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References
• I. Shames, Mechanics of Fluids,
Fluid Mechanics I McGraw-Hill, 4th edition, 2002.

• M. White, Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-

Dr. Ali Sarreshtehdari, Hill, 5th edition, 2002.
([email protected])

Applied Hydrodynamic Laboratory • B. R. Munson, D. F. Young, T. H.

Mechanical Engineering Department
Shahrood University of Technology, IRAN Okiishi, Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics, Wiley; 5th edition, 2005.

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Introduction Substances & Shear Stress

• A solid can resist a shear stress by a static deformation; a fluid cannot.
• Substances:

Solids & Fluids • Any shear stress applied to a fluid, no matter how small,
will result in motion of that fluid.
• Fluids

Liquid & Gases
• Fluid mechanics : The study of fluids

at rest (fluid statics)

in motion (fluid dynamics)

and the subsequent effects of the fluid upon the
boundaries

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Fluid Mechanics Instances The Fluid as a Continuum

Life adventure • fluid pressure and density !?!

Environment behavior

Weather

Daily Life

Animals behavior

Industries

And 

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Dimensions and Units Properties of the Velocity Field

Eulerian and Lagrangian Desciptions

Equation properties:
e.g.
•Consistent Units Examples:
•Homogeneous
•Experimental Probes
Convenient Prefixes in Powers of 10 Part •Traffic Studies

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Thermodynamic Properties of a Fluid Pressure

• 1. Pressure • Pressure is the (compression) stress at a point in a static fluid.

• 2. Density Most common properties • Next to velocity, the pressure p is the most dynamic variable in
fluid mechanics.
• 3. Temperature
• 4. Internal energy • Differences or gradients in pressure often drive a fluid flow,
especially in ducts.
• 5. Enthalpy Important when work, heat, and
energy balances are treated • In low-speed flows, the actual magnitude of the pressure is often
• 6. Entropy
not important, unless it drops so low as to cause vapor bubbles to
• 7. Specific heats form in a liquid.
• 8. Coefficient of viscosity Transport properties • High-speed (compressible) gas flows, however, are indeed sensitive
• 9. Thermal conductivity to the magnitude of pressure.

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Density
Temperature • The density of a fluid, is its mass per unit volume.

• Temperature T is a measure of the internal energy level of a fluid. • Density is highly variable in gases and increases nearly
proportionally to the pressure level.
• It may vary considerably during high-speed flow of a gas.
• Density in liquids is nearly constant; (water about 1000 kg/m^3)
increases only 1% if the pressure is increased by a factor of 220.
• Although engineers often use Celsius or Fahrenheit scales for
(most liquid flows are treated analytically as “incompressible.”)
convenience, many applications require absolute (Kelvin or
Rankine) temperature scales: • In general, liquids are about 3 orders of magnitude more dense than
(°R = °F + 459.69 K =°C 273.16) gases at atmospheric pressure.

• If temperature differences are strong, heat transfer may be • The heaviest liquid: mercury, the lightest gas: hydrogen They differ
important. by a factor of 162,000!

• Various physical Properties =>dimensional analysis

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Specific Weight Specific Gravity

• The specific weight of a fluid, is its weight per unit volume. • Specific gravity, is the ratio of a fluid density to a
standard reference fluid, water (for liquids), and air (for
• The units of are weight per unit volume, in lbf/ft^3 or N/m^3.
gases):
• In standard earth gravity, the specific weights of air and water at
20°C and 1 atm are approximately:
▫ air (1.205 kg/m^3)*(9.807 m/s^2) 11.8 N/m^3 0.0752 lbf/ft^3
▫ water (998 kg/m^3)*(9.807 m/s^2) 9790 N/m^3 62.4 lbf/ft^3

• Specific weight is very useful in the hydrostatic-pressure • Engineers find these dimensionless ratios easier to
applications.
remember than the actual numerical values of density of
a variety of fluids.

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Potential and Kinetic Energies

• In thermostatics the only energy in a substance is that stored in a
State Relations for Gases & Liquids
system by molecular activity and molecular bonding forces (internal
energy) • All gases at high temperatures and low pressures (relative to their
critical point) are in good agreement with the perfect-gas law:
• fluid flow: 2 more energy terms which arise from newtonian
mechanics: the potential energy and kinetic energy.

• The potential energy equals the work required to move the system of
mass m from the origin to a position against a gravity field g.
• There is No “perfect-liquid law” comparable to that for gases.
• The kinetic energy equals the work required to change the speed of
the mass from zero to velocity V • Liquids are nearly incompressible and have a single reasonably
constant specific heat. Thus an idealized state relation for a liquid is:
• The molecular internal energy is a function of T and p for the single-
phase pure substance, whereas the potential and kinetic energies are
kinematic properties.

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Viscosity Viscosity (Cont.) Common fluids as water, oil, and air show a
linear relation between applied shear and
• There are certain secondary variables which characterize specific resulting strain rate:
fluid-mechanical behavior.

• Viscosity relates the local stresses in a moving fluid to the strain rate
of the fluid element.

• When a fluid is sheared, it begins to move at a strain rate inversely

proportional to a property called its coefficient of viscosity .

The linear fluids which

follow this equation called
newtonian fluids, after Sir Isaac
Newton, who first postulated this
resistance law in 1687.
Viscosity Coefficient:{M/(LT)}

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Viscosity (Cont.) Flow Between plates

• The viscosity of newtonian fluids is a true thermodynamic property
and varies with temperature and pressure. At a given state (p, T)
there is a vast range of values among the common fluids.

• Generally speaking, the viscosity of a fluid increases only weakly

with pressure. Temperature, however, has a strong effect, with
increasing with T for gases and decreasing for liquids.

Student Exercises: explain behavior of sample liquid and gas for

above description.

• The kinematic viscosity:

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Surface Tension
Newtonian Fluid vs. Others • If a cut of length dL is made in an interfacial surface, equal and
opposite forces of magnitude σdL are exposed normal to the cut
and parallel to the surface, where is called the coefficient of
surface tension.
Student Exercise: Find a relation to surface tension description for
below shapes.

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Contact angle Basic Flow-Analysis Techniques

• A second important surface effect is the contact angle which appears when • 1. Control-volume, or integral analysis
a liquid interface intersects with a solid surface. • 2. Infinitesimal system, or differential analysis
• If the contact angle is less than 90°, the liquid is said to wet the solid; if • 3. Experimental study, or dimensional analysis
90°, the liquid is termed nonwetting.
In all cases, the flow must satisfy the three basic laws of
• e.g, water wets soap but does not wet wax. Water is extremely wetting to a mechanics plus a thermodynamic state relation and associated
clean glass surface. boundary conditions:

• 1. Conservation of mass (continuity)

• 2. Linear momentum (Newton’s second law)
• 3. First law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy)
• 4. A state relation like ρ(p, T)
• 5. Appropriate boundary conditions at solid surfaces, interfaces,
inlets, and exits

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Flows Classification Flow Patterns

• 1. A streamline is a line everywhere tangent to the velocity vector at a
• Steady or unsteady given instant.
• Inviscid or viscous
• 2. A pathline is the actual path traversed by a given fluid particle.
• compressible or compressible
• 3. A streakline is the locus of particles which have earlier passed through a
• Gas or liquid prescribed point.

• 4. A timeline is a set of fluid particles that form a line at a given instant.

* Streamlines, pathlines,
and streaklines are
identical in steady flow.

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Stream, Streak and Path Lines Pressure & Pressure Gradient

Equilibrium of a small wedge of fluid at rest

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Gage Pressure and Vacuum

Pressure & Pressure Gradient
Pressure: Relative Terms

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Hydrostatic Pressure Distributions Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids

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Application to Manometry
The Mercury Barometer A change in elevation of a liquid is equivalent to a change in pressure. Thus a
static column of one or more liquids or gases can be used to measure pressure
differences between two points. Such a device is called a manometer.

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Application to Manometry Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

Any two points at the same elevation in a

continuous mass of the same static fluid
will be at the same pressure.

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Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces Center of press.& gage press. formula

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Example Solution

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Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

Solution

The horizontal component of force on a curved surface equals the force on the plane area formed
by the projection of the curved surface onto a vertical plane normal to the component. The vertical
component of pressure force on a curved surface equals in magnitude and direction the weight of
the entire column of fluid, both liquid and atmosphere,
above the curved surface.

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Buoyancy
Buoyancy and Stability
• Two laws of buoyancy discovered by Archimedes
in the third century B.C.:

1. A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical
buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it
displaces.

2. A floating body displaces its own weight in the
fluid in which it floats.

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Floating Body Stability

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Stability formula
Stability Related to Waterline Area
If the metacentric height MG is positive, the body is stable for small disturbances. Note that if
GB is negative, that is, B is above G, the body is always stable.

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Pressure Distribution in Rigid-Body Motion Pressure Distribution in Rigid-Body Motion

• In rigid-body motion, all particles are in combined translation and
rotation, and there is no relative motion between particles. With no
relative motion, there are no strains, strain rates, so leaving a
balance between pressure, gravity, and particle acceleration

• The pressure gradient acts in the direction g -a, and lines of constant
pressure (including the free surface, if any) are perpendicular to this
direction.
• The general case of combined translation and rotation of a rigid
body is:
• Differentiating, we obtain the most general form of the acceleration
of a rigid body:

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Rigid-Body Rotation Rigid-Body Rotation

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Rigid-Body Rotation Integral Relations for a Control Volume

• Three basic approaches to the analysis of

arbitrary flow problems:

1. Control-volume, or large-scale, analysis

2. Differential, or small-scale, analysis

3. Experimental, or dimensional, analysis
• System: an arbitrary quantity of mass of fixed
identity. Everything external to this system is
Since the volume of a paraboloid is one-half the base area times its height, the still-water denoted by the term surroundings, and the
level is exactly halfway between the high and low points of the free surface.
system is separated from its surroundings by its
boundaries.

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Volume and Mass Rate of Flow Volume and Mass Rate of Flow

Fixed, moving, and deformable control volumes: (a) fixed control volume for nozzle-stress analysis; (b)
control volume moving at ship speed for drag-force analysis; (c) control volume deforming within cylinder for
transient pressure-variation analysis.

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The Reynolds Transport Theorem Reynolds Transport Theorem.

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Conservation of Mass
One-Dimensional Flux-Term Approximations

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The Angular-Momentum Theorem

The Linear Momentum Equation

Net Pressure Force on a Closed Control Surface

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The Energy Equation

Friction Losses in
Low-Speed Flow

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