Basic Information Technology Concepts Internet Technologies

Computer Hardware ● HTML (Hypertext Markup Language):

Language for creating web pages.
● CPU (Central Processing Unit): The ● CSS (Cascading Style Sheets): Styles
"brain" of the computer, responsible for webpages (layout, colors, fonts).
executing instructions. ● JavaScript: Programming language used to
● RAM (Random Access Memory): create interactive effects on websites.
Temporary storage for data and programs ● Cloud Computing: Using remote servers
currently in use. hosted on the internet to store, manage,
● Hard Drive: Long-term storage for data and and process data (e.g., AWS, Google
programs. Cloud).
● Motherboard: The main circuit board that ● WWW (World Wide Web): An information
connects all components. system accessed via the Internet.
● GPU (Graphics Processing Unit): Handles ● HTTP/HTTPS: Protocols for transmitting
graphics rendering and display. data over the web.
● Storage Devices: ● Domain Name: Human-readable address
○ HDD (Hard Disk Drive) for websites (e.g., google.com).
○ SSD (Solid State Drive) ● DNS (Domain Name System): Translates
● Input/Output Devices: domain names to IP addresses.
○ Input: Keyboard, Mouse Data and Databases
○ Output: Monitor, Printer
Software ● Database: Organized collection of data.
● SQL (Structured Query Language):
● Operating System: Manages hardware Language for managing data in relational
and provides user interface (e.g., Windows, databases.
macOS, Linux). ● NoSQL: Non-relational databases (e.g.,
● Applications: Programs that perform MongoDB).
specific tasks (e.g., word processors, web ● Big Data: Large volumes of structured and
browsers). unstructured data.
● System Software vs Application ● Data Mining: Process of discovering
Software: System software manages patterns in large datasets.
system operations, while application Software Development
software serves end-user tasks.
● Firmware: Software embedded in hardware ● Programming Languages: Tools for
devices. writing software (e.g., Python, Java, C++).
● Drivers: Software that allows the operating ● Agile: A methodology for iterative software
system to communicate with hardware development.
devices. ● Version Control: System for tracking
Networking changes in source code (e.g., Git).
● DevOps: Practices that combine software
● LAN (Local Area Network): A network that development and IT operations.
spans a relatively small area. ● API (Application Programming Interface):
● WAN (Wide Area Network): A network that Allows different software applications to
covers a broad area. communicate with each other.
● IP Address: Unique identifier for a device Cybersecurity
on a network.
● DNS (Domain Name System): Converts ● Firewall: A network security system that
domain names to IP addresses. monitors and controls incoming and
● Router vs Switch: Routers connect outgoing network traffic.
different networks; switches connect ● Encryption: The process of encoding
devices within a network. information to protect it from unauthorized
● HTTP vs HTTPS: HTTP is unencrypted, access.
HTTPS is encrypted. ● Malware: Software designed to disrupt,
● TCP/IP: Core protocols for network damage, or gain unauthorized access to a
communication. computer system.
 ● Phishing: Fraudulent attempt to obtain ● Computational Complexity: The study of
sensitive information by disguising as a the efficiency of algorithms.
trustworthy entity. Digital Media and Graphics
● Two-Factor Authentication: An extra layer
of security that requires two forms of ● Pixels: The smallest unit of a digital image.
identification. ● Resolution: The number of pixels in an
Programming Concepts image or display.
● Vector vs. Raster Graphics: Two main
● Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for types of digital images.
solving a problem. ● RGB Color Model: An additive color model
● Variables: Containers for storing data used in digital displays.
values. ● Compression: Reducing the size of data
● Loops: Repeating a set of instructions (e.g., files.
for, while loops). Programming Languages
● Functions: A block of code designed to
perform a specific task. Types of Programming Languages
● Object-Oriented Programming (OOP):
Programming model based on objects (e.g., ● High-level languages: Closer to human
Python, Java, C++). language (e.g., Python, Java)
● Data Structures: Ways to store and ● Low-level languages: Closer to machine
organize data (e.g., arrays, lists, stacks, code (e.g., Assembly)
queues). ● Compiled languages: Converted directly to
Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning machine code (e.g., C, C++)
● Interpreted languages: Executed line by
● AI (Artificial Intelligence): Machines that line (e.g., Python, JavaScript)
simulate human intelligence. ● Scripting languages: Used for automating
● Machine Learning: Subset of AI, where tasks (e.g., Bash, PowerShell)
systems learn from data. History of programming languages
● Neural Networks: Algorithms modeled after
the human brain to recognize patterns. 1. Machine and Assembly Languages
● Natural Language Processing (NLP):
Enables machines to understand and ● Machine Language: The lowest-level
respond to human language. programming language, consisting of binary
Emerging Technologies code (1s and 0s) that the CPU directly
understands.
● Blockchain: Decentralized digital ledger ● Assembly Language: A low-level language
technology. that uses mnemonics and abbreviations for
● Internet of Things (IoT): Network of operations. Requires an assembler to
interconnected devices that communicate convert into machine code.
and share data. ● History: Early computers like the ENIAC
● 5G: The fifth generation of mobile network used machine language. Assembly
technology with faster speeds and greater language emerged in the 1940s and 1950s
connectivity. to simplify programming.
● Quantum Computing: Computing
technology based on quantum theory 2. Fortran (1957)
principles.
Computer Science Concepts ● Purpose: Designed for scientific and
engineering computations.
● Binary: The base-2 number system used in ● Features: Efficient handling of numerical
computing. data and array processing.
● Boolean Logic: A form of algebra dealing ● History: Developed by IBM, Fortran
with true/false values. (Formula Translation) is one of the earliest
● Data Structures: Ways of organizing and high-level programming languages.
storing data (e.g., arrays, linked lists, trees).
● Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures for 3. COBOL (1959)
solving problems or performing tasks.
 ● Purpose: Created for business applications. ● History: Developed by Niklaus Wirth as a
● Features: English-like syntax, suitable for language for teaching programming in an
data processing. academic setting. Pascal influenced many
● History: Developed by a committee led by educational and academic programming
Grace Hopper, COBOL (Common Business environments.
Oriented Language) was aimed at making
software readable and maintainable by 8. C++ (1983)
people with business expertise.
● Purpose: An extension of C with object-
4. LISP (1958) oriented features.
● Features: Supports both procedural and
● Purpose: Designed for artificial intelligence object-oriented programming, with rich
research. libraries.
● Features: Supports recursion and symbolic ● History: Created by Bjarne Stroustrup at
computation, pioneered functional Bell Labs, C++ built on the foundation of C
programming. by adding classes and objects, making it
● History: Created by John McCarthy at MIT, ideal for large-scale software development.
LISP is one of the oldest high-level
programming languages still in use, 9. Python (1991)
especially in AI.
● Purpose: General-purpose, high-level
5. C (1972) language focusing on readability and
simplicity.
● Purpose: General-purpose language, ● Features: Supports multiple programming
designed for system programming. paradigms (procedural, object-oriented,
● Features: Low-level access to memory, functional), extensive standard library,
efficient, close to hardware, supports widely used for web development,
structured programming. automation, and data science.
● History: Developed by Dennis Ritchie at ● History: Created by Guido van Rossum,
Bell Labs, C was initially used for Python was designed to be easy to read
implementing the UNIX operating system and write, promoting simplicity and
and has influenced many later languages productivity.
like C++, Java, and C#.
10. Java (1995)
6. BASIC (1964)
● Purpose: Cross-platform language primarily
● Purpose: Simple language for beginners for web applications and enterprise-level
and educational purposes. systems.
● Features: Easy to learn, interactive, used in ● Features: Write Once, Run Anywhere
early home computers. (WORA), automatic memory management,
● History: Created by John Kemeny and object-oriented.
Thomas Kurtz at Dartmouth College to ● History: Developed by Sun Microsystems
introduce programming to non-scientists. (now owned by Oracle) and initially intended
BASIC (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic for embedded systems. Java became highly
Instruction Code) became popular in popular for building large-scale enterprise
personal computers during the 1970s and applications, Android apps, and server-side
1980s. systems.

7. Pascal (1970) 11. JavaScript (1995)

● Purpose: Designed for teaching structured ● Purpose: Scripting language for adding
programming. interactivity to web pages.
● Features: Encourages good programming ● Features: Dynamic, loosely-typed, event-
practices with structured control statements driven, widely supported by web browsers.
and data structures. ● History: Created by Brendan Eich at
Netscape, JavaScript was initially
 developed in just 10 days. It has since primary language for developing Apple
become one of the most essential applications.
languages for front-end web development,
alongside HTML and CSS. 16. Go (2009)

12. PHP (1995) ● Purpose: Systems programming language

developed by Google.
● Purpose: Server-side scripting language for ● Features: Simple, efficient, concurrency
web development. support, garbage collection.
● Features: Easily embedded in HTML, used ● History: Created by Robert Griesemer, Rob
for generating dynamic web pages, Pike, and Ken Thompson, Go was designed
database integration. to improve the development of scalable and
● History: Created by Rasmus Lerdorf, PHP reliable software systems, and it is used
(Hypertext Preprocessor) originally started extensively in cloud services.
as a set of CGI scripts. It evolved into a
powerful web development tool and powers 17. Kotlin (2011)
platforms like WordPress.
● Purpose: Modern language for Android
13. Ruby (1995) development.
● Features: Concise syntax, interoperable
● Purpose: General-purpose, object-oriented with Java, null-safety, functional
language known for simplicity and programming support.
productivity. ● History: Developed by JetBrains, Kotlin
● Features: Easy-to-read syntax, support for gained popularity when Google announced
both object-oriented and functional it as an official language for Android app
programming, popularized by Ruby on Rails development in 2017.
web framework.
● History: Developed by Yukihiro "Matz" 18. Rust (2010)
Matsumoto, Ruby emphasizes simplicity
and productivity, and became widely known ● Purpose: Systems programming language
with the rise of Ruby on Rails in the 2000s. focusing on performance and safety.
● Features: Memory safety without garbage
14. C# (2000) collection, concurrency support, used for
low-level programming.
● Purpose: General-purpose, modern ● History: Created by Mozilla, Rust is
language developed by Microsoft for designed to ensure memory safety while
the .NET framework. maintaining high performance, making it a
● Features: Combines object-oriented and preferred language for systems-level
component-oriented programming, similar to applications.
C++ and Java but with modern language
features. Key Programming Concepts
● History: Created by Anders Hejlsberg at
Microsoft, C# was designed to be a simple, ● Variables: Containers for storing data
modern, object-oriented language, largely values
for use with the .NET platform. ● Data Types: Classifications of data (e.g.,
integer, string, boolean)
15. Swift (2014) ● Control Structures: If-else statements,
loops, switches
● Purpose: Language for iOS and macOS ● Functions/Methods: Reusable blocks of
app development. code
● Features: Type-safe, modern syntax, easy ● Object-Oriented Programming (OOP):
to learn, performance-oriented. Programming paradigm based on "objects"
● History: Created by Apple as a ● Arrays and Lists: Data structures for
replacement for Objective-C, Swift is storing collections of elements
designed to be safer and faster, and it is the ● Exception Handling: Managing and
responding to runtime errors
Programming Paradigms ● MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): A
network spanning a city or large campus
● Imperative: Focuses on describing how a ● PAN (Personal Area Network): A network
program operates for interconnecting devices centered around
● Declarative: Focuses on what the program an individual
should accomplish ● VPN (Virtual Private Network): Extends a
● Functional: Treats computation as the private network across a public network
evaluation of mathematical functions Network Topologies
● Object-Oriented: Based on the concept of
"objects" containing data and code ● Bus: All devices connected to a single cable
● Procedural: Based on the concept of ● Star: All devices connected to a central hub
procedure calls ● Ring: Devices connected in a circular chain
Language Features ● Mesh: Each device connected to every
other device
● Static vs. Dynamic Typing: Whether type ● Tree: Hierarchical structure with a root node
checking is done at compile-time or run-time Network Hardware
● Strong vs. Weak Typing: How strictly
types are distinguished ● Router: Forwards data packets between
● Garbage Collection: Automatic memory computer networks
management ● Switch: Connects devices within a network
● Pointers: Variables that store memory and uses packet switching to forward data
addresses ● Modem: Modulates and demodulates
● Concurrency: Ability to handle multiple signals for transmission over telephone
tasks simultaneously lines
Development Tools ● Firewall: Monitors and controls incoming
and outgoing network traffic
● Integrated Development Environments ● Network Interface Card (NIC): Hardware
(IDEs): e.g., Visual Studio, IntelliJ IDEA component that connects a device to a
● Version Control Systems: e.g., Git, SVN network
● Package Managers: e.g., pip for Python, IP Addressing
npm for JavaScript
● Debuggers: Tools for identifying and fixing ● IP Address: Unique identifier for devices on
bugs a network
● Compilers vs. Interpreters: Tools that ● IPv4 vs IPv6: Two versions of the Internet
process source code Protocol
Network, Internet, and Web ○ IPv4: 32-bit address, limited to about
4.3 billion addresses.
Network Basics ○ IPv6: 128-bit address, created to
address the IPv4 exhaustion.
● Network: A collection of interconnected ● DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
devices that can share resources and Protocol): Automatically assigns IP
information addresses
● Node: Any device connected to a network ● Subnet: A logical subdivision of an IP
● Protocol: A set of rules governing how data network
is transmitted between devices ● NAT (Network Address Translation):
● Packet: A unit of data transmitted over a Remaps one IP address space into another
network Internet Basics
● Bandwidth: The maximum rate of data
transfer across a network ● Internet: Global system of interconnected
● Standard: IEEE 802 computer networks
Network Types ● ISP (Internet Service Provider): Company
that provides Internet access
● LAN (Local Area Network): A network ● Backbone: Primary data routes between
confined to a small area (e.g., home, office) large, strategically interconnected networks
● WAN (Wide Area Network): A network ● Peering: Voluntary interconnection of
spanning a large geographical area administratively separate Internet networks
 ● Internet Exchange Point (IXP): Physical ● Cross-Site Scripting (XSS): Security
infrastructure for exchanging Internet traffic vulnerability typically found in web
Internet Protocols applications
● SQL Injection: Code injection technique
● TCP/IP (Transmission Control used to attack data-driven applications
Protocol/Internet Protocol): Fundamental Emerging Internet Technologies
communication protocol of the Internet
● HTTP/HTTPS: Protocol for transmitting ● IoT (Internet of Things): Interconnected
hypermedia documents (HTTP: unsecured, computing devices embedded in everyday
HTTPS: secured) objects
● FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Standard ● 5G: Fifth generation technology standard for
network protocol for transferring files cellular networks
● SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): ● Edge Computing: Distributed computing
Protocol for email transmission paradigm that brings computation closer to
● DNS (Domain Name System): Translates the data source
domain names to IP addresses ● CDN (Content Delivery Network):
World Wide Web Geographically distributed network of proxy
servers
● WWW (World Wide Web): Information ● Blockchain: Distributed ledger technology
system accessed via the Internet Computer Number Systems
● Web Browser: Software application for
accessing the World Wide Web Basic Concepts
● Web Server: Computer software and
hardware that accepts requests via HTTP ● Number System: A writing system for
● URL (Uniform Resource Locator): expressing numbers using digits or symbols
Reference to a web resource ● Base (Radix): The number of unique digits
● HTML (Hypertext Markup Language): used in a number system
Standard markup language for web pages ● Digit: A single symbol used to represent a
Web Technologies value in a number system
● Most Significant Digit (MSD): The leftmost
● CSS (Cascading Style Sheets): Style non-zero digit in a number
sheet language for describing the ● Least Significant Digit (LSD): The
presentation of a document rightmost digit in a number
● JavaScript: Programming language that Common Number Systems in Computing
enables interactive web pages
● AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and Binary (Base-2)
XML): Set of web development techniques
for creating asynchronous web applications ● Uses only two digits: 0 and 1
● API (Application Programming Interface): ● Fundamental to all digital systems
Set of protocols for building and integrating ● Each digit represents a power of 2
application software
● Web Hosting: Service that allows Decimal (Base-10)
individuals and organizations to make their
website accessible via the World Wide Web ● The everyday number system we use
Web Security ● Uses ten digits: 0 to 9
● SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets
Layer/Transport Layer Security): Hexadecimal (Base-16)
Cryptographic protocols for secure
● Uses sixteen digits: 0-9 and A-F
communication
● Often used to represent binary data more
● HTTPS: HTTP with encryption using
concisely
SSL/TLS
● Each hexadecimal digit represents 4 binary
● Digital Certificate: Electronic document
digits
used to prove ownership of a public key
Octal (Base-8)
 ● Uses eight digits: 0 to 7 OR Gate
● Less common today, but still used in some
systems ● Symbol: Shaped like a bullet point
● Output is 1 if at least one input is 1
Number System Conversions ● Boolean expression: Y = A + B

● Sign-Magnitude: Leftmost bit indicates sign NOT Gate (Inverter)

(0 for positive, 1 for negative)
● One's Complement: Invert all bits to ● Symbol: Triangle with a small circle at the
negate output
● Two's Complement: Invert all bits and add ● Inverts the input
1 to negate (most common method) ● Boolean expression: Y = Ā
Floating-Point Representation
Composite Logic Gates
● Used to represent real numbers in
computers
NAND Gate
● Consists of sign, exponent, and mantissa
● IEEE 754 standard: Single precision (32-bit) ● Combination of AND gate followed by NOT
and double precision (64-bit) gate
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) ● Universal gate: Can be used to create all
other logic functions
● Each decimal digit is represented by its own
● Boolean expression: Y = (A • B)'
4-bit binary sequence
● Less efficient in storage but easier for
decimal operations NOR Gate
Gray Code
● Combination of OR gate followed by NOT
● A sequence of binary numbers where gate
adjacent numbers differ by only one bit ● Also a universal gate
● Used in error correction and digital ● Boolean expression: Y = (A + B)'
communications
XNOR Gate (Exclusive NOR)
Logic Gates
Basic Concept ● Output is 1 if inputs are the same
● Boolean expression: Y = A B
● Logic Gate: A fundamental building block of ● Truth table:
digital circuits that implements a Boolean
function Properties of Logic Gates
● Input: The signals or data that enter a logic
gate ● Commutative Law: A • B = B • A, A + B = B
● Output: The signal or data that results from +A
the logic gate's operation ● Associative Law: (A • B) • C = A • (B • C),
● Truth Table: A table showing all possible (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
input combinations and their corresponding ● Distributive Law: A • (B + C) = (A • B) + (A
outputs • C)
● Boolean Algebra: The mathematical ● Identity Law: A • 1 = A, A + 0 = A
system used to analyze and design digital ● Complement Law: A • A' = 0, A + A' = 1
circuits ● De Morgan's laws: (A + B)’ = A’ • B’, (A •
B)’ = A’ + B’
Fundamental Logic Gates
Advanced Concepts
AND Gate
Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps)
● Symbol: Shaped like a D with a flat side
● Output is 1 (true) only if all inputs are 1 ● Graphical method for simplifying Boolean
● Boolean expression: Y = A • B algebra expressions
 ● Useful for minimizing the number of gates in
a circuit

Don't Care Conditions

● Input combinations for which the output

doesn't matter
● Used to simplify logic circuits

Propagation Delay

● Time taken for a change in input to result in

a stable output
● Important in timing considerations for digital
circuits

Applications of Logic Gates

● Adders: Circuits that perform addition of
numbers
● Multiplexers: Circuits that select one of
many input signals and forward it to a single
output line
● Decoders: Circuits that convert coded
inputs into coded outputs
● Flip-Flops: Circuits that store state
information
● Memory Cells: Basic storage units in
computer memory
Logic Families
● TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic): Bipolar
transistor-based
● CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor): Lower power
consumption, widely used in modern ICs
● ECL (Emitter-Coupled Logic): High speed,
used in specialized applications