Stateless: Each request from a client to the server is treated as

an independent transaction. The server does not retain
information about past client requests.

 Implication: For persistent information (like shopping

carts), mechanisms like cookies (client-side data) or
session IDs (server-side data linked to a cookie) are used.

o Connectionless (originally): In HTTP 1.0, a new TCP

connection was established for each request/response pair and
then closed.

o Persistent Connections (HTTP 1.1 and later): Allows

multiple requests and responses to be sent over a single,
persistent TCP connection, reducing overhead.

o Port: Default port is 80 (for non-secure HTTP).

 HTTP Message Types:

o Request Message: Sent by the client to the server.

 Components:
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Request Line: Method (GET, POST, HEAD, PUT,

DELETE, etc.), URL, HTTP Version.

 Headers: Provide additional information (e.g., Host,

User-Agent, Accept-Language, Connection).

 Body (optional): Contains data for methods like

POST (e.g., form data).

o Response Message: Sent by the server to the client.

 Components:

 Status Line: HTTP Version, Status Code (e.g., 200

OK, 404 Not Found, 500 Internal Server Error),
Reason Phrase.

 Headers: Provide additional information (e.g.,

Server, Content-Type, Content-Length, Set-Cookie).

 Body (optional): Contains the requested resource

(e.g., HTML page, image).

 HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure):

o Definition: HTTP operating over SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets

Layer/Transport Layer Security). It encrypts the
communication between the client and server.

o Purpose: Provides confidentiality (prevents eavesdropping),

integrity (prevents tampering), and authentication (verifies
server identity, sometimes client identity).

o Port: Default port is 443.

o Key Concept: Uses public-key cryptography (for initial

handshake and key exchange) and symmetric-key cryptography
(for bulk data encryption). Relies on digital certificates issued by
Certificate Authorities (CAs) to verify server identity.

3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

 Definition: An Application Layer protocol used for transferring files

between a client and a server on a computer network.

 Characteristics:
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Client-Server Model: Client initiates connections and requests

file transfers from the server.

o Two TCP Connections: FTP uses two separate TCP connections:

1. Control Connection (Port 21): Used for sending

commands (e.g., login, list directory, get file, put file) and
receiving responses. This connection remains open
throughout the FTP session.

2. Data Connection (Port 20 by default for active mode,

or dynamically assigned for passive mode): Used for
the actual transfer of file data. This connection is opened
and closed for each file transfer.

o Active Mode vs. Passive Mode:

 Active Mode: Client sends its IP and port to the server via
the control connection. The server then initiates the data
connection from its port 20 to the client's specified port.
Often problematic with firewalls.

 Passive Mode (preferred): Client sends a PASV

command to the server. The server then tells the client
which arbitrary port to connect to for the data connection.
The client initiates both connections. More firewall-friendly.

 Security: FTP transmits credentials (username/password) and data in

plaintext, making it insecure.

o Secure Alternatives: SFTP (SSH File Transfer Protocol) or

FTPS (FTP over SSL/TLS) are used for secure file transfer.

 Use Cases: Uploading/downloading files to/from web servers,

transferring large files.

4. Electronic Mail (Email) Protocols

 Definition: A suite of Application Layer protocols that enable the

sending, receiving, and managing of electronic messages.

 Components of Email System:

o Mail User Agent (MUA): The email client software (e.g.,

Outlook, Gmail web interface) that users interact with.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Mail Transfer Agent (MTA): Mail servers (e.g., Postfix,

Exchange) that transfer emails between different email servers.

o Mail Access Agent (MAA): Protocols used by MUAs to retrieve

emails from their local mail server.

 Key Email Protocols:

1. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

 Purpose: Primarily used for sending emails from a client

to a mail server, or between mail servers.

 Characteristics:

 Uses TCP Port 25 for server-to-server

communication.

 Uses TCP Port 587 (submission port) for client-to-

server sending (with authentication).

 Push Protocol: Client or server pushes the email to

the next hop.

 Originally designed for text-only messages; MIME

(Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) extended it
for multimedia attachments.

 Operation: A series of commands and responses between

client/server (e.g., HELO, MAIL FROM, RCPT TO, DATA,
QUIT).

2. POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3):

 Purpose: Used by an MUA to retrieve emails from a

mail server.

 Characteristics:

 Uses TCP Port 110 (secure: 995 for POP3S).

 "Store and Forward" Model: By default, emails are

downloaded to the client and deleted from the
server. This is why it's called "post office" – you pick
up your mail and it's gone.

 Simple: Limited features.

 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Disadvantage: Hard to synchronize email across multiple

devices.

3. IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol):

 Purpose: Used by an MUA to access and manage

emails on a mail server.

 Characteristics:

 Uses TCP Port 143 (secure: 993 for IMAPS).

 "Sync" Model: Emails are kept on the server by

default. Clients synchronize their view with the
server.

 Advanced Features: Allows creating folders,

searching, marking messages as read/unread, and
accessing emails from multiple devices.

 Advantage: Ideal for users who access email from various

devices.

Week 14: Application Layer Protocols - DNS & DHCP

1. DNS (Domain Name System)

 Definition: A hierarchical and decentralized naming system for

computers, services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a
private network. It translates human-readable domain names (like
www.example.com) into machine-readable IP addresses (like
192.0.2.1 or 2001:db8::1).

 Purpose: Makes the Internet easier to use by allowing users to

remember simple names instead of complex numerical IP addresses.
Essential for almost all Internet services.

 Client-Server Model:

o DNS Resolver (Client): Typically built into operating systems

and used by applications. It sends DNS queries.

o DNS Servers: Store and provide DNS information.

 Hierarchical Structure: DNS is organized as a tree structure with

different levels of domains.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

1. Root Servers: At the top of the hierarchy. There are 13 logical

root server addresses globally. They know where to find TLD
servers.

2. TLD (Top-Level Domain) Servers: Manage domains

like .com, .org, .net, .edu, .gov, and country code TLDs
like .pk, .uk. They know where to find authoritative name servers.

3. Authoritative Name Servers: Store the actual DNS records for

specific domain names (e.g., example.com). They are the final
authority for a domain.

 How DNS Resolution Works (Recursive Query Example):

1. A user types www.example.com into a browser.

2. The user's computer (DNS resolver) checks its local DNS cache. If
found, it uses that.

3. If not in cache, the resolver sends a recursive query to its

configured local DNS server (e.g., ISP's DNS server).

4. The local DNS server:

 Checks its cache.

 If not found, it queries a root server. The root server

responds with the IP address of the .com TLD server.

 The local DNS server queries the .com TLD server. The TLD
server responds with the IP address of example.com's
authoritative name server.

 The local DNS server queries the example.com

authoritative name server. This server responds with the IP
address of www.example.com.

5. The local DNS server returns the IP address to the user's

computer, and also caches the record.

6. The user's computer then uses this IP address to connect to

www.example.com.

 DNS Record Types (Resource Records):

o A record: Maps a domain name to an IPv4 address.

(example.com -> 192.0.2.1)
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o AAAA record: Maps a domain name to an IPv6 address.

(example.com -> 2001:db8::1)

o CNAME record: Canonical Name. Creates an alias from one

domain name to another. (www.example.com -> example.com)

o MX record: Mail Exchange. Specifies the mail servers

responsible for handling email for a domain.

o NS record: Name Server. Lists the authoritative name servers

for a domain.

o PTR record: Pointer record. Maps an IP address to a domain

name (for reverse DNS lookups).

 Protocol: Uses UDP Port 53 for standard queries (for speed). Uses
TCP Port 53 for zone transfers and larger responses.

2. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

 Definition: An Application Layer protocol used to dynamically

assign IP addresses and other network configuration parameters
(subnet mask, default gateway, DNS server) to devices (hosts) on a
network.

 Purpose: Automates the process of network configuration for new and

existing devices, reducing manual effort and preventing IP address
conflicts.

 Client-Server Model:

o DHCP Server: Manages a pool of IP addresses and configuration

information.

o DHCP Client: A device requesting network configuration (e.g.,

your laptop, smartphone, smart TV).

 DHCP Operation (DORA Process):

1. Discover (Client Broadcast): When a DHCP client starts up or

needs an IP address, it broadcasts a DHCP Discover message
on the local network (since it doesn't have an IP address yet to
send a unicast).

2. Offer (Server Broadcast/Unicast): Any DHCP server on the

network that receives the Discover message responds with a
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

DHCP Offer message, proposing an available IP address and

other configuration parameters.

3. Request (Client Broadcast): The client may receive multiple

offers. It selects one offer (typically the first one it receives or a
preferred one) and broadcasts a DHCP Request message,
formally requesting the offered IP address from that specific
server. This broadcast also informs other DHCP servers that their
offers were not accepted.

4. Acknowledge (Server Unicast): The chosen DHCP server

sends a DHCP ACK message to the client, confirming the IP
address lease and providing all the final configuration
parameters. The client then configures its network interface with
these details.

 DHCP Lease:

o IP addresses are usually assigned for a specific period (a "lease

time").

o Clients attempt to renew their lease before it expires. If renewal

fails, they must re-enter the DORA process.

 Benefits:

o Simplified Network Management: Automates IP address

assignment.

o Reduced Configuration Errors: Eliminates manual

misconfigurations.

o Efficient IP Address Management: Allows for reuse of IP

addresses when devices disconnect.

o Supports Mobility: Devices can easily get new IP addresses

when moving between networks.

 Port: Uses UDP Port 67 (server) and UDP Port 68 (client).

Week 15: Introduction to Network Security

1. Network Security
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Definition: Network security encompasses the policies, procedures,

and technologies designed to protect a computer network and its data
from unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or destruction. It aims
to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA
triad) of network resources.

 Key Goals of Network Security (CIA Triad):

1. Confidentiality: Preventing unauthorized disclosure of

information. Only authorized individuals or systems can access
sensitive data. (e.g., encryption)

2. Integrity: Ensuring that data has not been altered or destroyed

in an unauthorized manner. Data remains accurate and
complete. (e.g., hashing, digital signatures)

3. Availability: Ensuring that legitimate users can access

information and resources when needed. Prevents denial of
service. (e.g., redundancy, strong authentication)

 Threats to Network Security:

o Malware: Viruses, worms, Trojan horses, ransomware, spyware.

o Denial of Service (DoS/DDoS) Attacks: Overwhelming a

system to make it unavailable.

o Unauthorized Access: Hacking, brute-force attacks, exploiting

vulnerabilities.

o Data Interception/Eavesdropping: Sniffing network traffic.

o Data Tampering/Modification: Altering data during

transmission or storage.

o Phishing/Social Engineering: Tricking users into revealing

credentials or installing malware.

o Insider Threats: Malicious or negligent actions by internal

personnel.

o Zero-day Exploits: Exploiting previously unknown software

vulnerabilities.

2. Cryptography
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Definition: The practice and study of techniques for secure

communication in the presence of third parties (adversaries). It's the
art of converting data into an unreadable format (encryption) and back
into a readable format (decryption).

 Fundamental Concepts:

1. Encryption: The process of converting plaintext (readable data)

into ciphertext (unreadable, encrypted data) using an encryption
algorithm and a key.

2. Decryption: The process of converting ciphertext back into

plaintext using the decryption algorithm and the correct key.

3. Key: A piece of information (a string of bits) used by the

encryption/decryption algorithm. The security of encryption
largely depends on the secrecy and strength of the key.

 Types of Cryptography:

1. Symmetric-Key Cryptography (Secret-Key Cryptography):

 Concept: Uses the same key for both encryption and

decryption. Both sender and receiver must possess this
shared secret key.

 Algorithms: AES (Advanced Encryption Standard), DES

(Data Encryption Standard), 3DES.

 Advantages: Very fast for large amounts of data,

computationally efficient.

 Disadvantages: Key distribution problem – securely

sharing the key with the other party is challenging.

 Use Cases: Bulk data encryption (e.g., encrypting files,

securing wireless traffic in WPA2).

2. Asymmetric-Key Cryptography (Public-Key Cryptography):

 Concept: Uses a pair of keys: a public key and a

private key.

 Public Key: Can be freely shared with anyone. Used

for encryption and verifying digital signatures.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Private Key: Must be kept secret by its owner. Used

for decryption and creating digital signatures.

 Algorithms: RSA, Diffie-Hellman, ECC (Elliptic Curve

Cryptography).

 Properties:

 Data encrypted with the public key can only be

decrypted with the corresponding private key.

 Data encrypted with the private key can only be

decrypted with the corresponding public key.

 Advantages: Solves the key distribution problem of

symmetric crypto (public keys can be exchanged openly),
enables digital signatures and non-repudiation.

 Disadvantages: Much slower and computationally

intensive than symmetric-key algorithms.

 Use Cases: Secure key exchange (e.g., during SSL/TLS

handshake), digital signatures, authentication.

3. Digital Signatures

 Definition: A mathematical technique used to validate the

authenticity and integrity of a digital message or document. It's the
digital equivalent of a handwritten signature.

 Purpose:

o Authentication: Verifies the identity of the sender.

o Integrity: Proves that the message has not been altered since it
was signed.

o Non-repudiation: Prevents the sender from denying that they

sent the message.

 How it works (Simplified):

1. Hashing: The sender generates a hash (a fixed-size unique

fingerprint) of the message using a cryptographic hash function
(e.g., SHA-256).
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

2. Encryption with Private Key: The sender encrypts the hash

value using their own private key. This encrypted hash is the
digital signature.

3. Transmission: The sender sends the original message along

with the digital signature.

4. Verification (at Receiver):

 The receiver decrypts the digital signature using the

sender's public key to retrieve the original hash value.

 The receiver independently computes a hash of the

received message using the same hash function.

 If the two hash values match, the message is deemed

authentic (from the expected sender) and its integrity is
verified (it hasn't been tampered with).

 Relation to Integrity: Cryptographic hash functions are crucial here.

They produce a unique fixed-size output for any given input. Even a
tiny change in the input produces a drastically different hash, allowing
detection of tampering.

4. VPN (Virtual Private Network)

 Definition: A VPN extends a private network across a public network

(like the Internet), enabling users to send and receive data across
shared or public networks as if their computing devices were directly
connected to the private network.

 Concept: Creates a secure, encrypted "tunnel" over an insecure

public network.

 Purpose:

o Confidentiality: Encrypts all traffic within the tunnel, protecting

it from eavesdropping.

o Integrity: Ensures data is not tampered with during transit.

o Authentication: Verifies the identity of the user or device

connecting to the private network.

o Remote Access: Allows remote users to securely access

internal network resources.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

o Bypassing Geo-restrictions: Can make it appear as if the user

is in a different geographical location.

 Key Components:

1. VPN Client: Software on the user's device.

2. VPN Server (VPN Concentrator): A dedicated server or router

on the private network that terminates VPN connections.

3. Tunneling Protocols: Encapsulate and encrypt data packets.

 Common VPN Protocols:

o IPSec (Internet Protocol Security): A suite of protocols that

operate at the Network Layer to provide security services
(authentication, integrity, confidentiality) for IP packets. Often
used for site-to-site VPNs and remote access.

o SSL/TLS VPN: Uses SSL/TLS for tunneling. Often browser-based,

providing secure access to specific applications rather than full
network access. (e.g., OpenVPN, AnyConnect).

o PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol): Older, less secure,

often avoided.

o L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol): Often combined with

IPSec (L2TP/IPSec) for better security.

 How it works (Simplified):

1. The VPN client initiates a connection to the VPN server.

2. Authentication takes place (e.g., username/password,

certificates).

3. An encrypted tunnel is established between the client and the

server.

4. All network traffic from the client is then encapsulated and

encrypted within this tunnel and sent over the public network.

5. The VPN server decrypts the traffic and forwards it to the

intended destination on the private network.

6. Responses follow the reverse path through the tunnel.

5. Firewalls
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

 Definition: A network security system that monitors and controls

incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predefined security
rules. It acts as a barrier between a trusted internal network and
untrusted external networks (like the Internet).

 Purpose:

o Filter Traffic: Allow or deny traffic based on criteria (IP

addresses, port numbers, protocols, application types).

o Enforce Security Policies: Implement an organization's access

control policies.

o Prevent Unauthorized Access: Block malicious traffic and

access attempts.

o Log Activity: Record connection attempts and traffic for

auditing.

 Types of Firewalls:

1. Packet-Filtering Firewalls:

 Concept: Simplest and oldest type. Filters individual

packets based on information in the network and transport
layer headers (source/destination IP, source/destination
port, protocol type).

 Characteristics: Fast, low overhead.

 Disadvantages: Stateless (doesn't remember past

packets), vulnerable to IP spoofing, cannot inspect
application layer content.

2. Stateful Inspection Firewalls:

 Concept: The most common type. Keeps track of the

"state" of active connections. It understands that a
response packet is part of an already established outbound
connection and allows it through.

 Characteristics: More intelligent, provides better security

than packet filtering.

 Advantages: Monitors TCP connections, provides more

granular control, better protection against some attacks.
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

3. Application-Level Gateways (Proxy Firewalls):

 Concept: Acts as an intermediary (proxy) between the

client and server. The client connects to the proxy, and the
proxy establishes a separate connection to the actual
server. It filters traffic at the Application Layer.

 Characteristics: Can inspect actual application-layer data

(e.g., HTTP content, FTP commands).

 Advantages: High level of security, content filtering,

strong authentication.

 Disadvantages: Performance overhead, requires specific

proxies for each application, transparent to users.

4. Next-Generation Firewalls (NGFW):

 Concept: Combine traditional firewall functions with

advanced features like deep packet inspection (DPI),
intrusion prevention systems (IPS), application awareness,
and threat intelligence.

 Advantages: Comprehensive security, able to detect and

block sophisticated threats.

5. Personal Firewalls: Software-based firewalls running on

individual host computers (e.g., Windows Defender Firewall).

6. Network Security Policies

 Definition: A set of rules, procedures, and guidelines that define how

an organization manages and protects its network resources. They
specify what is and isn't allowed on the network.

 Importance: Essential for effective network security. Without clear

policies, security measures can be inconsistent, ineffective, and lead to
vulnerabilities.

 Key Aspects of Network Security Policies:

1. Access Control Policy: Who can access what resources, from

where, and when (e.g., strong passwords, multi-factor
authentication, least privilege).
 Hamza Zahoor What's App 0341-8377-917

2. Acceptable Use Policy (AUP): Defines how users can and

cannot use network resources (e.g., no illegal activities, no
excessive bandwidth consumption).

3. Password Policy: Rules for password length, complexity, and

change frequency.

4. Data Classification Policy: Categorizing data based on its

sensitivity (e.g., public, internal, confidential, restricted).

5. Incident Response Policy: Procedures for detecting,

responding to, and recovering from security incidents.

6. Remote Access Policy: Rules for connecting to the network

from outside (e.g., VPN usage, allowed devices).

7. Software Installation Policy: Guidelines on installing software

on network devices and user machines.

8. Physical Security Policy: Protecting network hardware from

unauthorized physical access.

9. Auditing and Monitoring Policy: How network activity is

logged and reviewed.

 Implementation: Policies are typically documented, communicated to

all users, and enforced through technical controls (firewalls, access
control lists, intrusion detection systems) and administrative
procedures. Regular review and updates are crucial.