ECB1221- ANALOG AND

DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

By

Dr. C. RAJINIKANTH
Associate Professor / ECE
 COMMUNICATION SYSTEM (BRIDGE MATERIAL)

• The communication system is a system which describes the

information exchange between two points.

• The process of transmission and reception of information is called

communication.

• The major elements of communication are the Transmitter of

information, Channel or medium of communication and
the Receiver of information.

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 BRIDGE MATERIAL (TYPES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS)

• Depending on Signal specification or technology, the communication system is classified as

follows:

(1) Analog

• Analog technology communicates data as electronic signals of varying frequency or amplitude.

Broadcast and telephone transmission are common examples of Analog technology.

(2) Digital

• In digital technology, the data are generated and processed in two states: High (represented as 1)
and Low (represented as 0). Digital technology stores and transmits data in the form of 1s and 0s.

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Block diagram of communication system

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communication system

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 Modulation
• Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristic of a carrier wave is
varied in accordance with an information-bearing signal.

• The carrier is needed to facilitate the transportation of the modulated signal from the
transmitter to the receiver.

• A commonly used carrier is a sinusoidal wave, the source of which is physically

independent of the source of the information-bearing signal.

• When the information bearing signal is of an analog kind, we speak of continuous-wave

modulation, a term that stresses continuity of the modulated wave as a function of time.

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 Modulation
Modulation is a process of varying one of the characteristics of high
frequency sinusoidal (the carrier) in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the modulating (the information) signal. The
high frequency carrier signal is mathematically represented by the
equation 1.1.
c(t ) = Ac cos(2πf c t + φ ) --- (1.1)

Where c(t ) --instantaneous values of the cosine wave

Ac --its maximum value

f c --carrier frequency

φ --phase relation with respect to the reference

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 Need for modulation

• Antenna size gets reduced.

• No signal mixing occurs.

• Communication range increases.

• Multiplexing of signals occur.

• Adjustments in the bandwidth is allowed.

• Reception quality improves.

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 MODULATOR
• As the original message signal cannot be transmitted over a large
distance because of their low frequency and amplitude, they are
superimposed with high frequency and amplitude wave called carrier
wave.

• This phenomenon of superimposing of message signal with a carrier

wave is called modulation.

• And the resultant wave is a modulated wave which is to be

transmitted.

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 Types of Modulation.
• i. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

The process of changing the amplitude of the signal wave by impressing or superimposing it on a
high-frequency carrier wave, keeping its frequency constant is called amplitude modulation.

• ii. Frequency Modulation (FM)

Frequency modulation is a technique in which the frequency of the message signal is varied by
modulating with a carrier wave. It is better than deficient than amplitude modulation because it
eliminates noise from various sources.

• iii. Phase Modulation (PM)

The phase of the carrier wave changes the phase of the signal wave. The phase shift after
modulation is dependent on the frequency of the carrier wave as well. Phase modulated waves are
immune to noise to a greater extent.

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 Amplitude modulation (AM)
• Four linear modulation strategies that constitute the amplitude
modulation family:

1. Amplitude modulation (AM)

2. Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC)

3. Single sideband (SSB)

4. Vestigial sideband (VSB)

• These four types of modulation differ from each other by virtue of

their spectral characteristics.
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 Amplitude modulation
• In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied by the
modulating/message/information/base-band signal, in accordance with the instantaneous values
of the message signal. That is amplitude of the carrier is made proportional to the instantaneous
values (amplitude) of the modulating signal.

• If m(t) = Am cos(2πf m t ) is the information signal and c(t ) = Ac cos(2πf c t + φ ) is the carrier, the
amplitude of the carrier signal is varied proportional to the m(t ) .

• The peak amplitude of carrier after modulation at any instant is given by [ Ac + m(t ) ]. The carrier
signal after modulation or the modulated signal is represented by the equation 2.2.

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 Amplitude modulation

The equation (2.3) is the standard expression for Amplitude Modulated signal. Let m(t ) = Am cos(2πf m t ) be the
message signal of frequency f m and peak amplitude Am . Then single-tone modulated signal is given by the equation 2.4.

s(t ) = Ac[1 + k a Am cos(2πf m t )]cos(2πf c t + φ )

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Amplitude modulation

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Waveform representation of Amplitude modulated wave

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Amplitude modulation

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 VIDEO LINKS

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QEubAxBfqKU

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r18Gi8lSkfM

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S8Jod9AtpN4(NPTEL)

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Amplitude modulation

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Continued

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 Continued

• The modulation index or modulation depth is often denoted in percentage called as Percentage of
Modulation. We will get the percentage of modulation, just by multiplying the modulation index
value with 100.

• For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1, which implies the
percentage of modulation should be 100%.

• For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the modulation index is 0.5, then the modulated
output would look like the following figure. It is called as Under-modulation. Such a wave is called
as an under-modulated wave.

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UNDER MODULATED WAVE

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 OVER MODULATED WAVE

If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so, then the wave will be an over-
modulated wave. It would look like the following figure.

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 Bandwidth of AM Wave

• Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of the signal.
Mathematically, we can write it as

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Continued

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 Power Calculations of AM Wave
• Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

• Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper

sideband, and lower sideband frequency components.

• We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is

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 Continued: Power Calculations of AM Wave

First, let us find the powers of the carrier, the upper and lower sideband one by one.
Carrier power

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 Continued
• Upper sideband power

• Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of

the upper side band power.

• Now, let us add these three powers in order to get the power of
AM wave.

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 Continued

• We can use the above formula to calculate the power of AM wave, when the carrier power and the modulation index
are known.
• If the modulation index μ=1 then the power of AM wave is equal to 1.5 times the carrier power. So, the power required
for transmitting an AM wave is 1.5 times the carrier power for a perfect modulation.

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 Switching Modulator
• Following is the block diagram of switching modulator.

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 Switching Modulator
• Switching modulator is similar to the square law modulator.
• The only difference is that in the square law modulator, the diode is operated in a non-
linear mode, whereas, in the switching modulator, the diode has to operate as an ideal
switch.
• Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t) and c(t)=Accos( 2πfct)
respectively.

• These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block.
• Summer block produces an output, which is the addition of modulating and carrier
signals. Mathematically, we can write it as

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Switching Modulator

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 Switching Modulator
• We can approximate this as

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Continued

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 Continued
• The 1st term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the
remaining terms are unwanted terms. Thus, with the help of band pass filter, we
can pass only AM wave and eliminate the remaining terms.

• Therefore, the output of switching modulator is

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 ENVELOPE DETECTION
1. The AM wave is narrowband, which means that the carrier frequency
is large compared to the message bandwidth.

2. The percentage modulation in the AM wave is less than 100 percent.

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ENVELOPE DETECTION

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 Limitations, and Modifications of Amplitude
Modulation
• 1. Amplitude modulation is wasteful of transmitted power. The carrier wave c(t) is
completely independent of the information-bearing signal, The transmission of
the carrier wave therefore represents a waste of power.

• 2. Amplitude modulation is wasteful of channel bandwidth. The upper and lower

sidebands of an AM wave are uniquely related to each other by virtue of their
symmetry about the carrier frequency; hence, given the amplitude and phase
spectra of either sideband, we can uniquely determine the other.

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 Modifications of amplitude modulation
1. Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation, in which the transmitted wave
consists of only the upper and lower sidebands.

Transmitted power is saved here through the suppression of the carrier wave, but the channel

bandwidth requirement is the same as before (i.e., twice the message bandwidth).

2 Single sideband (SSB) modulation, in which the modulated wave consists only of the upper

sideband or the lower sideband.

3. Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation, in which one sideband is passed almost completely and

just a trace, or vestige, of the other sideband is retained.

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 Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC)
modulation
• The transmission of a signal, which contains a carrier along with two sidebands can be
termed as Double Sideband Full Carrier system or simply DSBFC. It is plotted as shown in
the following figure.

• However, such a transmission is inefficient. Because, of the power is being wasted in the
carrier, which carries no information.

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 Continued
• If this carrier is suppressed and the saved power is distributed to the two
sidebands, then such a process is called as Double Sideband Suppressed
Carrier system or simply DSBSC.

• It is plotted as shown in the following figure.

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 Continued
• Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for modulating
and carrier signals as we have considered in the earlier chapters.
• i.e., Modulating signal

• Carrier signal

• Mathematically, we can represent the equation of DSBSC wave as the

product of modulating and carrier signals.

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 Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation

• Consequently, the modulated signal s(t) under goes a phase reversal ,

whenever the message signal m(t) crosses zero as shown below.

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 Bandwidth of DSBSC Wave
• We know the formula for bandwidth (BW) is

• Consider the equation of DSBSC modulated wave.

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Bandwidth of DSBSC Wave

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 Power Calculations of DSBSC Wave
• Consider the following equation of DSBSC modulated wave.

• Power of DSBSC wave is equal to the sum of powers of upper sideband

and lower sideband frequency components.

• We know the standard formula for power of cos signal is

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 Continued
• First, let us find the powers of upper sideband and lower sideband one by one.
• Upper sideband power

• Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of upper sideband power.

• Now, let us add these two sideband powers in order to get the power of DSBSC wave.

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Ring Modulator

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 Ring Modulator
• The four diodes form a ring in which they all point in the same direction.

• The diodes are controlled by square wave carrier c(t) of frequency fc, which is applied longitudinally by
means of two center-tapped transformers.

• Assuming the diodes are ideal, when the carrier is positive, the outer diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased
where as the inner diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased, so that the modulator multiplies the base band
signal m(t) by c(t).

• When the carrier is negative, the diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased and D3 and D4 are forward, and the
modulator multiplies the base band signal –m(t) by c(t).

• The ring modulator in its ideal form is a product modulator for square wave carrier and the base band signal
m(t).

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 Ring Modulator
If the carrier is a square wave, then the Fourier series representation of c(t) is represented as

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 Detector
• The process of extracting an original message signal from DSBSC wave
is known as detection or demodulation of DSBSC. The following
demodulators (detectors) are used for demodulating DSBSC wave.

1. Coherent Detector

2. Costas Loop

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 Coherent Detector
• Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating DSBSC signal) is used
to detect the message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called
as coherent or synchronous detection.

• Following is the block diagram of the coherent detector.

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 Coherent Detector
• Let the DSBSC wave be
s(t)=Accos(2πfct)m(t)

• The output of the local oscillator is

c(t)=Accos(2πfct+ϕ)
• Where, ϕ is the phase difference between the local oscillator signal and the carrier signal, which
is used for DSBSC modulation.
• From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as
v(t)=s(t) c(t)

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Coherent Detector

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 Coherent Detector
• In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It
can be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.
• Therefore, the output of low pass filter is

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Costas Loop

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 Costas Loop

• Costas loop consists of two product modulators with common input s(t) which is DSBSC wave.

• The other input for both product modulators is taken from Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
with −90 degree phase shift to one of the product modulator as shown in figure.

• We know that the equation of DSBSC wave is

s(t)=Accos(2πfct)m(t)

Let the output of VCO be

c1(t)=cos(2πfct+ϕ)

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 Costas Loop
• This output of VCO is applied as the carrier input of the upper
product modulator.
• Hence, the output of the upper product modulator is
v1(t)=s(t)c1(t)

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Costas Loop

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Costas Loop

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 Quadrature Carrier Multiplexing
• A Quadrature Carrier Multiplexing (QCM) or Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM) method enables two DSBSC modulated waves, resulting from two
different message signals to occupy the same transmission band width and two
message signals can be separated at the receiver.

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 Quadrature Carrier Multiplexing
• The transmitter involves the use of two separate product modulators that are supplied with
two carrier waves of the same frequency but differing in phase by -90 degree . The multiplexed
signal s(t) consists of the sum of the two product modulator outputs given by the equation.

• where m1(t) and m2(t) are two different message signals applied to the product modulators.
Thus, the multiplexed signal s(t) occupies a transmission band width of 2W, centered at the
carrier frequency fc where W is the band width of message signal m1(t) or m2(t), whichever is
larger.

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 Quadrature Carrier Multiplexing
• At the receiver, the multiplexed signal s(t) is applied simultaneously to two separate
coherent detectors that are supplied with two local carriers of the same frequency but
differing in phase by -90o degree .

• The output of the top detector is and that of the bottom detector is

• For the QCM system to operate satisfactorily, it is important to maintain correct phase
and frequency relationships between the local oscillators used in the transmitter and
receiver parts of the system.

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 Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier
• The DSBSC modulated signal has two sidebands. Since, the two sidebands carry
the same information, there is no need to transmit both sidebands. We can
eliminate one sideband.
• The process of suppressing one of the sidebands along with the carrier and
transmitting a single sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed
Carrier system or simply SSBSC.

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 Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier
• The carrier and the lower sideband are suppressed. Hence, the upper
sideband is used for transmission.

• Similarly, we can suppress the carrier and the upper sideband while
transmitting the lower sideband.

• This SSBSC system, which transmits a single sideband has high power,
as the power allotted for both the carrier and the other sideband is
utilized in transmitting this Single Sideband.

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 Mathematical Expressions
• Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for the
modulating and the carrier

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Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier
We know that the DSBSC modulated wave contains two sidebands
and its bandwidth is 2fm Since the SSBSC modulated wave
contains only one sideband, its bandwidth is half of the bandwidth
of DSBSC modulated wave.

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 Power Calculations of SSBSC Wave
• Consider the following equation of SSBSC modulated wave.

• Power of SSBSC wave is equal to the power of any one sideband

frequency components.
Pt=PUSB=PLSB
• We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is

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 Power Calculations of SSBSC Wave
• In this case, the power of the upper sideband is

• Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the
upper side band power.

• Therefore, the power of SSBSC wave is

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 Advantages
• Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSBSC waves.

• Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.

• Power is saved.

• High power signal can be transmitted.

• Less amount of noise is present.

• Signal fading is less likely to occur.

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 Disadvantages

• The generation and detection of SSBSC wave is a complex process.

• The quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and
receiver have an excellent frequency stability.

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 Applications
• For power saving requirements and low bandwidth requirements.

• In land, air, and maritime mobile communications.

• In point-to-point communications.

• In radio communications.

• In television, telemetry, and radar communications.

• In military communications, such as amateur radio, etc.

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 Frequency Discrimination Method

• We can generate SSBSC wave using the following two methods.

1. Frequency discrimination method

2. Phase discrimination method

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Frequency Discrimination Method

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 Frequency Discrimination Method
• In this method, first we will generate DSBSC wave with the help of the product
modulator.
• Then, apply this DSBSC wave as an input of band pass filter.
• This band pass filter produces an output, which is SSBSC wave.
• Select the frequency range of band pass filter as the spectrum of the desired
SSBSC wave.
• This means the band pass filter can be tuned to either upper sideband or lower
sideband frequencies to get the respective SSBSC wave having upper sideband or
lower sideband.

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 VSB MODULATION
• SSBSC modulated signal has only one sideband frequency.

• Theoretically, we can get one sideband frequency component completely by using an ideal band
pass filter.

• However, practically we may not get the entire sideband frequency component. Due to this, some
information gets lost.

• To avoid this loss, a technique is chosen, which is a compromise between DSBSC and SSBSC.

• This technique is known as Vestigial Side Band Suppressed Carrier (VSBSC) technique.

• The word “vestige” means “a part” from which, the name is derived.

• VSBSC Modulation is the process, where a part of the signal called as vestige is modulated along
with one sideband.

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VSB MODULATION

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 VSB MODULATION
• Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also
being transmitted in this technique.

• Similarly, we can transmit the lower sideband along with a part of the
upper sideband.

• A guard band of very small width is laid on either side of VSB in order
to avoid the interferences.

• VSB modulation is mostly used in television transmissions.

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 Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulation
• We know that the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fm. Since
the VSBSC modulated wave contains the frequency components of
one side band along with the vestige of other sideband, the
bandwidth of it will be the sum of the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated
wave and vestige frequency fv.

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Generation of VSBSC

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 Generation of VSBSC
• In this process, the message signal can be extracted from VSBSC wave
by multiplying it with a carrier, which is having the same frequency
and the phase of the carrier used in VSBSC modulation. The resulting
signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this
filter is the desired message signal.

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Generation of VSBSC

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Generation of VSBSC

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 Generation of VSBSC
• In the above equation, the first term represents the scaled version of
the desired message signal frequency spectrum. It can be extracted
by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.

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 Frequency Translation
• The process of transferring a signal form one part of the frequency
axis to the other is called Frequency translation.
• It occurs frequently in a Wireless communication system, that is,
Frequency translation is used to transfer the pass band signal to base
band signal.
• The Decimation is the most efficient method for the frequency
translation.
• For Example, consider a modulated signal S1(t) with a centered
spectrum of frequency f1 and a factor of cos2π(f2–f1)t.
• Where, f2 is the centered spectrum of frequency of band pass filter.

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Frequency Translation

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 Frequency Translation
• The signal x(t) in Figure 1, can be obtained by the multiplication of
signal S1(t) with cos 2π(f2–f1)t.
• Then the resultant signal x(t) is passed through the Band pass filter
(BPF) which is at a centered spectrum of frequency f2.
• The band pass filter output results as an upward frequency
translated signal s2(t).

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 Frequency Translation

• The signal S1(t) represented in Figure 2, with a centered spectrum of

frequency f1 and output of band pass filter signal results in an upward
translated frequency signal s2(t).

• Similarly, the downward frequency translation is estimated by

multiplying the modulated signal with cos2π(f2–f1)t and then filtering
out the high frequency component using the lower frequency
component.

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 Frequency Division Multiplexing
• Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique of multiplexing which
means combining more than one signal over a shared medium. In FDM, signals of
different frequencies are combined for concurrent transmission.
• In FDM, the total bandwidth is divided to a set of frequency bands that do not
overlap. Each of these bands is a carrier of a different signal that is generated and
modulated by one of the sending devices. The frequency bands are separated
from one another by strips of unused frequencies called the guard bands, to
prevent overlapping of signals.
• The modulated signals are combined together using a multiplexer (MUX) in the
sending end. The combined signal is transmitted over the communication
channel, thus allowing multiple independent data streams to be transmitted
simultaneously. At the receiving end, the individual signals are extracted from the
combined signal by the process of demultiplexing (DEMUX).

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Frequency Division Multiplexing

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 VIDEO LINKS
• Amplitude Modulation- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UznnkHMisIk

• Envelop detector-- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_gTCU2fnD8

• Frequency division multiplexing--

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYYxdl91ms4

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